HARMONIC SOURCES

Fundamental causes for harmonic generation Distortion due to magnetic saturation of materials Geometric configuration of electric machines Repeated, periodic switching in electrical circuits

More specifically: Electric Machines - Generators - Motors Transmission and Distribution - Transformers - HVDC converters - Static VAR compensators Industrial Equipment - AC/DC - AC/AC, cycloconverters - Switching controls - Arc furnaces, arc welding Residential and Commercial Equipment - Diode rectifier circuits - Thyristor controlled loads

A short note on Harmonics in Power Systems, EDSA 2001

HARMONIC CONTENT Any periodic signal can be seen as a sum of sines and cosines at frequencies that are multiples of the fundamental frequency: s(t) =
n =1 n=M

[ Ancos(nwot) + Bnsin(nwot) ]

where: wo An, Bn t

is the fundamental frequency are coefficients (to be determined) is time

If s(t) is an EVEN function, then only COSINE terms appear. If in addition s(t) = s(T0/2 - t), then only ODD HARMONICS are present. That is often the case in power systems. HARMONIC GENERATION IN HVDC CONVERTERS

CHARACTERISTIC HARMONICS The switching of thyristors "p" times per cycle generates harmonic currents: AC Side: frequencies: magnitudes:

f(k) = fo(k.p 1) I(k) = 1/k

DC Side: frequencies: f(k) = fo.k.p magnitudes: I(k) 1/k2 for small firing angle I(k) 1/k for large firing angle NON-CHARACTERISTIC HARMONICS Non-characteristic harmonics are generated by unbalances, time lags in switching, and persistent variations in firing angle. They are small compared to the characteristic harmonics. HARMONIC GENERATION IN STATIC VAR COMPENSATORS, FREQUENCY CONVERTERS AND RECTIFIERS The static VAR compensator is a thyristor-controlled variable reactance. The frequency converter is also a power electronic device that generates high frequency power signals (typically 400 Hz) from a fundamental-frequency A short note on Harmonics in Power Systems, EDSA 2001

source. A diode-bridge rectifier is similar to a HVDC converter, except that the firing angle control of the thyristor is removed. Although these device's functions and switching processes differ from those of the HVDC converter, their harmonic generation (AC side) is similar. HARMONICS GENERATED BY CYCLOCONVERTERS This is a frequency converter that generates low frequency power signals from a fundamental-frequency source. It is used typically in variable-speed AC motor drives. CHARACTERISTIC HARMONICS Harmonics of the fundamental frequency are similar to those of the HVDC converter. In addition, harmonics of the low-frequency signal are produced: frequencies: f(k) = fi(k.p 1) + 2.fo.k magnitudes: I(k): both components proportional to 1/k COMMENT: The harmonic generation of a cycloconverter is difficult to predict because of its variable output frequency. HARMONIC GENERATION IN ARC FURNACES Harmonics are generated because of delays in arc ignition and because of the highly nonlinear V-I characteristic of both the arc and the melting material. The power spectrum of the voltage and current signals vary widely depending on the process. Typically harmonics are superimposed on a continuous background spectrum. The frequencies vary randomly, but they are usually clustered in a range of 0.1 to 30 Hz around each harmonic. HARMONIC GENERATION EQUIPMENT IN RESIDENTIAL AND COMMERCIAL

As in all consumer equipment, power consumption is low, but the cumulative effects of widespread use can result in significant harmonic generation. DIODE RECTIFIER CIRCUITS: These are used as DC sources in consumer electronics goods. In particular computers and television sets contribute to odd and even-ordered harmonics. THYRISTOR CONTROLLED LOADS: These controls are found in various devices, such as light dimmers, heat controllers, etc.

A short note on Harmonics in Power Systems, EDSA 2001

GAS DISCHARGE LAMPS: Ballasts (transformers) and the highly nonlinear characteristics of fluorescent lamps generate harmonics: triple harmonics generated in particular by the ballast odd and even order harmonics are generated resonance conditions can occur between ballasts and power factor correcting capacitors in long lighting circuits.

EFFECTS OF HARMONICS The presence of harmonic currents and voltages degrades the system performance in various ways. LONG TERM EFFECTS electromagnetic effects: o hysterisis and eddy current losses o skin effect o inductive interference o interferes with the operation of control, protection, o electronic and communication equipment degrades dielectrics prematurely o high frequency effects o increase in peak voltage o increased copper losses and heating, reduced efficiency

INSTANTANEOUS EFFECTS contributes to voltage drops on weak systems results in false measurements resonance conditions can cause failures, malfunctions or can force downgraded operation.

EFFECTS OF HARMONICS ON ROTATING MACHINES For both synchronous and induction machines, the main problems causes by harmonics are: increased iron and copper losses, heating and reduced efficiency the introduction of oscillating motor torques (usually small) increased noise level

A short note on Harmonics in Power Systems, EDSA 2001

EFFECTS OF HARMONICS ON TRANSFORMERS The main problems associated with harmonics are increased iron and copper losses, heating and reduced further distortion of waveforms increased stress on insulation formation of hot spots in the tank circulation of excessive triplen currents in delta windings efficiency

EFFECTS OF HARMONICS ON CAPACITOR BANKS, LINES AND CABLES The main problems associated with harmonics are increased losses and heating degradation of the dielectric, in capacitor banks and cables appearance of corona due to higher peak voltages corrosion in aluminum cables due to DC currents.

EFFECT OF HARMONICS ON CONVERTER EQUIPMENT The main problems associated with harmonics are current switching causes notches in voltage waveforms, which may affect the synchronizing of other converter equipment. voltage notching causes misfiring of thyristors harmonic voltages can cause the firing of gating circuits at other than the required instants

EFFECTS OF HARMONICS ON THE SYSTEM AS A WHOLE PROBLEM The presence of capacitors in a system made up predominantly of inductive power apparatus can and often does result in resonance conditions. Harmonic currents can be forced through high impedance networks resulting in over voltages, or harmonic voltages can be fed into low impedance networks, resulting in high currents. This can contribute to the degradation of network elements or to persistent fuse blowing. EFFECTS OF HARMONICS ON PROTECTIVE RELAYS Protective devices are usually designed to act upon information contained in signals at fundamental frequency. Electromechanical relays filter out many of the higher order harmonics, and so are immune to their effects.

A short note on Harmonics in Power Systems, EDSA 2001

Waveform distortions caused by lower order harmonics can have detrimental effects. General conclusions on the effects of harmonics: relays exhibit a tendency to operate slower and/or at higher pickup values. over current, over voltage and under frequency relays are susceptible to substantial changes in operating characteristics distance relaying can be difficult without filtering relaying intelligence based on crest values or zero crossing can be degraded by excessive harmonic content. Under normal conditions however, with low harmonic magnitudes, improper operation is unlikely.

EFFECTS OF HARMONICS ON SWITCHGEAR Besides the additional losses and heating, effects on circuit interruption are unclear at this point. EFFECTS OF HARMONICS ON METERING Most metering devices are calibrated on pure sinusoidal currents. Subsequently, distorted waveforms lead to errors. ELECTROMAGNETIC DEVICES o Effects vary greatly from one device to anther. o Devices exhibit uneven frequency responses. o DC and harmonics degrade the ability of the meter to measure fundamental power. o It appears that harmonics cause high readings. SOLID STATE DEVICES o Solid-state meters have a filtering capability, and can measure power irrespective of waveform. HARMONICS ON RESIDENTIAL AND COMMERCIAL

EFFECTS OF EQUIPMENT

Here are the effects on some important types of equipment: Computers: sensitive to threshold voltages of digital circuits. Manufacturers impose limits on supply-voltage harmonic distortion. Television: Distorted waveforms cause fluctuations in TV picture size and brightness.

A short note on Harmonics in Power Systems, EDSA 2001

Converters (rectifiers, inverters, etc.) are sensitive to voltage distortion and zero crossings. Fluorescent and mercury arc lighting: a harmonic voltage can excite the lamps resonant frequency.

EFFECTS OF HARMONICS ON COMMUNICATIONS The presence of transmission lines in close proximity to telephone lines causes interference on the telephone signal. Fundamental frequency noise is barely transmitted, but noise due to harmonic frequencies can seriously degrade the transmitted information. The important factors are: Power system: content of audio frequency harmonics, their relative magnitudes and the degree of unbalance of the phases. Coupling between power and communication circuits. o o o o loop induction longitudinal electromagnetic induction longitudinal electrostatic induction conduction

Electrical characteristics of the communication circuit (susceptive ness). o response to different interfering frequencies o balance of the communication circuit o shielding effects of cable sheaths

HARMONIC MEASUREMENT AND ANALYSIS High fidelity measurement of signals is essential for the analysis and control of harmonic pollution. Measurement equipment is required for two specific tasks: Monitoring levels of harmonic distortion o in voltage o in current Measuring the harmonic impedance of a network

Analysis of the recorded signals then allows extracting harmonic information. This can be achieved using analog or digital instruments: Analog, filters

A short note on Harmonics in Power Systems, EDSA 2001

Digital, discrete Fourier transform (DFT) and fast Fourier transform (FFT)

HARMONIC MEASUREMENT Harmonic measurements require high fidelity probes, transducers, etc. over the range of desired frequency measurement (typically, up to 3 kHz). A good measure of the fidelity of a measuring device is its frequency response. Ideal conditions: Linear response over its entire range Constant gain No phase shift

In practice, non-ideal characteristics of a measurement device can be compensated. HARMONIC MEASUREMENT - CURRENT TRANSFORMERS The most common type of current transformer is the toroidally wound transformer with ferromagnetic core. Characteristics: Usually have a single turn on the primary Low leakage impedance Low primary winding resistance Operates in linear portion of magnetization curve Models with an air gap maintain linearity over a wide range Limitations in frequency response determined by inter-turn, inter-winding and stray capacitance Present CT's can measure up to the 50th harmonic without distortion

HARMONIC MEASUREMENTS - VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS Voltage transformers can be connected directly to low voltage distribution circuits (up to 12 kV). Cascaded transformers or voltage dividers are required at higher voltages. VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER Characteristics: Limitations in frequency response determined mostly by inter-turn, inter winding and stray capacitance, which are more important than in CTs.

A short note on Harmonics in Power Systems, EDSA 2001

Linear response can often be obtained up to 1 kHz. The precise response is dependent on the burden.

VOLTAGE DIVIDERS TYPES Resistive divider: frequency response is influenced by stray capacitance and skin effect. Improvements are possible to some extent by providing an earthen screen around the device, parallel capacitors. Capacitive divider: better frequency response, but is subject to ringing. Low voltage capacitor is screened and resistors are placed in parallel with capacitors. Capacitive divider with amplifier: The amplifier acts as a buffer circuit, providing a fixed burden to the divider on one side and to the communication link or PT on the other. Series RC divider: A resistance is part of the divider stack.

HARMONIC MEASUREMENTS - DATA TRANSMISSION Measured signals are usually transmitted from the instrumentation site to a control room through a noisy environment. Precautions must be taken to protect this information. Ideas: encoded data digitized data isolation amplifiers coaxial cables optical fiber links shielding: o electrostatic: earthen screen, guard circuit o electromagnetic: magnetic shield, careful design

HARMONIC ANALYSIS Signal processing instruments are available to extract harmonic information from recorded power system signals. Although both analog and digital processing methods are presently available, digital methods are now recommended, for flexibility, ease of use, extended features and cost. ANALOG INSTRUMENTS, such as filters DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS, based on the FFT implementation of the discrete Fourier transform (DFT).

A short note on Harmonics in Power Systems, EDSA 2001

HARMONIC ANALYSIS - FEATURES OF A GOOD ANALYZER Here are some of the main features in a digital harmonic analyzer presently available: measures harmonic components up to the 50th harmonic (3kHz) simultaneously samples 7 or more input channels: high resolution A/D conversion calculations: o power and harmonic power o RMS voltage and current o THD and IT product o Telephone Interference Factor (TIF) system impedance (magnitude and phase) at harmonic frequencies real-time or deferred time analysis with programmable sampling and time windows output of waveforms or frequency spectra in graphical or tabular form data storage facility user friendly, convenient, easy to set up, portable

LIMITATIONS ON HARMONIC CONTENT Three criteria are emphasized for setting standards: To protect equipment against harmful over voltages, limits are set on both: o total harmonic distortion of voltage o individual voltage harmonics To limit current injections and subsequent propagation into the limits are set on both: total harmonic distortion of current o individual current harmonics Restrictions on both harmonic voltages and currents, as a device ratings function of network,

A short note on Harmonics in Power Systems, EDSA 2001

STANDARDS FOR LIMITATION OF HARMONICS There are 2 broad categories of national standards: 1) Sets voltage/current distortion levels at the power system/customer interface without setting allowable limits for individual consumers. limits on harmonic voltage only, Country: U.S.A limits on both harmonic voltage and current, Countries: U.K. and Australia

2) Sets voltage/current distortion levels at the power system/customer interface and sets allowable limits for individual consumers as a function of loading. limits on harmonic voltages only, Countries: France, Switzerland limits on harmonic currents only, Country: Netherlands limits on both harmonic voltage and current, Countries: Germany Sweden,

Finland,

Conditions specified in the various standards usually reflect concerns proper to conditions in that country. RESTRICTIONS STANDARDS USA: - THD limited to 5% at voltages from 2.4 to 69 kV 1.5% at voltages of 115 kV and up UK: - THD limited to 5% at voltages of 415 V and less 4% at voltages of 6.6 and 11 kV 3% at voltages of 33 and 66 kV 1.5% at 132 kV SWEDEN: - THD limited to 4% 3% 2% 1% ON TOTAL HARMONIC CONTENT TAKEN FROM

at voltages of 430 V and less at voltages between 3.3 and 24 kV at voltages between 33 and 72 kV at voltages beyond 84 kV

IN GENERAL: The highest permissible THD is of the order of 5% at low voltage levels and 1% at high voltage levels.

A short note on Harmonics in Power Systems, EDSA 2001

RESTRICTIONS ON INDIVIDUAL HARMONIC CONTENT TAKEN FROM STANDARDS Here are some examples of limitations on individual voltage harmonic content: UK: - Vn/V1 at common coupling point limited to 4% (odd) and 2% (even) at 415 V 3% (odd) and 1.75% (even) at 6.6 - 11 kV 2% (odd) and 1% (even) at 33 - 66 kV 1% (odd) and .5% (even) at 132 kV GERMANY: - Vn/V1 at common coupling point limited to 5% for 5th and 7th harmonics 3% for 11th and 13th harmonics decreases to 1% at 100th harmonic according to a defining curve. RESTRICTIONS ON HARMONIC CURRENTS FOR ANY ONE CUSTOMER Such restrictions exist in the UK and the Netherlands. Again in the UK, limits are set for the different voltage levels. For example, at 415 V: Harmonic 2 3 4 5 6 19 RMS Current in Amps 48 34 22 56 11 6

RECOMMENDATIONS MADE FOR STANDARDS Here is a summary of recommendations in a paper by Dr. A.M. Sharaf made at the second International Conference on Harmonics in Power Systems:

Limitations on THDv and individual Vn, odd and even harmonics Limitations on THDi and individual In, odd and even harmonics Limitations on IT and possibly KVT Limitations on voltage pulsations and notching Equal allocation of permissible harmonic limits per customer whether large or small Three voltage levels: transmission, distribution and utilization Limited access to the network of large nonlinear loads Limited access to the network of devices generating even harmonics

A short note on Harmonics in Power Systems, EDSA 2001

Distinction between steady state and transient harmonics Standard harmonic measurements are proposed Maximum rating of industrial converters based on short circuit level

MITIGATION TECHNIQUES TO REDUCE HARMONIC CONTENT Here is a partial list of solutions to reduce the harmful effects of harmonics. Each solution is particular to a given problem, and cannot be considered general.

Relocation of capacitor banks Reconfigure 3-phase transformer Transposition of conductors to reduce inductive effects Improve grounding Neutral reactor Filters Phase reversal Single phase vs. 3-phase Geographic separation Improved insulation Reducing fault current Balancing 3-phase operation Shielding

A short note on Harmonics in Power Systems, EDSA 2001

Harmonics Analysis Techniques Harmonic analysis is required when devices that generate harmonics, such as rectifiers, arc furnaces, AC/DC drives etc, are present or anticipated to be added to the power system. Frequent failure of power system components may also justify the undertaking of harmonic studies. Another important reason may be to arrive at harmonic filter specifications. The response of an electric power system to harmonics can be studied by any of the following techniques: Hand-Calculations: Manual calculations are restricted to small-size networks since it is not only very tedious but quite susceptible to errors as well. Transient Network Analyzer (TNA): TNA is also restricted to rather small network sizes because it is, generally found to be expensive and time consuming. Field measurements: Harmonic measurements are often used to determine the level of harmonic pollution of the power system. It is widely recognized, however, that undertaking harmonic measurements in a systematic fashion, can be quite expensive and time consuming. Harmonic measurements, although quite useful in many cases, can be of limited validity because they reflect only the system topology they have been taken at. Moreover, measurements can be in error due to inaccuracies of measuring instruments or erroneous utilization. Field measurements are used effectively to validate and refine system modeling for digital simulations. Digital simulation: Digital computer simulation is the most convenient, and perhaps more economical, way of tackling the problem of harmonic analysis. The reason is that the advent of computer technology has made available quite sophisticated computer programs featuring a large array of system component models to be used in a variety of cases. Computer simulations, are centered on system-wide approaches utilizing the notions of system impedance and/or admittance matrices, backed by elegant and powerful numerical calculation techniques. Power System Components Modeling Harmonic modeling differ somewhat from the system modeling as far as shortcircuit, load flow and transient stability studies are concerned. The reason is that the behavior of the system equipment must be predicted for frequencies well above the fundamental. This section summarizes system modeling for harmonic analysis. Generator Model: Generators of relatively modern make produce no harmonic voltages, therefore they can be represented by shunt impedance connected to ground. A reactance derived from either sub-transient or negative sequence reactances is often used (both having similar values). Impedance measurements for small units agree to within 15% as compared with that of the sub-transient impedance. In the absence of a better model, and until more results are reported,

A short note on Harmonics in Power Systems, EDSA 2001

a series RL circuit representing the sub-transient reactance with X/R ratio ranging between 15-50 can be used. However, the generator resistance should be corrected due to skin effect. The following equation is suggested: R = Rdc ( 1.0 + A h ) where Rdc is the armature DC resistance and h is the harmonic order. Coefficients A and B have typical values of 0.1 and 1.5 respectively. Transformer Model: an ideal transformer in series with the nominal leakage impedance can model a transformer. The leakage reactance varies linearly with frequency but proper resistance modeling must account for skin effect. A similar expression to the one used for the generator resistance can be used. Many variants for the transformer leakage impedance are recommended by CIGRE. More complex models, recommend considering the inter-winding transformer capacitances. These models are very complex, cumbersome, data intensive, and have questionable practical value for the range of frequently considered power system harmonics. Induction Motor Model: A model for an induction consists of stator impedance, a magnetization shunt branch and the rotor impedances. Motor slip is a function of harmonic order and varies as follows: S h = ( h 1 ) / h where Sh is the harmonic slip. At higher frequencies, harmonic slip approaches unity. If the magnetization impedance is ignored, one can model an induction motor by its locked-rotor impedance only. Despite the fact that this is still a very popular model, it very often pays to consider the complete motor model. Load Model: Various models have been proposed for the representation of loads for harmonic studies. Since these loads, may consist of several load types (static, rotating, solid state etc), different models have been devised to cater for individual load components as compared to the ones meant to address aggregate models. In general, a model derived from the active and reactive power consumed can be represented by a parallel or series combination of a resistance and a reactance. This model is, almost invariably, used for static load representation. Transmission line and Cable Models: A short line or cable can be represented by a series RL circuit reflecting the line series resistance and reactance. The resistance must be corrected to take into account skin effect for higher frequencies. For longer lines, modeling of the line shunt capacitance becomes necessary. The distributed parameter model is an adequate model to use because the line length notion is dependent on the frequency the line is studied at. The following approximate formula for skin effect can be used: R = Rdc ( 0.035 X + 0.938 )
2 B

for X < 2.4

A short note on Harmonics in Power Systems, EDSA 2001

R = Rdc ( 0.35 X + 0.3 )

for X >= 2.4

where X = 0.001585 ( f/Rdc ) and f is frequency in Hertz and Rdc in Ohms/Miles. Filter Models: Filters, by definition, exhibit small impedances at tuned frequencies. At the fundamental frequency their impedance is mostly of capacitive nature, thereby supplying reactive power to electrical network. Many types of filters are applied in power systems, for different purposes. Filters , most commonly used for harmonic mitigation, are illustrated in figure 1. A single-tuned filter has an impedance characteristic shown in figure 2, and is used to suppress a specific harmonic. A double-tuned filter basically consists of two single-tuned ones, but, arranged in an equivalent circuit to reduce their physical dimensions. High pass filters can be of first, second or third order. The second order is widely used. A more recent type of high pass filter, called C-type filter, is becoming popular due to its smaller losses at the fundamental frequency. Impedance plots of second order and a C-type filter are shown in figures 3 and 4 respectively. Application of filters is one of the commonly employed solutions to limit the effects of harmonics. Other remedial measures such as moving the disturbing loads to a higher voltage levels, reinforcing the system and detune capacitors are often used. In any case, economics will dictate the most appropriate solution. Recent studies, advocate the utilization of active filtering in an effort to counter the injected harmonics. These techniques, however, are still in the research stage and have not yet attained neither maturity nor industry wide acceptance.

A short note on Harmonics in Power Systems, EDSA 2001

Figure 1: Harmonic Filters

30.0 27.0 24.0 21.0 18.0 15.0 12.0 9.00 6.00 3.00 1 0.00 1.00 2.00 Freq(PU) 1:5-TH HARMONIC SINGLE TUNED FILTER 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00 11.00 1 Z Ohm

IMPEDANCE PLOT FOR SINGLE TUNED FILTER

Figure 2: Impedance Plot for single tuned filter

A short note on Harmonics in Power Systems, EDSA 2001

30.0 27.0 24.0 21.0 18.0 15.0 12.0 9.00 6.00

Z Ohm

1 3.00 0.00 1.00 2.00 Freq(PU) 1:5-TH HARMONIC HIGH-PASS FILTER 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00 11.00 1

IMPEDANCE PLOT FOR HIGH-PASS FILTER

Figure 3: Impedance Plot for High-pass filter

30.0 27.0 24.0 21.0 18.0 15.0 12.0 9.00 6.00 1 3.00 0.00 1.00 2.00 Freq(PU) 1:5-TH HARMONIC C-TYPE FILTER 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00 11.00 1 Z Ohm

IMPEDANCE PLOT FOR C-TYPE FILTER

Figure 4: Impedance Plot for C-type filter

A short note on Harmonics in Power Systems, EDSA 2001

Network Modeling and solution techniques: Power system networks are modeled as sets of frequency-dependent models of the various, above described, system components. For every frequency of interest, an admittance matrix is built for the whole system. Sparse-matrix and vector techniques are used to solve for the equivalent system impedances at the various points of interest, for all the frequency range, thus completing the so called frequency scanning. When harmonic current sources are included in the network, harmonic voltages will be calculated. Numerical techniques, such as the matrix Inversion Lemma are also used for fast re-calculation of the system impedances, under single or multiple contingencies.

Harmonic analysis for industrial systems: The following summarizes the necessary steps, normally required for a harmonic study in the industrial environment: 1. 2. 3. Prepare system one-line diagram. Gather equipment data and rating. Obtain from the utility company the relevant data and requirements at the point of common coupling. These must include: Minimum and maximum fault levels or preferably system impedances as a function of frequency for different system conditions. Permissible limits on harmonics including distortion factors and IT factor. The criteria and limits vary considerably from country to country. Typical values for different voltage levels are given in IEEE 519 standard. Carry out harmonic analysis for the base system configuration by calculating the system impedances at the harmonic source bus bars as well as all shunt capacitors locations. Compute harmonic voltage distortion factors and IT value at the point of common coupling. Examine the results and, eventually, go back to step 1 or step 4, depending on whether the network data or only the parameters of the analysis need to be modified. Compare the composite (fundamental plus harmonic) loading requirements of shunt capacitor banks with the maximum rating permitted by the standards. Reference [..] has defined the following operating limits: Continuous operating voltage<=110% of rated voltage RMS Crest Voltage <= 1.2 _2 times rated RMS Voltage KVAr <= 135% of rated KVAr Current <= 180% of rated RMS currents. Relocate the capacitors or change the bank ratings if they are found to exceed their ratings. Apply a detuning reactor if a resonance condition is found. Go back to step 4.

4.

5. 6.

7.

8.

A short note on Harmonics in Power Systems, EDSA 2001

9.

Add filters if the harmonic distortion factors and IT values at the point of common coupling exceed the limit imposed by the utility.

The above steps should be carried out for the base system configuration as well as for system topologies resulting from likely contingencies. Any future system expansion and utility short-circuit level changes should also be considered. Example:

In the above example, filter is not part of the initial (base) network. 6-pulse converter harmonic data is as follows: Harmonic order 5 7 11 13 17 Current (Amp) 190 107 34 22 14 Phase Angle (Degrees) 0 180 180 0 0

A short note on Harmonics in Power Systems, EDSA 2001

The impedance plot at Main bus shows that the system is resonating at a frequency close to 300 Hz (fifth harmonic). Harmonic voltage distortion factors are summarized in table 2. Result of a case where the capacitor bank (installed at Main bus) has been modified to include a tuning reactor (tuned to 300 Hertz i.e., a 5th harmonic filter) is also shown for comparison.

Location Utility Main bus Converter Aux1 Aux2

Harmonic Voltage Distortion Factor (%), Capacitor bank only 0.70 6.09 9.69 6.10 6.09

Harmonic Voltage Distortion Factor (%), Capacitor converted to Filter 0.08 0.79 7.11 0.83 0.79

A short note on Harmonics in Power Systems, EDSA 2001