BIOLOGY

EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION
1.1 Outline the impact on the evolution of plants and animals of: - changes in physical conditions in the environment - changes in chemical conditions in the environment - competition for resources Changes in the environment of living organisms can lead to the evolution of plant and animal species. These environmental changed in condition may be physical, such as temperature changes, or chemical, such as changes in water salinity. Change may also be triggered by competition, for example, competition for resources such as food and water or competition to reproduce. Changes in physical conditions in the environment include natural conditions, such as temperature and the availability of water. Since life first evolved on Earth it has seen many changes. Given that the environment at the time was so antagonistic to life it is a wonder that life evolved at all. The physical environment has changed frequently. Sea levels have risen and fallen. Oceans or dry land has, at various times, covered parts of Australia. Such drastic changes in the environment influence evolution. Fossil evidence indicates that much mass extinction have resulted from changed in the Earths physical environment, for example, at the beginning of Pangaea about 90% of marine mammals became extinct. Over a period of 10 million years, dinosaurs along with other organisms became extinct. One theory as to why this occurred is that a meteorite struck the Earth producing a dust cloud that may first have killed many of the plants and animals that dinosaurs ate, causing them to starve and die. Other scientists argue that climate change could have occurred from continental drift, changing patterns in oceanic circulation, or possibly volcanos. Whatever the cause, the environmental change favoured the organisms that survived. The story of life on Earth us change, extinction and diversification. Environmental change can favour certain species. The Australia landmass has become drier over time and this has lead to changes in the species of kangaroos that are present today. Approximately 25 million years ago, Australia was considerably wetter than today with large areas of rainforest. During this time, kangaroos were small and omnivorous, with unspecialised teeth, eating a variety of foods from the forest floor. Food was nutritious and abundant; there was no need for specialised grinding teeth. As Australia became more arid and grass became the dominant vegetation in some areas, environmental selective pressure resulted in larger kangaroos favouring teeth suitable for grass. These teeth, high-crested molars, efficiently grind low-nutrition grass into a more easily digestible paste. Slicing pre-molars are of little use and so became much reduced from the ancestral kangaroos. Changes in chemical conditions in the environment have also affected evolution. When life first evolved, it developed in an environment free from oxygen. These primitive organisms metabolised simple organic molecules in shallow seas. A product of this metabolism was carbon dioxide. Over millions of years the carbon dioxide accumulated in the environment and at some stage organisms capable of using CO2 in photosynthesis evolved and multiplied. They produced oxygen as a product of their metabolism, creating a chemical environment, which simple animals could exploit. These animals obtained energy from aerobic respiration. The evolution of organisms, as a consequence of chemicals in the environment, is not just ancient history by affects us now. Humans change the environment rapidly. Change and the capacity of populations of organisms to evolve in response to chemicals is sometimes a frustration to humans. Chemicals that can affect the evolution of species include salts and elements, such as iron. For example, many parts of Australia have soils that have a high salinity. There is a range of salt tolerant plants that have evolved to inhabit those areas. The animals that feed from these plants have also evolved to inhabit those areas. When DDT was first introduced to kill mosquitoes, low concentrations were extremely effective, however in subsequent sprayings low concentrations were ineffective and stronger doses were needed. The few mosquitoes that survived the first spraying had a natural resistance to DDT and this was passed onto their offspring. The population changed from mainly susceptible to mainly resistant due to selection by the DDT to the environment. The sheep blowfly, Lucilia cuprina, is a major problem to the Australian sheep industry. It stresses, weakens and can be lethal to sheep when larvae, lay by females, burrows into wounds and wet wool. Chemicals, such as dieldrin and organophosphates, have been used extensively to control the blowfly. However, genetic resistance has occurred within the fly population that has made these chemicals ineffective. Withholding a particular insecticide for a time allowed the resistance of this particular blowfly population to drop. Continued use of the insecticide has resulted in the mutation of a modifier

gene that increases and maintains the resistance. Thus, the insecticides can never be effective again, regardless of the number of blowfly generations that pass. Competition, the struggle between organisms for the same resource, occurs within a species and between species. If a new species is introduced into an area then the competition may lead to different species using different resources. Resources can include food, space or mates. If populations that live in the same area could specialise on slightly different resources or breed at different times, they would avoid direct competition. Long-term competition usually results in the elimination of one of the competing species or the evolution of the competing species to occupy different niches. As a consequence, species often evolve with similar by slightly different resource requirements; this is sometimes called resource partitioning. Some species of fruit fly have evolved into different species with each confined to a different type of fruit tree. This is possible if there are different flowering and fruiting times on each tree type suited for different breeding cycles in the fruit flies. Eventually, two distinct species can result. 1.2 Describe, using specific examples, how the theory of evolution is supported by the following areas of study: - Palaeontology, including fossils that have been considered as transitional forms This is the study of fossils, the remains or traces of life forms that have been trapped in sediment, ice or amber and preserved. Fossils provide a record over time of how living things have been evolving on Earth. Fossil evidence in old rocks is scarce to younger rocks. By comparing layers of sediment from different parts of the world, the sequence from the very earliest life to the present can be observed. In this way sedimentary rocks provide a record in their fossils of the history of life on earth. This sequence of fossils is called the fossil record. The fossil record is incompletes and is likely to remain so because fossilisation is a rare event therefore only select organisms are likely to make any trace and also because generally only hard bodied organisms can be fossilised. Nevertheless, fossils have been found that appear to have the characteristics of two different groups of organisms. These fossils are called transition fossils and provide a link between major groups of organisms, indicating the development of one group of organisms from another or from a common ancestor. They help us understand how evolutionary change may have come about. The evolution from ancient reptiles to mammals is particularly well documented by a series of transitional fossils. Indeed they merge so closely that it is difficult to decide whether some fossils are those of a mammal-like reptile or a reptilelike mammal. One of the most famous transition fossils is the Archaeopteryx, which provides evidence for the common ancestry between birds and reptiles. The Archaeopteryx appears in every way similar to an extinct group of retile dinosaurs except that it had feathers and a wishbone. The skeleton is not unlike that of a reptile but the feathers are definitely a characteristic of birds. Therefore Archaeopteryx provides evidence for the evolution of birds from an ancestral dinosaur and suggests a common ancestry for birds Biogeography First primitive cells were heterotrophic, then cells with pigment appeared. The oxygen produced by photosynthesis was taken in by rocks and when saturated, was released into the atmosphere. The sun reacted with the oxygen to produce ozone, which altered the course of evolution also. Scientists have discovered ancient rocks called banded iron formations. The alternate bands of minerals were derived from the seasonal fluctuations of the activity of certain types of bacteria. Geologists have also used pyrite to detect when oxygen began to build up in the atmosphere. Dating rocks with a range of levels of oxygen locked in their mineral shows the approximate time over which plant life forms evolved and expanded Comparative embryology In all terrestrial vertebrates reptiles, birds and mammals gill slits are not present; however, nonfunctional gill slits are seen in the early embryos of these vertebrates. A tail is normally absent from a human foetus and a newborn baby; however a human embryo at one stage shows a primitive tail. We could reasonably explain these observations by assuming that vertebrates share a common ancestor as part of their evolutionary history. The appearance of embryonic tails in tail-less vertebrates and functionless gill slits in air-breathing vertebrates would simply be simply explained as features that have been retained during the evolution of the various vertebrate groups. The similar patterns of embryonic development of different vertebrates are evidence of their relationship by evolutionary descent.

Comparative anatomy this is the study of the differences and similarities in structure between different organisms. The structures they have in common are evidence of similar inherited characteristics from common ancestors. Modern vertebrates are easily grouped into classes because they possess quite distinct features. However, many underlying similarities suggest that they are more closely related to each other than we might think. The structures they have in common are evidence of similar genes, which have been inherited from common ancestors. An example of this is the pentadactyl limb. Most land vertebrates show a similar basic pattern in the bones of their arms and legs. This pattern is called the pentadactyl (five-digit) limb. It is believed to have been inherited fro their aquatic ancestor, the lobe-finned fish. Each of these limbs has similar number of bones arranged in the same basic pattern. This similarity in bone structure exists, even though the limbs may serve different functions. The mammalian forelimbs are said to be homologous structures; that is, a bats wing is homologous with a whales flipper even though they have different specialities. Biochemistry Recent advances in technology has allowed comparison of organisms on a molecular basis rather than simply comparing structures. This was previously impossible between such distantly related organisms as an orchid and a mouse. The study of amino acid sequences (DNA) shows that more closely related species share more common sequences than do unrelated species. All living things: - consist of organic compounds - share a genetic code of DNA or RNA - rely on enzymes to control chemical reactions - share the same cell membrane structure - rely on respiration to make energy available for cellular processes Particular evidence has been derived from the amino acid sequence in haemoglobin, showing that humans and rhesus monkeys share all but eight amino acid sequences whereas there are 125 amino acid differences between humans and lampreys. This supports the fossil, embryological and anatomical evidence that humans are more closely related to rhesus monkeys than they are to lampreys. Cytochrome-c for example is a protein needed to make energy available and is an amino acid chain made up of around 104 amino acids. One change in cytochrome-c could produce a monkeys DNA.

1.3 Explain how Darwin/Wallaces theory of evolution by natural selection and isolation
accounts for divergent evolution and convergent evolution The Darwin/Wallace theory outlines that characteristics favourable to the reproduction and survival of organisms in their environment will be selected for, and over time, new species will appear in response to environmental changes. Adaptive radiation refers to the variety of different species that evolve from an ancestral line as a result of migration and isolation. The Darwin/Wallace theory of natural selection and isolation provides a mechanism for adaptive radiation. If groups of a population become isolated, the chances are high that they will encounter differing selective pressure as each environment evolves independently. Eventually, the two populations may have changed sufficiently that they become different species. For example, the biodiversity of flora and fauna that are unique to Australia are the result of adaptive radiation. When Australia separated from Gondwana, the organisms then evolved due to selective pressure from the changing environment. This supports the Darwin/Wallace theory of evolution. Adaptive radiation can lead to both divergent evolution and convergent evolution. Divergent evolution occurs when closely related species experience quite different environments and as a result vastly different characteristics will be selected. The species, over time, will evolve differently and will eventually appear quite different. For example, elephants are large plains-dwelling animals that are closely related to a small guinea pig-like animal called a hyrax. Hyraxes live amongst rocky outcrops on mountains. Comparison of skeletons indicates the close relationship between the two groups. Convergent evolution occurs when two relatively unrelated species develop similar structures, physiology or behaviours in response to similar selective pressures from similar environments. For example, dolphins (mammals) and sharks (cartilaginous fish) have evolved a streamlined body shape and fins that enable them to move efficiently through their aquatic environment, yet they are only remotely related as vertebrates. Communal social behaviour has developed independently in ants, termites and bees Prac 1.1 Plan, choose equipment or resources and perform a first-hand investigation to model natural selection

Empty a packet of smarties into a bowl and with a partner, take one each. Continue this until just half are remaining. Count up the results, and compare this with other groups. There will be a higher number of a certain colour because people have their favourites. Like animals, some coloured foods are more likely to be eaten. Prac 1.2 Analyse information from secondary sources to prepare a case study to show how an environmental change can lead to changes in a species Example: Peppered Moths In unpolluted forests, pale moths are well camouflaged on the pale lichen covered tree trunks. Dark moths are more visible so they are eaten. Therefore the light moths survive and reproduce, dominating the population. In polluted forests where the tree trunks are blackened, the dark moths have an advantage in colour. After many years of selection, dark moths have become dominant. Example: The Horse The evolution of the horse can be traced back through the fossil records for millions of years. As the various body parts evolved, the shape and size of the species also changed. The ancient ancestor of the horse was about the size of a small dog and walked on four toes. This was originally a forest dweller with footpads to prevent sinking in soft ground. This evolved to run faster and live on open plains and grasslands, with the hoof allowing for running over hard ground. Prac 1.3 Perform a first-hand investigation or gather information from secondary sources (including photographs/ diagrams/models) to observe, analyse and compare the structure of a range of vertebrate forelimbs The pentadactyl limb is an arrangement of bones that are evident in many vertebrates. The fact that this structure is present strongly suggests that these vertebrates share a common ancestor whose descendants evolved in different ways, known as divergent evolution. It is thought that animals inherited this from their aquatic ancestors, the lobe-finned fish Prac 1.4 Use available evidence to analyse, using a named example, how advances in technology have changed scientific thinking about evolutionary relationships DNA hybridisation is a process by which the DNA of different species can be compared. The process uses heat to unwind and separate the strands that make up a double helix. Segments are treated in this way and cooled. Hydrogen bonds form between two single strands. The bonded sections will rewind once again to become a double helix. The degree of bonding that occurs reflects the degree of base pairing and therefore the similarity between two species. Prac 1.5 Analyse information from secondary sources on the historical development of theories of evolution and use available evidence to assess social and political influences on these developments 1735: Linnaeus published a classification system in which he classified humans and apes together 1780s: Charles Darwins Grandfather first suggested that all life came from a single source 1809: Lamarck put forward the first theory of evolution variation in species developed from use or disuse of body parts, and such changes are passed onto offspring. 1859: Darwin published high ideas regarding natural selection, applying to animals and humans Today: scientists refined Darwins theory The predominant view in western cultures was creationism, in which everything was created in six days and that organisms have not changed and are not related. In spite of mounting scientific evidence, Darwins theory of evolution was rejected by many religious people. This theory is still unaccepted by many religious people and in some communities, the Biblical story of Creation is taught.