Wiki Loves Monuments: Photograph a monument, help Wikipedia and win!

Shiva
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Shiva (disambiguation).

Shiva

Shiva as a householder with wife Parvati as depicted in an 1820 Rajput painting

Devanagari

SanskritTransliteration

iva

Affiliation

Parameshwara (Supreme God), Trimurti

Mantra

Om Namah Shivaya,Mahamrityunjaya Mantra

Weapon

Trishula

Consort

Shakti, Sati, Parvati (also known as Durga and Kali)

Children

Kartikeya, Ganesha

Mount

Nandi (bull)

This article contains Indic text.Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks or boxes, misplaced vowels or missing conjuncts instead of Indic text.

An article related to

Hinduism

Philosophy[show] Deities[show] Scriptures[show] Practices[show]

Hindu

History

Philosophers and saints[show] Other topics[show]

Hinduism portal Hindu Mythology portal

Shiva (iva, /v/

listen (helpinfo) meaning "The Auspicious One"), also known

as Mahadeva, Mahesh("Great God") or Bholenath ("Simple Lord"), is a popular Hindu deity and considered the Supreme God withinShaivism, one of the three most influential denominations in Hinduism.[1][2] Shiva is regarded as one of the primary forms of God, such as one of the five primary forms of God in the Smarta tradition,[1] and "the Destroyer" or "the Transformer"[3] among the Trimurti, the Hindu Trinity of the primary aspects of the divine. Shiva is also regarded as the patron god of yoga and arts.[4][5][6] Shiva is usually worshipped in the aniconic form of Lingam.[7][8][9] Shiva of the highest level is limitless, transcendent, unchanging and formless.[10][11][12][13][14] However, Shiva also has many benevolent and fearsome forms.[15] In benevolent aspects, he is depicted as an omniscient yogi who lives an ascetic life onMount Kailash,
[3]

as well as a householder with wife Parvati and two sons, Ganesha and Kartikeya or as theCosmic Dancer. In

fierce aspects, he is often depicted slaying demons. The most recognizable iconographical attributes of the god are a third eye on his forehead, a snake around his neck, the crescent moon adorning and the river Ganga flowing from his matted hair, the trishula as his weapon and the damaru as his instrument. Shiva as we know him today shares many features with the Vedic god Rudra. Some historians have also suggested that a Shiva-like deity existed in pre-Vedic times, but all historians do not agree on this.
Contents
[hide]

1 Etymology and other names 2 Historical development o o o o

2.1 Origins 2.2 The Pashupati seal 2.3 Rudra 2.4 Creation of Tamil,Sanskrit Languages

2.5 Association with Vedic deities

2.5.1 Agni 2.5.2 Indra

3 Position within Hinduism o o o

3.1 Shaivism 3.2 Panchayatana puja 3.3 Trimurti

4 Iconography and properties o o

4.1 Attributes 4.2 Lingam

o o

4.2.1 Jyotir Linga

4.3 Shakti 4.4 The five mantras

5 Forms and roles o o o o o o o

5.1 Destroyer and Benefactor 5.2 Ascetic and Householder 5.3 Nataraja 5.4 Dakshinamurthy 5.5 Ardhanarishvara 5.6 Tripurantaka 5.7 Other forms and avatars

6 Relationship with Vishnu 7 Festivals o

7.1 Maha Shivaratri

8 Beyond India and Hinduism o o o o

8.1 Buddhism 8.2 Central Asia 8.3 Sikhism 8.4 Indonesian Hinduism

9 See also 10 References 11 Sources 12 External links

Etymology and other names[edit source | editbeta]

Statue of Shiva as a meditating yogi

The Sanskrit word Shiva (Devanagari: , iva) comes from Shri Rudram Chamakam of Taittiriya Samhita (TS 4.5, 4.7) of Krishna Yajurveda. The root word i[16] means the auspicious. In simple English transliteration it is written either as Shiva or Siva. The adjective iva, is used as an attributive epithet not particularly of Rudra, but of several other Vedic deities.[17] The other popular names associated with Shiva are Mahadev, Mahesh, Maheshwar, Shankar, Shambhu, Rudra, Har, Trilochan, Devendra (meaning Chief of the Gods) and Trilokinath (meaning Lord of the three realms).[18][19][20] The Sanskrit word aiva means "relating to the god Shiva", and this term is the Sanskrit name both for one of the principal sects of Hinduism and for a member of that sect. [21] It is used as an adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism.[22] He is the oldest worshipped Lord of India. The Tamil word Sivan, Tamil: ("Fair Skinned") could have been derived from the word sivappu. The word 'sivappu' means "red" in Tamil language but while addressing a person's skin texture in Tamil the word 'Sivappu' is used for being Fair Skinned. [23][24] Adi Sankara, in his interpretation of the name Shiva, the 27th and 600th name of Vishnu sahasranama, the thousand names of Vishnu interprets Shiva to have multiple meanings: "The Pure One", or "the One who is not affected by three Gunas of Prakrti (Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas)" or "the One who purifies everyone by the very utterance of His name."[25] Swami Chinmayananda, in his translation of Vishnu sahasranama, further elaborates

on that verse: Shiva means "the One who is eternally pure" or "the One who can never have any contamination of the imperfection of Rajas and Tamas".[26] Shiva's role as the primary deity of Shaivism is reflected in his epithets Mahdeva ("Great God"; mah "Great" and deva "god"),[27][28] Mahevara ("Great Lord"; mah "great" and vara "lord"),[29]
[30]

and Paramevara ("Supreme Lord").[31]

There are at least eight different versions of the Shiva Sahasranama, devotional hymns (stotras) listing many names of Shiva.[32] The version appearing in Book 13 (Anusanaparvan) of the Mahabharata is considered the kernel of this tradition.[33] Shiva also has Dasha-Sahasranamas (10,000 names) that are found in the Mahanyasa. The Shri Rudram Chamakam, also known as the atarudriya, is a devotional hymn to Shiva hailing him by many names.[34][35]

Historical development[edit source | editbeta]

Origins[edit source | editbeta]
For the early history, see Rudra. The worship of Shiva is a pan-Hindu tradition, practiced widely across all of India, Nepal and Sri Lanka. [36]
[37]

Some historians believe that the figure of Shiva as we know him today was built up over time, with the ideas

of many regional sects being amalgamated into a single figure. [37] Sailen Debnath traces the origin of Shiva to the pre-Aryan period, and believes that he played an important role in the Indus Valley Civilization.[38] How the persona of Shiva converged as a composite deity is not well documented. [39] Axel Michaels the Indologist suggests Shaivism like Vaihavism, implies a unity which cannot be clearly found either in religious practice or in philosophical and esoteric doctrine. Furthermore, practice and doctrine must be kept separate. [40] An example of assimilation took place in Maharashtra, where a regional deity named Khandoba is a patron deity of farming and herding castes.[41] The foremost center of worship of Khandoba in Maharashtra is in Jejuri.
[42]

Khandoba has been assimilated as a form of Shiva himself,[43] in which case he is worshipped in the form of

a lingam.[41][44] Khandoba's varied associations also include an identification with Surya[41] and Karttikeya.[45]

The Pashupati seal[edit source | editbeta]

Seal discovered atMohenjodaro shows a seatedithyphallic figure surrounded by animals, possibly Shiva,thePashupati

A seal discovered during the excavation of Mohenjo-daro has drawn attention as a possible representation of a "proto-Shiva" figure.[46] This Pashupati (Lord of animal-like beings)[47] seal shows a seated figure, possibly ithyphallic, surrounded by animals.[48] Sir John Marshall and others have claimed that this figure is a prototype of Shiva and have described the figure as having three faces seated in a "yoga posture" with the knees out and feet joined. However, this claim is not without its share of critics, with some academics like Gavin Flood[46][49] and John Keay characterizing them as unfounded.[50]

Rudra[edit source | editbeta]

Main article: Rudra

Three-headed Shiva, Gandhara, 2nd century CE

Shiva as we know him today shares many features with the Vedic god Rudra,[51] and both Shiva and Rudra are viewed as the same personality in Hindu scriptures. The two names are used synonymously. Rudra, the god of the roaring storm, is usually portrayed in accordance with the element he represents as a fierce, destructive deity. The oldest surviving text of Hinduism is the Rig Veda, which is dated to between 1700 and 1100 BC based on linguisticand philological evidence.[52] A god named Rudra is mentioned in the Rig Veda. The name Rudra is still used as a name for Shiva. In RV 2.33, he is described as the "Father of the Rudras", a group of storm gods.[53] Furthermore, the Rudram, one of the most sacred hymns of Hinduism found both in the Rig and the Yajur Vedas and addressed to Rudra, invokes him as Shiva in several instances, but the term Shiva is used as

an epithet for the gods Indra, Mitra and Agni many times. Since Shiva means pure, the epithet is possibly used to describe a quality of these gods rather than to identify any of them with the God Shiva. The identification of Shiva with the older god Rudra is not universally accepted, as Axel Michaels explains: Rudra is called "The Archer" (Sanskrit: arva),[54] and the arrow is an essential attribute of Rudra. [55] This name appears in the Shiva Sahasranama, and R. K. Sharma notes that it is used as a name of Shiva often in later languages.[56] The word is derived from the Sanskrit root arv-, which means "to injure" or "to kill",[57] and Sharma uses that general sense in his interpretive translation of the name arva as "One who can kill the forces of darkness".
[56] [59]

The namesDhanvin ("Bowman")[58] and Bahasta ("Archer", literally "Armed with arrows in his hands") [58] also refer to archery.

There are numerous similarities that it would seem not to identify Shiva and Rudra as false. Both Rudra and Shiva are "blue-throated one," "three-eyed one," "dweller of the mountains," "Lord of the animals," yogins, have healing powers, have long matted hair, associated with fire, and described as Sthanu to describe their yogic pose of samadhi.[60]

Creation of Tamil,Sanskrit Languages[edit source | editbeta]

In Hindu tradition, the creation of the Tamil language is credited to the Rig Vedic sage Rishi Agastya and it is said that Lord Shiva himself taught Rishi Agastyathis language.[61][62][63][64][65][66][67][68] Sage Rishi Agastya is considered as the Father of Tamil literature and compiled the first Tamil grammar called Agathiyam. It is believed that he has lived in the 6th or 7th century B.C and specialized in language, alchemy, medicine and spirituality (yogam and gnanam). There are 96 books in the name of Agathiyar. [69] In Tamil language the term 'Agam' means inside and 'iyar' means belong. One who belong inside (soul) is the Tamil meaning for Agastya or Agathiyar.Siva taught Sanskrit to Panini, and Tamil to Agastya [61][65][70] It is believed that Panini has lived in the 6th or 7th century B.C.[71]

Association with Vedic deities[edit source | editbeta]

Shiva's rise to a major position in the pantheon was facilitated by his identification with a host of Vedic deities, including Agni, Indra, Prajpati, Vyu, and others.[72]

Agni[edit source | editbeta]

Rudra and Agni have a close relationship. [73][74] The identification between Agni and Rudra in the Vedic literature was an important factor in the process of Rudra's gradual development into the later character as Rudra-Shiva.
[75]

The identification of Agni with Rudra is explicitly noted in the Nirukta, an important early text on etymology,

which says, "Agni is also called Rudra."[76] The interconnections between the two deities are complex, and according to Stella Kramrisch:

The fire myth of Rudra-iva plays on the whole gamut of fire, valuing all its potentialities and phases, from conflagration to illumination.[77] In the atarudrya, some epithets of Rudra, such as Sasipajara ("Of golden red hue as of flame") and Tivamati ("Flaming bright"), suggest a fusing of the two deities. [78] Agni is said to be a bull,[79] and Lord Shiva possesses a bull as his vehicle, Nandi. The horns of Agni, who is sometimes characterized as a bull, are mentioned.[80][81] In medieval sculpture, both Agni and the form of Shiva known as Bhairava have flaming hair as a special feature.[82] The Vedas state Lord Agni is a manifestation of Lord Rudra. The Shivalinga is said to be a pillar of fire, and in the Indus Valley it was indeed used as a fire altar. Also, one of Lord Shiva's thousand names is Tanunpat meaning "fire god." Lord Shiva is further known as Lohita meaning 'red' and Lord Agni is too depicted red. Agni, like Lord Shiva is symbolized with the symbol of a torch. In one legend, the sage Agastya, who is known to Hindus to be a Shaiva is an avatar of Agni (The God Agni Becomes Agasthya) The Agni Purana is a Shaivite text. Lord Agni is also important in Tantric Yoga like Lord Shiva.[3]Furthermore, Lord Shiva's son Murugan is also associated with Agni and Agni's vehicle. Murugan is said in sometime to be a child of Agni and of Swaha, a daughter of Daksha.

Indra[edit source | editbeta]

According to a theory, the Puranic Shiva is a continuation of the Vedic Indra.[83] He gives several reasons for his hypothesis. Both Shiva and Indra are known for having a thirst for Soma. Both are associated with mountains, rivers, male fertility, fierceness, fearlessness, warfare, transgression of established mores, the Aum sound, the Supreme Self. In the Rig Veda the term iva is used to refer to Indra. (2.20.3,[84] 6.45.17,[85][86] and 8.93.3.[87]) Indra, like Shiva, is likened to a bull.[88][89] In the Rig Veda, Rudra is the father of the Maruts, but he is never associated with their warlike exploits as is Indra. [90] By some scholars such as Dr. David Frawley and Koenraad Elst in write that the King of Gods, Lord Indra is a manifestation of Lord Shiva.[91] In the Rig Veda, Lord Indra calls Himself Shiva many times (2:20:3, 6:45:17, 8:93:3.) Further the Pauravas' symbol was the lingam. Both are outsider gods associated with the soma plant. Like Lord Agni, Lord Indra is said to be a bull and Lord Shiva of course possesses a bull (Nandi) as his vehicle. Also, Lord Shiva's abode is said to be on Mount Meru or Mount Kailash, the same as Lord Indra's. Also in belief Indra married Prthivi while Rudra's consort is also said to be Prthivi. Lord Shiva and Lord Indra share many names such as Puruhut meaning "Lord of the Purus." Initially the Purus worshiped Lord Indra. However the symbol of their tribe was the Shivlingam. Lord Indra is also connected with tiger skin (e.g. in RV 5:4:1:11), which is what Lord Shiva meditates upon.[4]

Furthermore, Muthuswamy Dikshithar also wrote "He is worshiped in the evenings by Lord Indra and others,..."[5] Also, at Darasuram near Tanjore is a temple where it is believed that Airavata worshiped the Lingam; the Lingam is named after him as Airavateswara.

Position within Hinduism[edit source | editbeta]

Shaivism[edit source | editbeta]
Main articles: Shaivism and History of Shaivism Shaivism (Sanskrit: , aiva patha) (Tamil: ) is the oldest of the four major sects of Hinduism, the others being Vaishnavism, Shaktismand Smartism. Followers of Shaivism, called "Shaivas", and also "Saivas" or "Saivites", revere Shiva as the Supreme Being. Shaivas believe that Shiva is All and in all, the creator, preserver, destroyer, revealer and concealer of all that is. The tantric Shaiva tradition consists of the Kapalikas, Kashmir Shaivism andShaiva Siddhanta. The Shiva MahaPurana is one of the puras, a genre of Hindu religious texts, dedicated to Shiva. Shaivism is widespread throughout India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka, mostly. Areas notable for the practice of Shaivism include parts of Southeast Asia, especially Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia.

Panchayatana puja[edit source | editbeta]

Main article: Panchayatana puja Panchayatana puja is the system of worship ('puja') in the Smarta sampradaya of Hinduism. It is said to have been introduced by Adi Shankara, the 8th centuryCE Hindu philosopher. It consists of the worship of five deities: Shiva, Vishnu, Devi, Surya and Ganesha. Depending on the tradition followed by Smarta households, one of these deities is kept in the center and the other four surround it. Worship is offered to all the deities. The five are represented by smallmurtis, or by five kinds of stones, or by five marks drawn on the floor. [92]

Trimurti[edit source | editbeta]

Main article: Trimurti The Trimurti is a concept in Hinduism in which the cosmic functions of creation, maintenance, and destruction are personified by the forms of Brahm the creator, Vishnu the maintainer or preserver and hiva the destroyer or transformer," [93][94] These three deities have been called "the Hindu triad" [95] or the "Great Trinity",[96] often addressed as "BrahmaVishnu-Maheshwara."

Iconography and properties[edit source | editbeta]

Attributes[edit source | editbeta]

Shiva with Parvati. Shiva is depicted three-eyed, the Ganges flowing through his matted hair, wearing ornaments of serpents and a skull bracelet, and covered in ashes, and seated on a tiger skin.

Shiva's form: Shiva has a Trident in the right lower arm, with a

crescent moon on his head. He is said to be fair like camphor or like an ice clad mountain. He has fire and Damaru and Mala or a kind of weapon. He wears five serpents as ornaments. He wears a garland of skulls. He is pressing with his feet the demon Muyalaka, a dwarf holding a cobra. He faces south. Panchakshara itself is his body. (The trident, like almost all other forms in Hinduism, can be understood as the symbolism of the unity of three worlds that a human faces - his inside world, his immediate world, and the broader overall world. At the base of the trident, all three forks unite.)

Third eye: (Trilochana) Shiva is often depicted with a third eye, with

which he burned Desire (Kma) to ashes,[97] called "Tryambakam" (Sanskrit: ), which occurs in many scriptural sources. [98] In classical Sanskrit, the word ambaka denotes "an eye", and in the Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted as three-eyed, so this name is sometimes translated as "having three eyes".[99] However, in Vedic Sanskrit, the word amb orambik means "mother", and this early meaning of the word is the basis for the translation "three mothers". [100][101] These three mother-

goddesses who are collectively called the Ambiks.[102] Other related translations have been based on the idea that the name actually refers to the oblations given to Rudra, which according to some traditions were shared with the goddess Ambik.[103]

Crescent moon: (The epithets "Chandrasekhara/Chandramouli")-

Shiva bears on his head the crescent moon.[104] The epithet Candraekhara (Sanskrit: "Having the moon as his crest" - candra = "moon";ekhara = "crest, crown")[105][106][107] refers to this feature. The placement of the moon on his head as a standard iconographic feature dates to the period when Rudra rose to prominence and became the major deity Rudra-Shiva.[108] The origin of this linkage may be due to the identification of the moon with Soma, and there is a hymn in the Rig Veda where Soma and Rudra are jointly implored, and in later literature, Soma and Rudra came to be identified with one another, as were Soma and the moon.[109] The crescent moon is shown on the side of the Lord's head as an ornament. The waxing and waning phenomenon of the moon symbolizes the time cycle through which creation evolves from the beginning to the end. Since the Lord is the Eternal Reality, He is beyond time. Thus, the crescent moon is only one of His ornaments. The wearing of the crescent moon in his head indicates that He has controlled the mind perfectly.

Ashes: (The epithet "Bhasmaanga Raaga") - Shiva smears his

body with ashes (bhasma). Ashes represent the final reality that a human being will face - the end of all material existence.[110] Some forms of Shiva, such as Bhairava, are associated with a very old Indian tradition of cremation-ground asceticism that was practiced by some groups who were outside the fold of brahmanic orthodoxy.[111] These practices associated with cremation grounds are also mentioned in the Pali canon of Theravada Buddhism.[112] One epithet for Shiva is "inhabitant of the cremation ground" (Sanskrit: manavsin, also spelled Shmashanavasin), referring to this connection.[113] It is interesting to see the peaceful acceptance of cremation ground temples of Batuk Bhairava, a form of Lord Shiva, by the general populace. At Ujjain, near the Kaal Bhairava temple lies such a cremation ground temple of Batuk Bhairava, with its legendary disciple Baba Dabral known throughout Central India (as he is blessed, people say, with the

ability to literally read out incidents of the future in one's life just by holding one's palm).

Matted hair: (The epithet "Jataajoota Dhari/Kapardina") - Shiva's

distinctive hair style is noted in the epithets Jain, "the one with matted hair",[114] and Kapardin, "endowed with matted hair"[115] or "wearing his hair wound in a braid in a shell-like (kaparda) fashion".[116] A kaparda is a cowrie shell, or a braid of hair in the form of a shell, or, more generally, hair that is shaggy or curly.[117] His hair is said to be like molten gold in color or being yellowish-white.

Blue throat: The epithet Nlakatha (Sanskrit ; nla =

"blue", katha = "throat")[118][119] since Shiva drank the Halahala poison churned up from the Samudra Manthan to eliminate its destructive capacity. Shocked by his act, Goddess Parvati strangled his neck and hence managed to stop it in his neck itself and prevent it from spreading all over the universe supposed to be in Shiva's stomach. However the poison was so potent that it changed the color of his neck to blue. [120]
[121]

(See Maha Shivaratri.)

Shiva bearing the descent of the Ganges River as Parvati and Bhagiratha and the bull Nandi look, folio from a Hindi manuscript by the Narayan, circa 1740

Sacred Ganges: (The epithet "Gangadhara") Bearer of

Ganga. Ganges river flows from the matted hair of Shiva.[122]

[123]

The Gag (Ganges), one of the major rivers of the country, is said to

have made her abode in Shiva's hair.[124] The flow of the Ganges also represents the nectar of immortality.

Tiger skin: (The epithet "Krittivasana").He is often shown seated

upon a tiger skin,[110] an honour reserved for the most accomplished of Hindu ascetics, the Brahmarishis.[125] Tiger represents lust. His sitting on the tigers skin indicates that He has conquered lust.

Serpents: (The epithet "Nagendra Haara"). Shiva is often shown

garlanded with a snake.[126] His wearing of serpents on the neck denotes wisdom and eternity.

Deer:His holding deer on one hand indicates that He has removed

the Chanchalata of the mind (i.e., attained maturity and firmness in thought process). Deer jumps from one place to another swiftly, similar to the mind moving from one thought to another.

[110]

Trident: (Sanskrit: Trishula): Shiva's particular weapon is the trident. His Trisul that is held in His right hand represents the three Gunas

Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. That is the emblem of sovereignty. He rules the world through these three Gunas. The Damaru in His left hand represents the Sabda Brahman. It represents OM from which all languages are formed. It is He who formed the Sanskrit language out of the Damaru sound.

Drum: A small drum shaped like an hourglass is known as

a damaru (Sanskrit: amaru).[127][128] This is one of the attributes of Shiva in his famous dancing representation[129] known as Nataraja. A specific hand gesture (mudra) called amaru-hasta (Sanskrit for "amaru-hand") is used to hold the drum.[130] This drum is particularly used as an emblem by members of the Kplika sect.[131]

Axe: (Sanskrit: Parashu):The parashu is the weapon of Lord Shiva

who gave it to Parashurama, sixth Avatar of Vishnu, whose name means "Rama with the axe" and also taught him its mastery.

Nand: (The epithet "Nandi Vaahana").Nand, also known as

Nandin, is the name of the bull that serves as Shiva's mount (Sanskrit: vhana).[132][133]Shiva's association with cattle is reflected in his name Paupati, or Pashupati (Sanskrit: ), translated by Sharma as "lord of cattle"[134] and by Kramrisch as "lord of animals", who notes that it is

particularly used as an epithet of Rudra.[135] Rishabha or the bull represents Dharma Devata. Lord Siva rides on the bull. Bull is his vehicle. This denotes that Lord Siva is the protector of Dharma, is an embodiment of Dharma or righteousness.

Gaa: The Gaas (Devanagari: ) are attendants of Shiva and live

in Kailash. They are often referred to as the bhutaganas, or ghostly hosts, on account of their nature. Generally benign, except when their lord is transgressed against, they are often invoked to intercede with the lord on behalf of the devotee.Ganesha was chosen as their leader by Shiva, hence Ganesha's title gaa-a or gaa-pati, "lord of the gaas".[136]

Mount Kailsa: Mount Kailash in the Himalayas is his traditional

abode.[110] In Hindu mythology, Mount Kailsa is conceived as resembling a Linga, representing the center of the universe.[137]

Varanasi: Varanasi (Benares) is considered to be the city specially

loved by Shiva, and is one of the holiest places of pilgrimage in India. It is referred to, in religious contexts, as Kashi.[138]

Lingam[edit source | editbeta]

Lingam at Jambukesvara temple in Thiruvanaikaval, Tamil Nadu

Main article: Lingam Apart from anthropomorphic images of Shiva, the worship of Shiva in the form of a lingam, or linga, is also important.[139][140][141] These are depicted in various forms. One common form is the shape of a vertical rounded column. Shiva means auspiciousness, and linga means a sign or a symbol. Hence, the Shivalinga is regarded as a "symbol of the great God of the universe who is all-auspiciousness". [142] Shiva also means "one in whom

the whole creation sleeps after dissolution".[142] Linga also means the same thinga place where created objects get dissolved during the disintegration of the created universe. Since, according to Hinduism, it is the same god that creates, sustains and withdraws the universe, the Shivalinga represents symbolically God Himself.[142] Some scholars, such as Monier-Williams and Wendy Doniger, also view linga as a phallic symbol,
[143][144] [146]

although this interpretation is disputed by others, including Christopher Isherwood,[145] Vivekananda,

Swami Sivananda,[147] and S.N. Balagangadhara.[148]

Lingodbhava murti

Jyotir Linga[edit source | editbeta]

The worship of Shiva or Rudra can be dated back to the primitive worship of The Almighty. The people in these period used to worship the natural forces and represented The Almighty the in stones. The Linga worship could be a primitive form of idol worship. Gradually the culture may have been assimilated to the Ancient AryanDravidian culture and there by to the Sanskrit literature. The worship of the Shiva-Linga originated from the famous hymn in the Atharva-Veda Samhit sung in praise of the Yupa-Stambha, the sacrificial post. In that hymn, a description is found of the beginningless and endless Stambha or Skambha, and it is shown that the said Skambha is put in place of the eternalBrahman. Just as the Yajna (sacrificial) fire, its smoke, ashes, and flames, the Soma plant, and the ox that used to carry on its back the wood for the Vedic sacrifice gave place to the conceptions of the brightness of Shiva's body, his tawny matted hair, his blue throat, and the riding on the bull of the Shiva, the Yupa-Skambha gave place in time to the Shiva-Linga.[149][150] In the text Linga Purana, the same hymn is expanded in the shape of stories, meant to establish the glory of the great Stambha and the superiority of Shiva as Mahadeva. [150] The sacred of all Shiva linga is worshipped as Jyotir linga. Jyoti means Radiance, apart from relating Shiva linga as a phallus symbol, there are also arguments that Shiva linga means 'mark' or a 'sign'. The way of worship of primitive men by representing The Almighty on a stone. Jyotirlinga means The Radiant sign of The

Almighty. The Jyotirlingas are mentioned in Shiva Purana.[151] The dwadasha (12) Jyotirlinga's are told in Dwadasha Jyotirlinga stotram Sanskrit Literature as Sanskrit: : English Translation: Somanatham in Saurashtra and Mallikarjunam in Shri-Shail. ( ); Mahakaal in Ujjain and Amleshwar in Omkareshwar. ( ); Vaidyanath in Paralya and Bhimashankaram in Dakniya. ( );Rameshem (Rameshwaram) in Sethubandh and Nageshem (Nageshwar) in Darauka-Vana. ( );Vishwa-Isham (Vishvanath) in Vanarasi and Triambakam at bank of Gautami River. ( ));Kedar (Kedarnath) in Himalayas and Gushmesh (Gushmeshwar) in Shivalaya (Shiwar). ( ) [151]

Shakti[edit source | editbeta]

Kali and Bhairava (the terrible form of Shiva) in Union, 18th century, Nepal

Main article: Shakti Shiva forms a Tantric couple with Shakti, the embodiment of energy and dynamism, and the motivating force behind all action and existence in the material universe. Shiva is her transcendent masculine aspect, providing the divine ground of all being. Shakti manifests in several female deities. Sati and Parvati are the main consorts of Shiva, but she is also manifested as Uma, Durga (Parvata), Kali and Chandika.[152] Kali is the manifestation of Shakti in her dreadful aspect. The name Kali comes from kla, which means black, time, death, lord of death, Shiva. Since Shiva is called Kla, the eternal time, Kl, his consort, also means "Time" or "Death" (as in "time has come"). Various Shakta Hindu cosmologies, as well as Shkta Tantric beliefs, worship her as the ultimate reality or Brahman. She is also revered as Bhavatrini (literally

"redeemer of the universe"). Kl is represented as the consort of Lord Shiva, on whose body she is often seen standing or dancing. Shiva is the masculine force, the power of peace, while Shakti translates to power, and is considered as the feminine force. In the Vaishnava tradition, these realities are portrayed as Vishnu and Laxmi, or Radha and Krishna. These are differences in formulation rather than a fundamental difference in the principles. Both Shiva and Shakti have various forms. Shiva has forms like Yogi Raj (the common image of Himself meditating in the Himalayas), Rudra (a wrathful form) and Nataraj (performing the dance of destruction).[153]

The five mantras[edit source | editbeta]

Five is a sacred number for Shiva.[154] One of his most important mantras has five syllables (nama ivya).[155] Shiva's body is said to consist of five mantras, called the pacabrahmans.[156] As forms of God, each of these have their own names and distinct iconography: [157]

Sadyojta Vmadeva Aghora Tatpuruha sna

These are represented as the five faces of Shiva and are associated in various texts with the five elements, the five senses, the five organs of perception, and the five organs of action.[158][159] Doctrinal differences and, possibly, errors in transmission, have resulted in some differences between texts in details of how these five forms are linked with various attributes.[160] The overall meaning of these associations is summarized by Stella Kramrisch:

Through these transcendent categories, iva, the ultimate reality, becomes the efficient and material cause of all that exists.[161] According to the Pacabrahma Upanishad: One should know all things of the phenomenal world as of a fivefold character, for the reason that the eternal verity of iva is of the character of the fivefold Brahman. (Pacabrahma Upanishad 31)[162]

Forms and roles[edit source | editbeta]

According to Gavin Flood, "Shiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox," whose attributes include opposing themes. [163] The ambivalent nature of this deity is apparent in some of his names and the stories told about him.

Destroyer and Benefactor[edit

source | editbeta]
In the Yajurveda, two contrary sets of attributes for both malignant or terrific (Sanskrit: rudra) and benign or auspicious (Sanskrit: iva) forms can be found, leading Chakravarti to conclude that "all the basic elements which created the complex Rudra-iva sect of later ages are to be found here".[164] In the Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted as "the standard of invincibility, might, and terror", as well as a figure of honor, delight, and brilliance.[165] The duality of Shiva's fearful and auspicious attributes appears in contrasted names.

Uma and Maheswar

The name Rudra (Sanskrit: ) reflects his fearsome aspects. According to traditional etymologies, the Sanskrit name Rudra is derived from the root rud-, which means "to cry, howl".[166] Stella Kramrisch notes a different etymology connected with the adjectival form raudra, which means "wild, of rudra nature", and translates the name Rudra as "the wild one" or "the fierce god".[167] R. K. Sharma follows this alternate etymology and translates the name as "terrible".
[168]

Hara (Sanskrit: ) is an important name that occurs three

times in the Anushasanaparvan version of the Shiva sahasranama, where it is translated in different ways each time it occurs, following a commentorial tradition of not repeating an interpretation. Sharma translates the three as "one who captivates", "one who consolidates", and "one who destroys".[169] Kramrisch translates it as "the ravisher".
[121]

Another of Shiva's fearsome forms is

as Kla (Sanskrit: ), "time", and asMahkla (Sanskrit: ), "great time", which ultimately destroys all things.[170][171][172]Bhairava (Sanskrit: ), "terrible" or "frightful",[173] is a fierce form associated with annihilation.
[174]

In contrast, the name akara (Sanskrit: ), "beneficent"[56] or "conferring happiness"[175] reflects his benign form. This name was adopted by the great Vedanta philosopher akara (c. 788 - 820 CE), who is also known as Shankaracharya.[176][177] The name ambhu (Sanskrit: ), "causing happiness", also reflects this benign aspect. [178][179]

Ascetic and Householder[edit

source | editbeta]

An illustration of the family of Shiva, consisting of Shiva, Parvati, Ganesha andSkanda (Kartikeya)

He is depicted as both an ascetic yogi and as a householder, roles which have been traditionally mutually exclusive in Hindu society.[180] When depicted as a yogi, he may be shown sitting and meditating.[181] His epithet Mahyogi ("the great Yogi: Mah = "great", Yogi = "one who practices Yoga") refers to his association with yoga.[182] While Vedic religion was conceived mainly in terms of sacrifice, it was during the Epic period that the concepts of tapas, yoga, and asceticism became more important, and the depiction of Shiva as an ascetic sitting in philosophical isolation reflects these later concepts.[183] Shiva is also depicted as a corpse below Goddess Kali, it represents that Shiva is a corpse without Shakti. He remains inert. While Shiva is the static form.Mahakali or Shakti is the dynamic aspect without whom Shiva is powerless. As a family man and householder, he has a wife, Parvati, and two sons, Ganesha and Kartikeya. His epithetUmpati ("The husband of Um") refers to this idea, and Sharma notes that two other variants of this name that mean the same thing, Umknta and Umdhava, also appear in the

sahasranama.[184] Um in epic literature is known by many names, including the benign Prvat.[185][186] She is identified with Devi, the Divine Mother;Shakti (divine energy) as well as goddesses like Tripura Sundari, Durga, Kamakshi and Meenakshi. The consorts of Shiva are the source of his creative energy. They represent the dynamic extension of Shiva onto this universe. [187] His son Ganesha is worshipped throughout India and Nepal as the Remover of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings and Lord of Obstacles. Kartikeya is worshipped in Southern India (especially in Tamil Nadu, Keralaand Karnataka) by the names Subrahmanya, Subrahmanyan, Shanmughan, Swaminathan and Murugan, and inNorthern India by the names Skanda, Kumara, or Karttikeya.[188]

Nataraja[edit source | editbeta]

Chola dynasty statue depicting Shiva dancing as Nataraja (Los Angeles County Museum of Art)

Main article: Nataraja The depiction of Shiva as Nataraja (Tamil: ,Kannada: , Telugu: , Sanskrit: naarja, "Lord of Dance") is popular.[189][190] The names Nartaka ("dancer") and Nityanarta ("eternal dancer")

appear in the Shiva Sahasranama.[191] His association with dance and also with music is prominent in the Puranic period.
[192]

In addition to the specific iconographic form known as

Nataraja, various other types of dancing forms (Sanskrit:ntyamrti) are found in all parts of India, with many well-defined varieties in Tamil Nadu in particular.[193] The two most common forms of the dance are the Tandava, which later came to denote the powerful and masculine dance as Kala-Mahakala associated with the destruction of the world. When it requires the world or universe to be destroyed, Lord iva does it by the tavantya.[194][195] and Lasya, which is graceful and delicate and expresses emotions on a gentle level and is considered the feminine dance attributed to the goddess Parvati.[196][197] Lasya is regarded as the female counterpart of Tandava.[197] The Tandava-Lasya dances are associated with the destruction-creation of the world.[198][199][200]

Dakshinamurthy[edit source | editbeta]

Main article: Dakshinamurthy Dakshinamurthy, or Dakimrti (Tamil:, Telugu: , Sanskrit: ),[201] literally describes a form (mrti) of Shiva facing south (dakia). This form represents Shiva in his aspect as a teacher ofyoga, music, and wisdom and giving exposition on the shastras.[202] This iconographic form for depicting Shiva in Indian art is mostly from Tamil Nadu.
[203]

Elements of this motif can include Shiva seated upon a

deer-throne and surrounded by sages who are receiving his instruction.[204]

Ardhanarishvara[edit source | editbeta]

Main article: Ardhanarishvara

Chola bronze from the 11th century. Shiva in the form of Ardhanarisvara.

An iconographic representation of Shiva called (Ardhanrvara) shows him with one half of the body as male and the other half as female. According to Ellen Goldberg, the traditional Sanskrit name for this form (Ardhanrvara) is best translated as "the lord who is half woman", not as "half-man, half-woman".[205] According to legend, Lord Shiva is pleased by the difficult austerites performed by the Goddess Parvati, grants her the left half of his body. This form of Shiva is quite similar to the Yin-Yang philosophy of Eastern Asia, though Ardhanrvara appears to be more ancient.

Tripurantaka[edit source | editbeta]

Main article: Tripurantaka See also: Tripura (mythology)

The five-headed Tripurantaka is seen pointing an arrow towards the Tripura (rightmost top corner) with the bow made of mount Meru, the serpent Vasuki is seen as its string.

Shiva is often depicted as an archer in the act of destroying the triple fortresses, Tripura, of the Asuras.[206] Shiva's name Tripurantaka (Sanskrit: , Tripurntaka), "ender of Tripura", refers to this important story.[207] In this aspect, Shiva is depicted with four arms wielding a bow and arrow, but different from the Pinakapani murti. He holds an axe and a deer on the upper pair of his arms. In the lower pair of the arms, he holds a bow and an arrow respectively. After destroying Tripura, Tripurantaka Shiva smeared his forehead with three strokes of Ashes. This has become a prominent symbol of Shiva and is practiced even today by Shaivites.

Other forms and avatars[edit

source | editbeta]
Shiva, like some other Hindu deities, is said to have several incarnations, known as Avatars. Although Puranic scripturescontain occasional references to "ansh" avatars of Shiva, the idea is not universally accepted in Saivism.
[208]

The Linga Purana speaks of twenty-eight forms of Shiva

which are sometimes seen as avatars.[209] According to theSvetasvatara Upanishad, he has four avatars.[210] In the Hanuman Chalisa, Hanuman is identified as the eleventh avatar of Shiva and this belief is universal. Hanuman is popularly known as Rudraavtaar Rudra being a name of Shiva.[211] Rama the Vishnu avatar is considered by some to be the eleventh avatar of Rudra (Shiva).[212][213] Other traditions regard the sage Durvasa,[214][215][216][217] the sage Agastya, the philosopher Adi Shankara, as avatars of Shiva. Other forms of Shiva include Virabhadra and Sharabha.

Relationship with Vishnu[edit

source | editbeta]
During the Vedic period, both Vishnu and Shiva (as identified with Rudra) played relatively minor roles, but by the time of the Brahmanas (c. 1000 - 700 BC), both were gaining ascendance.[218] By the Puranic period, both deities had major sects that competed with one another for devotees.[219] Many stories developed showing different types of relationships between these two important deities. Sectarian groups each presented their own preferred deity as supreme. Vishnu in his myths "becomes" Shiva.
[220]

The Vishnu Purana (4th century CE) shows Vishnu

awakening and becoming both Brahm to create the world and Shiva to destroy it.[221] Shiva also is viewed as a manifestation of Vishnu in the Bhagavata Purana.[222] In Shaivite myths, on the other hand, Shiva comes to the fore and acts independently and alone to create, preserve, destroy, hide, and to bless (five works).[223] In one Shaivite myth of the origin of the lingam, both Vishnu and Brahm are revealed as emanations from Shiva's manifestation as a towering pillar of flame.[224] The atarudrya, a Shaivite hymn, says that Shiva is "of the form of Vishnu".[225] Differences in

viewpoints between the two sects are apparent in the story of arabha (also spelled "Sharabha"), the name of Shiva's incarnation in the composite form of man, bird, and beast. Shiva assumed that unusual form of Sarabheshwara to chastise Vishnu, who in his hybrid form as Narasimha, the man-lion, killed Hiranyakashipu.[226][227] However, Vaishnava followers including Dvaita scholars, such as Vijayindra Tirtha (153995) dispute this view of Narasimha based on their reading of Sattvika Puranas and ruti texts.[228] According to Mahabharata, a Vaishnav text, Lord Krishna, an incarnation of Lord Vishnu, is one of the greatest devotees of Lord Shiva. In Mahabharata, Anushasana Parva, i.e., In Book 13, Chapter 15 verses 1 to 51, Lord Krishna explains to Yudistira how he got initiated into Pashupata Diksha and how he obtained the grace of Lord Shiva. About soliciting boons of Lord Shiva, Lord Krishna says, "Bowing my head with great joy unto that mass of energy and effulgence (meaning Lord Shiva)...". He calls Lord Shiva Brahman, Parameshwar (the Supreme God) and Paramatman (the Supreme Soul).[229] Syncretic forces produced stories in which the two deities were shown in cooperative relationships and combined forms. Harihara is the name of a combined deity form of both Vishnu (Hari) and Shiva (Hara).[230] This dual form, which is also called Harirudra, is mentioned in the Mahabharata.
[231]

An example of a collaboration story is one given to

explain Shiva's epithet Mahbalevara, "lord of great strength" (Maha = "great", Bala = "strength", vara = "lord"). This name refers to a story in which Rvaa was given a linga as a boon by Shiva on the condition that he carry it always. During his travels, he stopped near the present Gokarna, India in Karnataka to purify himself and asked Ganesha, a son of Parvathi in the guise of a young Brahmin, to hold the linga for him, but after some time, Ganesha put it down on the ground and vanished. When

Ravana returned, he could not move the linga, and it is said to remain there ever since.[232] As one story goes, Shiva is enticed by the beauty and charm of Mohini, Vishnu's female avatar, and procreates with her. As a result of this union, Shasta - identified with regional deities Ayyappa and Ayyanar - is born.[233][234][235][236]

Festivals[edit source | editbeta]

Maha Shivaratri[edit source | editbeta]

Celestial Marriage of Shiva andParvati in presence of all depicted at Elephanta Caves

Main article: Maha Shivaratri Maha Shivratri is a festival celebrated every year on the 13th night or the 14th day of the new moon in the KrishnaPaksha of the month of Maagha or Phalguna in the Hindu calendar. This festival is of utmost importance to the devotees of Lord Shiva. Mahashivaratri marks the night when Lord Shiva performed the 'Tandava' and it is also believed that Lord Shiva was married to Parvati. On this day the devotees observe fast and offer fruits, flowers and Bael leaves to ShivaLinga.[237]

Beyond India and Hinduism[edit

source | editbeta]

Buddhism[edit source | editbeta]

This section relies largely or entirely upon a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources. (August 2013) Shiva plays a role in Buddhist Tantra in the form of Maheshvara (Japanese: Daijizai-ten).[238][not in citation
given][better source needed]

A story in several Buddhist scriptures, most

notably in theSarvatathagatatattvasamgraha and the Vajrapany-abhiseka-mahatantra depicts Maheswara, one of the names of Shiva in Hinduism) as an evil being who is killed by Vajrapani.[239] In this story the Bodhisattva Samantabhadra receives a vajra and is transformed into Vajrapani by Vairocana, the cosmic Buddha. [240] Vairocana then requests Vajrapani to generate his adamantine family, to establish a mandala. Vajrapani refuses, because Mahesvara (Shiva) "is deluding beings with his deceitful religious doctrines and engaging in all kinds of violent criminal conduct".[241] Mahesvara and his entourage are dragged to Mount Sumeru, and all but Mahesvara submit. Vajrapani and Mahesvara engage in a magical combat, which is won by Vajrapani. Mahesvara's retinue become part of Vairocana's mandala, except for Mahesvara, who is killed, and his life transferred to another realm where he becomes a buddha named Bhasmesvara-nirghosa, the "Soundless Lord of Ashes".[242] According to Kalupahana, the story "echoes" the story of the conversion of Ambattha.[243] It is to be understood in the context of the competition between Buddhist institutions and Shaivism.[244]

Central Asia[edit source | editbeta]

The cult of Lord Shiva became popular in Central Asia through the Hephthalite (White Hun) Dynasty.[245] The cult was popular in 500 C.E.[245] Shaivism was popular in

Sogdiana and Eastern Turkestan as found from the wall painting from Penjikent on the river Zervashan.[246] In this depiction, Shiva is portrayed with a sacred halo and a sacred thread ("Yajnopavita").[246] He is clad in tiger skin while his attendants are wearing Sodgian dress.[246] In Eastern Turkestan in the Taklamakan Desert.[246] There is a depiction of his four-legged seated cross-legged n a cushioned seat supported by two bulls.[246] Another panel form Dandan-Uilip shows Shiva in His Trimurti form with His Shakti kneeling on her right thigh.[246]

Sikhism[edit source | editbeta]

The Japuji Sahib of the Guru Granth Sahib says, "The Guru is Shiva, the Guru is Vishnu and Brahma; the Guru is Paarvati and Lakhshmi." In the same chapter, it also says, "Shiva speaks, the Siddhas speak." In Dasam Granth, Guru Gobind Singh have mentioned two avtars of Rudra: Dattatreya Avtar and Parasnath Avtar.[247]

Indonesian Hinduism[edit source | editbeta]

In Indonesia, Shiva is also worshiped as Batara Guru. His other name is "Sang Hyang Jagadnata" (king of the universe) and "Sang Hyang Girinata" (king of mountains).[6] In the ancient times, all kingdoms were located on top of mountains. When he was young, before receiving his authority of power, his name was Sang Hyang Manikmaya. He is first of the children who hatched from the eggs laid by Manuk Patiaraja, wife of god Mulajadi na Bolon. This avatar is also worshiped in Malaysia. Shiva's other form in Indonesian Hindu worship is "Maharaja Dewa" (Mahadeva.) Both the forms are closely identified with the Sun in local forms of Hinduism or Kebatinan, and even in the genie lore of Muslims.

See also[edit source | editbeta]

Nayanars

Mahakala Pradosha Vibhuti

References[edit source | editbeta]

1. 2. 3. 4.
Mallinson. ^ a b Flood (1996), p. 17. ^ Tattwananda, p. 45. ^ a b Zimmer (1972) p. 124. ^ See Shiva Samhita, e.g. translation by

5. 6. 7.

^ See Varenne, page 82. ^ See Marchand for Jnana Yoga. ^ Davis writes on page 122: "The Saiva

worshipper does not worship the object itself as Siva or as representing Siva; he directs his worship toward it as the physical support for Siva's special presence."

8.

^ Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices, by Jeanne

Fowler, pgs. 4243, In traditional Indian society, the linga is rather seen as a symbol of the energy and potentiality of the God.

9. 10. 11.
186.

^ See Fuller, The Camphor Flame, pp 58. ^ See Parmeshwaranand, Volume 3. ^ See Kramrisch, The presence of Siva, page

12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

^ See Abhayananda, page 95. ^ See Davis, pp 113-114. ^ Chatterji, Kashmir Shaivism. ^ Sharma, Iconography of Sadasiva ^ http://sanskritdictionary.com/?q=

%C5%9Bi&lang=&iencoding=&action=Search ^ For use of the term iva as an epithet for

other Vedic deities, see: Chakravarti, p. 28. ^ See translation by Manmatha Nath Dutt,

Chapter 17 of Volume 13.

19. 20.
Stotram".

^ See translation by Kisari Mohan Ganguli,

Chapter 17 of Volume 13. ^ See Chidbhavananda, "Siva Sahasranama

21. 22.

^ Apte, p. 927 ^ For the definition "aivism refers to the

traditions which follow the teachings of iva (ivana) and which focus on the deity iva... " see: Flood (1996), p. 149.

23. 24. 25. 26.

Trust.

^ Tantra: The Cult of the Feminine, p. 213. ^ Shaivism in Ancient India: From the Earliest

Times to C.A.D. 300 (1982) ^ Sri Vishnu Sahasranama, Ramakrishna Math

edition, pg.47 and pg. 122. ^ Swami Chinmayananda's translation of

Vishnu sahasranama, pg. 24, Central Chinmaya Mission

27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33.

^ Kramrisch, p. 476. ^ For appearance of the name in

the Shiva Sahasranama see: Sharma 1996, p. 297 ^ Kramrisch, p. 477. ^ For appearance of the name in the

Shiva Sahasranama see:Sharma 1996, p. 299 ^ For Paramehvara as "Supreme Lord" see:

Kramrisch, p. 479. ^ Sharma 1996, p. viii-ix ^ This is the source for the version presented in

Chidbhavananda, who refers to it being from the Mahabharata but does not explicitly clairify which of the two Mahabharata versions he is using. See Chidbhavananda, p.5.

34.

^ For an overview of the atarudriya see:

Kramrisch, pp. 71-74.

35. 36. 37. 38.

^ For complete Sanskrit text, translations, and

commentary see: Sivaramamurti (1976). ^ Flood (1996), p. 17 ^ a b Keay, p.xxvii. ^ Sailen Debnath, The Meanings of Hindu

Gods, Goddesses and Myths,ISBN 9788129114815, Rupa & Co., New Delhi

39. 40. 41. 42. 43.

^ For Shiva as a composite deity whose history

is not well documented, see: Keay, p. 147. ^ Michaels, p. 215. ^ a b c Courtright, p. 205. ^ For Jejuri as the foremost center of worship

see: Mate, p. 162. ^ 'Khandoba: Ursprung, Geschiche und Umvelt

von Pastoralem Gotheiten in Maharashtra, Wiesbaden 1976 (German with English Synopsis) pp. 180-98, "Khandoba is a local deity in Maharashtra and been Sanskritised as an incarnation of Shiva."

44.

^ For worship of Khandoba in the form of a

lingam and possible identification with Shiva based on that, see: Mate, p. 176.

45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53.

^ For use of the name Khandoba as a name for

Karttikeya in Maharashtra, see: Gupta, Preface, and p. 40. ^ a b Flood (1996), pp. 28-29. ^ For translation of paupati as "Lord of

Animals" see: Michaels, p. 312. ^ For a drawing of the seal see Figure 1 in:

Flood (1996), p. 29. ^ Flood (2003), pp. 204-205. ^ Keay, p. 14. ^ Michaels, p. 316. ^ For dating based on "cumulative evidence"

see: Oberlies, p. 158. ^ Doniger, pp. 221-223.

54.
910.

^ For arva as a name of Shiva see: Apte, p.

55.

^ For archer and arrow associations see

Kramrisch, Chapter 2, and for the arrow as an "essential attribute" see: Kramrisch, p. 32.

56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66.
Culture

^ a b c Sharma 1996, p. 306 ^ For root arv- see: Apte, p. 910. ^ a b Chidbhavananda, p. 33. ^ For translation of Bahasta as "Armed with

arrows in his hands", see:Sharma 1996, p. 294. ^ Underworld: The Mysterious Origins of

Civilization by Graham Hancock ^ a b Imagining a Place for Buddhism : Literary

Culture and Religious Community in. p. 134. ^ Companion Studies to the History of Tamil

Literature. p. 241. ^ Handbook of Oriental Studies, Part 2. p. 63. ^ History of the Tamils from the Earliest Times

to 600 A.D. p. 218. ^ a b Facets of South Indian art and

architecture, Volume 1. p. 132. ^ Michel Danino - Vedic Roots of Early Tamil

67. 68. 69. 70. 71.

^ [1] ^ [2] ^ "Siddha Central Research Institute".

Retrieved July 19, 2012. ^ A History of Tamil Literature. p. 19 Extra |

pages= or |at= (help).

^ Swami Parmeshwaranand (1 January

2001). Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Puranas. Sarup & Sons. pp. 988. ISBN 978-81-7625-226-3. Retrieved 6 September 2013.

72. 73.

^ For Shiva being identified with Agni, Indra,

Prajpati, Vyu, and others see: Chakravarti, p. 70. ^ For general statement of the close

relationship, and example shared epithets, see: Sivaramamurti, p. 11.

74. 75.

^ For an overview of the Rudra-Fire complex of

ideas, see: Kramrisch, pp. 15-19. ^ For quotation "An important factor in the

process of Rudra's growth is his identification with Agni in the Vedic literature and this identification contributed much to the transformation of his character as Rudra-iva." see: Chakravarti, p. 17.

76. 77. 78.

45.

^ For translation from Nirukta 10.7, see: Sarup

(1927), p. 155. ^ Kramrisch, p. 18. ^ For "Note Agni-Rudra concept fused" in

epithets Sasipajara and Tivamatisee: Sivaramamurti, p.

79.
06.

^ "Rig Veda: Rig-Veda, Book 6: HYMN XLVIII.

Agni and Others". Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 2010-06-

80. 81. 82. 83.

^ For the parallel between the horns of Agni as

bull, and Rudra, see: Chakravarti, p. 89. ^ RV 8.49; 10.155. ^ For flaming hair of Agni and Bhairava see:

Sivaramamurti, p. 11. ^ Doniger, Wendy (1973). "The Vedic

Antecedents". iva, the erotic ascetic. Oxford University Press US. pp. 849.

84.

^ For text of RV 2.20.3a as

and translation as "May that young adorable Indra, ever be the friend, the benefactor, and protector of us, his worshipper" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 48, volume 2.

85.

^ For text of RV 6.45.17 as

and translation as "Indra, who has ever been the friend of those who praise you, and the insurer of their happiness by your protection, grant us felicity" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 91, volume 3.

86.

^ For translation of RV 6.45.17 as "Thou who

hast been the singers' Friend, a Friend auspicious with thine aid, As such, O Indra, favour us" see: Griffith 1973, p. 310.

87.

^ For text of RV 8.93.3 as

and translation as "May Indra, our auspicious friend, milk for us, like a richlystreaming (cow), wealth of horses, kine, and barley" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 48, volume 2.

88. 89. 90.

8.

^ For the bull parallel between Indra and Rudra

see: Chakravarti, p. 89. ^ RV 7.19. ^ For the lack of warlike connections and

difference between Indra and Rudra, see: Chakravarti, p.

91.

^ Chapter 4.7 - INDRA AND SHIVA, Update on

the Aryan Invasion Debate (1999) By Dr. David Frawley and Koenraad Elst

92. 93. 94.

^ Himalaya Academy, Panchayatana puja ^ For quotation defining the trimurti see

Matchett, Freda. "The Puras", in: Flood (2003), p. 139. ^ For the Trimurti system having Brahma as the

creator, Vishnu as the maintainer or preserver, and Shiva as the transformer or destroyer see: Zimmer (1972) p. 124.

95.

^ For definition of trimurti as "the unified form"

of Brahm, Viu and iva and use of the phrase "the Hindu triad" see: Apte, p. 485.

96. 97.

^ For the term "Great Trinity" in relation to the

Trimurti see: Jansen, p. 83. ^ For Shiva as depicted with a third eye, and

mention of the story of the destruction of Kama with it, see: Flood (1996), p. 151.

98. 99.

^ For a review of 4 theories about the meaning

of tryambaka, see: Chakravarti, pp. 37-39. ^ For usage of the word ambaka in classical

Sanskrit and connection to the Mahabharata depiction, see: Chakravarti, pp. 38-39.

100.

^ For translation of Tryambakam as "having

three mother eyes" and as an epithet of Rudra, see: Kramrisch, p. 483.

101.
Fire.

^ For vedic Sanskrit meaning Lord has three

mother eyes which symbolize eyes are the Sun, Moon and

102.

^ For discussion of the problems in translation

of this name, and the hypothesis regarding the Ambiks see: Hopkins (1968), p. 220.

103.
17, 37.

^ For the Ambik variant, see: Chakravarti, pp.

104. 105.
926.

^ For the moon on the forehead see:

Chakravarti, p. 109. ^ For ekhara as crest or crown, see: Apte, p.

106. 107. 108. 109.

^ For Candraekhara as an iconographic form,

see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 56. ^ For translation "Having the moon as his crest"

see: Kramrisch, p. 472. ^ For the moon iconography as marking the

rise of Rudra-Shiva, see: Chakravarti, p. 58. ^ For discussion of the linkages between

Soma, Moon, and Rudra, and citation to RV 7.74, see: Chakravarti, pp. 57-58.

110. 111. 112. 113. 114. 115. 116. 117.

62.

^ a b c d Flood (1996), p. 151. ^ Flood (1996), pp. 92, 161. ^ Flood (1996), p. 161. ^ Chidbhavananda, p. 23. ^ Chidbhavananda, p. 22. ^ For translation of Kapardin as "Endowed with

matted hair" see: Sharma 1996, p. 279. ^ Kramrisch, p. 475. ^ For Kapardin as a name of Shiva, and

description of the kaparda hair style, see, Macdonell, p.

118. 119. 120. 121. 122.

109.

^ Sharma 1996, p. 290 ^ See: name #93 in Chidbhavananda, p. 31. ^ For Shiva drinking the poison churned from

the world ocean see: Flood (1996), p. 78. ^ a b Kramrisch, p. 473. ^ For alternate stories about this feature, and

use of the name Gagdharasee: Chakravarti, pp. 59 and

123. 124. 125. 126. 127. 128. 129. 130. 131. 132.

^ For description of the Gagdhara form, see:

Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 8. ^ For Shiva supporting Gag upon his head,

see: Kramrisch, p. 473. ^ "Mythology ~ The birth of Brahmarishis".

Retrieved 2008-05-07. ^ Flood (1996), p. 151 ^ Michaels, p. 218. ^ For definition and shape, see: Apte, p. 461. ^ Jansen, p. 44. ^ Jansen, p. 25. ^ For use by Kplikas, see: Apte, p. 461. ^ For a review of issues related to the evolution

of the bull (Nandin) as Shiva's mount, see: Chakravarti, pp. 99-105.

133. 134. 135. 136. 137. 138. 139. 140. 141. 142.

^ For spelling of alternate proper

names Nand and Nandin see: Stutley, p. 98. ^ Sharma 1996, p. 291 ^ Kramrisch, p. 479. ^ Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend (ISBN

0-500-51088-1) by Anna L. Dallapiccola ^ For identification of Mount Kailsa as the

central linga, see: Stutley (1985), p. 62. ^ Keay, p. 33. ^ Michaels, p. 216. ^ Flood (1996), p. 29. ^ Tattwanandaz, pp. 49-52. ^ a b c Harshananda, Swami.

"Sivalinga". Principal Symbols of World Religions. Sri Ramakrishna Math Mylapore. pp. 68.

143.
Dictionary

^ See Monier William's Sanskrit to english

144.
520250-3.

^ O'Flaherty, Wendy Doniger (1981). iva, the

erotic ascetic. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-

145. 146.

^ Isherwood, Christopher. "Early days at

Dakshineswar". Ramakrishna and his disciples. p. 48. ^ Sen, Amiya P. (2006). "Editor's

Introduction". The Indispensable Vivekananda. Orient Blackswan. pp. 2526.

147.
Society.

^ Sivananda, Swami (1996). "Worship of Siva

Linga". Lord Siva and His Worship. The Divine Life Trust

148.

^ Balagangadhara, S.N.; Sarah Claerhout

(Spring 2008). "Are Dialogues Antidotes to Violence? Two Recent Examples From Hinduism Studies".Journal for the Study of Religions and Ideologies 7 (19): 118143.

149.

^ Harding, Elizabeth U. (1998). "God, the

Father". Kali: The Black Goddess of Dakshineswar. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 156157. ISBN 978-81-208-1450-9.

150.

^ a b Vivekananda, Swami. "The Paris congres

of the history of religions".The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda. Vol.4.

151.

^ a b Chaturvedi, B. K. (2006), Shiv

Purana (First ed.), New Delhi: Diamond Pocket Books (P) Ltd, ISBN 81-7182-721-7

152. 153.
Chakra.

^ Bhattacharji 1998, p. 26. ^ "Why is Kali dancing on Lord Shiva?". The

154.
p. 182.

^ For five as a sacred number, see: Kramrisch,

155.

^ It is first encountered in an almost identical

form in the Rudram. For the five syllable mantra see: Kramrisch, p. 182.

156.

^ For discussion of these five forms and a table

summarizing the associations of these five mantras see: Kramrisch, pp. 182-189.

157.
185.

^ For distinct iconography, see Kramrisch, p.

158. 159.

^ For association with the five faces and other

groups of five, see: Kramrisch, p. 182. ^ For the

epithets pacamukha and pacavaktra, both of which mean "five faces", as epithets of iva, see: Apte, p. 578, middle column.

160. 161. 162.

^ For variation in attributions among texts, see:

Kramrisch, p. 187. ^ Kramrisch, p. 184. ^ Quotation from Pacabrahma Upanishad 31

is from: Kramrisch, p. 182.

163.

^ For quotation "Shiva is a god of ambiguity

and paradox" and overview of conflicting attributes see: Flood (1996), p. 150.

164.

^ For quotation regarding Yajur Veda as

containing contrary sets of attributes, and marking point for emergence of all basic elements of later sect forms, see: Chakravarti, p. 7.

165.
21.

^ For summary of Shiva's contrasting

depictions in the Mahabharata, see:Sharma 1988, pp. 20

166. 167.

^ For rud- meaning "cry, howl" as a traditional

etymology see: Kramrisch, p. 5. ^ Citation to M. Mayrhofer, Concise

Etymological Sanskrit Dictionary, s.v."rudra", is provided in: Kramrisch, p. 5.

168. 169. 170. 171. 172.

^ Sharma 1996, p. 301. ^ Sharma 1996, p. 314. ^ For translation of Mahkla as "time beyond

time" see: Kramrisch, p. 476. ^ For the name Kla translated as "time;

death", see: Kramrisch, p. 474. ^ The name Kla appears in the Shiva

Sahasranama, where it is translated by Ram Karan Sharma as "(the Supreme Lord of) Time". See: Sharma 1996, p. 280.

173.

^ For as one of the eight forms of Shiva,

and translation of the adjectival form as "terrible" or "frightful", see: Apte, p. 727, left column.

174. 175. 176.

^ For Bhairava form as associated with terror

see: Kramrisch, p. 471. ^ Kramrisch, p. 481. ^ For adoption of the name akara by

Shankaracarya see: Kramrisch, p. 481.

177. 178. 179. 180. 181. 182. 183. 184.

^ For dating Shankaracharya as 788-820 CE

see: Flood (1996), p. 92. ^ For translation of ambhu as "causing

happiness" see: Kramrisch, p. 481. ^ For speculation on the possible etymology of

this name, see: Chakravarti, pp. 28 (note 7), and p. 177. ^ For the contrast between ascetic and

householder depictions, see: Flood (1996), pp. 150-151. ^ For Shiva's representation as a yogi, see:

Chakravarti, p. 32. ^ For name Mahyogi and associations with

yoga, see, Chakravarti, pp. 23, 32, 150. ^ For the ascetic yogin form as reflecting Epic

period influences, see: Chakravarti, p. 32. ^ For Umpati, Umknta and Umdhava as

names in the Shiva Sahasranama literature, see: Sharma 1996, p. 278.

185. 186. 187. 188. 189. 190. 191.

^ For Um as the oldest name, and variants

including Prvat, see: Chakravarti, p. 40. ^ For Prvat identified as the wife of Shiva,

see: Kramrisch, p. 479. ^ Search for Meaning By Antonio R. Gualtieri ^ For regional name variants of Karttikeya see:

Gupta, Preface. ^ For description of the nataraja form see:

Jansen, pp. 110-111. ^ For interpretation of the naarja form see:

Zimmer, pp. 151-157. ^ For names Nartaka (Sanskrit ) and

Nityanarta (Sanskrit ) as names of Shiva, see: Sharma 1996, p. 289.

192.

^ For prominence of these associations in

puranic times, see: Chakravarti, p. 62.

193. 194. 195.

^ For popularity of the ntyamrti and

prevalence in South India, see: Chakravarti, p. 63. ^ Kramrisch, Stella (1994). "Siva's Dance". The

Presence of Siva. Princeton University Press. p. 439. ^ Klostermaier, Klaus K. "Shiva the

Dancer". Mythologies and Philosophies of Salvation in the Theistic Traditions of India. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press. p. 151.

196.

^ Massey, Reginald. "India's Kathak

Dance". India's Kathak Dance, Past Present, Future. Abhinav Publications. p. 8.

197. 198. 199.

p. 304.

^ a b Moorthy, Vijaya (2001). Romance of the

Raga. Abhinav Publications. p. 96. ^ Leeming, David Adams (2001). A Dictionary

of Asian Mythology. Oxford University Press. p. 45. ^ Radha, Sivananda (1992). "Mantra of

Muladhara Chakra". Kualin Yoga.Motilal Banarsidass.

200. 201. 202. 203. 204. 205.

^ when it requires to be destroyed, Lord iva

does it by the tavantya ^ For iconographic description of

the Dakimrti form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 47. ^ For description of the form as representing

teaching functions, see: Kramrisch, p. 472. ^ For characterization of Dakimrti as a

mostly south Indian form, see: Chakravarti, p. 62. ^ For the deer-throne and the audience of

sages as Dakimrti, see: Chakravarti, p. 155. ^ Goldberg specifically rejects the translation

by Frederique Marglin (1989) as "half-man, half-woman", and instead adopts the translation by Marglin as "the lord who is half woman" as given in Marglin (1989, 216). Goldberg, p. 1.

206.

^ For evolution of this story from early sources

to the epic period, when it was used to enhance Shiva's increasing influence, see: Chakravarti, p.46.

207. 208.

^ For the Tripurntaka form, see:

Sivaramamurti (1976), pp. 34, 49. ^ Parrinder, Edward Geoffrey (1982). Avatar

and incarnation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 88. ISBN 0-19-520361-5.

209.

^ Winternitz, Moriz; V. Srinivasa Sarma

(1981). A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 543544. ISBN 978-81-208-0264-3.

210. 211. 212.

^ P. 184 Cultural History from the Vyu

Purna By Devendrakumar Rajaram Patil ^ Sri Ramakrishna Math (1985) "Hanuman

Chalisa" p. 5 ^ Lutgendorf, Philip (2007). Hanuman's tale:

the messages of a divine monkey. Oxford University Press US. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-19-530921-8.

213.

^ Catherine Ludvk (1994). Hanumn in the

Rmyaa of Vlmki and the Rmacaritamnasa of Tulas Dsa. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. pp. 10 11.ISBN 978-81-208-1122-5.

214.
IX".

^ "Footnote 70:1 to Horace Hayman Wilson's

English translation of The Vishnu Purana: Book I - Chapter

215.
X".

^ "Footnote 83:4 to Horace Hayman Wilson's

English translation of The Vishnu Purana: Book I - Chapter

216.

^ "Srimad Bhagavatam Canto 4 Chapter 1 -

English translation by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada".

217. 218.

^ "Srimad Bhagavatam, Canto 4 Chapter 1". ^ For relatively minor position in Vedic times,

and rise in progress by 1000-700 BC see: Zimmer (1946), p. 125, note 2.

219.

^ For the rise in popularity of Shiva and Vishnu,

and the role of Puranas in promoting sectarian positions, see: Flood (1996), pp. 110-111.

220. 221.
111.

^ For Visnu becoming Shiva

in Vaishnava myths, see: Zimmer (1946), p. 125. ^ For Vishnu Purana dating of 4th century CE

and role of Vishnu as supreme deity, see: Flood (1996), p.

222.
10.14.19.

^ For identification of Shiva as a manifestation

of Vishnu see: Bhagavata Purana 4.30.23, 5.17.22-23,

223. 224.
128-129.

^ For predominant role of Shiva in some myths,

see: Zimmer (1946), p. 128. ^ For the lingodbhava myth, and Vishnu and

Brahm as emanations of Shiva, see: Zimmer (1946), pp.

225.

^ For translation of the

epithet (IAST: ipivia) as "salutation to him of the form of Vishu" included in the fifth anuvka, and comment that this epithet "links iva with Vishu" see: Sivaramamurti, pp. 21, 64.

226. 227.
p. 49.

^ For arabha as an "animal symplegma" form

of Shiva, see: Kramrisch, p. 481. ^ For incarnation in composite form as man,

bird, and beast to chastise Narasimha, see: Chakravarti,

228.

^ Sharma, B. N. Krishnamurti (2000). A history

of the Dvaita school of Vednta and its literature: from the earliest beginnings to our own times. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 412. ISBN 978-81-208-1575-9.

229.
m.asp

^ http://www.saivism.net/prayers/sahasranama

230. 231.

^ Chakravarti, pp. 54-55. ^ For Harirudra citation to Mbh. III.39.76f see:

Hopkins (1969), p. 221.

232. 233.

^ For the story of Rvaa and

the Mahbalevara linga see: Chakravarti, p. 168. ^ Doniger, Wendy (1999). Splitting the

difference: gender and myth in ancient Greece and India. London: University of Chicago Press. pp. 263 5. ISBN 978-0-226-15641-5.

234.

^ Vanita, Ruth; Kidwai, Saleem (2001). Same-

sex love in India: readings from literature and history. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 69. ISBN 978-0-312-29324-6.

235.

^ Pattanaik, Devdutt (2001). The man who was

a woman and other queer tales of Hindu lore. Routledge. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-56023-181-3.

236.
details

^ See Mohini#Relationship with Shiva for

237. 238. 239. 240. 241. 242. 243. 244. 245. 246. 247.

^ Lord Shiva. Diamond Pocket Books Pvt. Ltd.

2001. p. 49. ISBN 81-7182-686-5. ^ umA mahEshvarar ^ Davidson 2004, p. 148. ^ Davidson 2004, p. 148-150. ^ Davidson 2004, p. 150. ^ Davidson 2004, p. 151. ^ Kalupahana 1994, p. 220. ^ Davidson 2004, p. 152. ^ a b Puri, P. 132 Buddhism in Central Asia ^ a b c d e f Puri, P. 133 Buddhism in Central Asia ^ Composition 10, Rudra Avtar

Sources[edit source | editbeta]

Anandamurti, Shrii Shrii (1959). Tantra and its Effect on

Society. Bhagalpur: Ananda Marga Pubs. Anandamurti, Shrii Shrii (Ac. Vijayananda Avt. Editor)

(1994). Discourses on Tantra, vol. 1. Kolkata: AMPS-Ananda Printers. ISBN 817252112X.

Anandamurti, Shrii Shrii (Ac. Vijayananda Avt. Editor)

(1994). Discourses on Tantra, vol. 2. Kolkata: AMPS-Ananda Printers. ISBN 817252112X.

Anandamurti, Shrii Shrii (Ac. Narayanananda Avt. Editor,

Ac. Vijayananda Avt. transl. from Bengali) (1985). Namah Shivaya Shantaya. Calcutta: AMPS-Ananda Printers.ISBN 817252-098-0.

Apte, Vaman Shivram (1965). The Practical Sanskrit

Dictionary (Fourth revised and enlarged ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. ISBN 81-208-0567-4.

Arya, Ravi Prakash & K. L. Joshi. gveda Sahit:

Sanskrit Text, English Translation. Parimal Publications, Delhi, 2001, ISBN 81-7110-138-7 (Set of four volumes). Parimal Sanskrit Series No. 45; 2003 reprint: 81-7020-070-9.

Bhattacharji (1998), Legends Of Devi, Orient Blackswan Chakravarti, Mahadev (1994). The Concept of Rudra-

iva Through The Ages (Second Revised ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-0053-2.

Chatterji, J.C. (1986). Kashmir Shaivism. Albany, NY:

State University of New York Press. ISBN 8176254274. Chidbhavananda, Swami (1997). Siva Sahasranama

Stotram: With Navavali, Introduction, and English Rendering . Sri Ramakrishna Tapovanam. ISBN 81-208-0567-4.(Third edition). The version provided by Chidbhavananda is from chapter 17 of the Anusana Parva of the Mahbharata.

Courtright, Paul B. (1985). Gaea: Lord of Obstacles,

Lord of Beginnings. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 019-505742-2.

Davidson, Ronald M. (2004), Indian Esoteric Buddhism:

Social History of the Tantric Movement, Motilal Banarsidass Publ.

Davis, Richard H. (1992). Ritual in an Oscillating

Universe: Worshipping iva in Medieval India. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.ISBN 9780691073866.

Debnath, Sailen (2009). The Meanings of Hindu Gods,

Goddesses and Myths. New Delhi: Rupa & Co. ISBN 812911481X.

Dundas, Paul (2002). The Jains. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-

415-26605-5. Dutt, Manmatha Nath (1905). A Prose English

Translation of the Mahabharata: (translated Literally from the Original Sanskrit Text).. Anushasana Parva, Volume 13 . Beadon Street, Calcutta: Dass, Elysium Press.

Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43878-0. Flood, Gavin (Editor) (2003). The Blackwell Companion

to Hinduism. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-40513251-5.

Fuller, Christopher John (2004). The Camphor Flame:

Popular Hinduism and society in India. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.ISBN 9780691120485.

Ganguli, Kisari Mohan (2004). Mahabharata of Krishna-

Dwaipayana Vyasa. Munshirm Manoharlal Pub Pvt Ltd. ISBN 8121505933.

Goldberg, Ellen (2002). The Lord Who is Half Woman:

Ardhanrvara in Indian and Feminist Perspective. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press.ISBN 0-79145326-X.

Griffith, T. H. (1973). The Hymns of the gveda (New

Revised ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-0046-X. Gupta, Shakti M. (1988). Karttikeya: The Son of Shiva.

Bombay: Somaiya Publications Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 81-7039-186-5. Hopkins, E. Washburn (1969). Epic Mythology. New

York: Biblo and Tannen. Originally published in 1915. Jansen, Eva Rudy (1993). The Book of Hindu Imagery.

Havelte, Holland: Binkey Kok Publications BV. ISBN 90-7459707-6.

Kalupahana, David J. (1994), A history of Buddhist

philosophy, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited

Keay, John (2000). India: A History. New York, USA:

Grove Press. ISBN 0-8021-3797-0. Kramrisch, Stella (1981). The Presence of iva.

Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691-01930-4.

Macdonell, Arthur Anthony (1996). A Practical Sanskrit

Dictionary. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. ISBN 81-215-0715-4.

Mallinson, James (2007). The Shiva Samhita, A critical

edition and English translation by James Mallinson . Woodstock, NY: YogVidya. ISBN 9780971646650.

Marchand, Peter (2007). The Yoga of Truth: Jnana: The

Ancient Path of Silent Knowledge. Rochester, VT: Destiny Books. ISBN 9781594771651.

Marshall, John (1996). Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus

Civilization. Asian Educational Services; Facsimile of 1931 ed edition. ISBN 8120611799.

Mate, M. S. (1988). Temples and Legends of

Maharashtra. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. Michaels, Axel (2004). Hinduism: Past and Present.

Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691-08953-1.

Parmeshwaranand, Swami (2004). Encyclopaedia of the

aivism, in three volumes. New Delhi: Sarup & Sons. ISBN 8176254274.

Sarup, Lakshman (1920-1927). The Nighau and The

Nirukta. Reprint: Motilal Banarsidass, 2002, ISBN 81-208-13812.

Sharma, B.N. (1976). Iconography of Sadasiva. Delhi:

Abhinav Publications.

Sharma, Ram Karan (1988). Elements of Poetry in the

Mahbhrata (Second ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-0544-5.

Sharma, Ram Karan (1996). ivasahasranmakam:

Eight Collections of Hymns Containing One Thousand and Eight Names of iva. Delhi: Nag Publishers.ISBN 81-7081-3506. This work compares eight versions of the ivasahasranmstotra with comparative analysis and ivasahasranmkoa (A Dictionary of Names). The text of the eight versions is given in Sanskrit.

Sivaramamurti, C. (1976). atarudrya: Vibhti of iva's

Iconography. Delhi: Abhinav Publications. Stutley, Margaret (1985). The Illustrated Dictionary of

Hindu Iconography. First Indian Edition: Munshiram Manoharlal, 2003, ISBN 81-215-1087-2.

Tattwananda, Swami (1984). Vaisnava Sects, Saiva

Sects, Mother Worship. Calcutta: Firma KLM Private Ltd. First revised edition.

Varenne, Jean (1976). Yoga and the Hindu Tradition.

Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226851168.

Zimmer, Heinrich (1946). Myths and Symbols in Indian

Art and Civilization. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01778-6. First PrincetonBollingen printing, 1972.

Goswami Tulsidas ; original text, transliteration, English

translation and notes. (1985). Hanuman Chalisa. Chennai, India: Sri Ramakrishna Math. ISBN 81-7120-086-9.

External links[edit source | editbeta]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Shiva

Wikiversity has learning materials about Yoga oracle#95. Shiva Meditation

Who is Shiva? (BBC) Lectures on Saiva (Oxford Center for Hindu Studies) Shiva Legends in Sacred Tradition of Indian Tribes by

Kailash Kr. Mishra (Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts) Shivlinga Shaligram Shila
[show]

Shaivism

[show]

Hindu deities and texts

The template below (Portal bar) is being considered for merging. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus.

Hinduism portal

Indian religions portal

India portal

Categories:

Aspects of Shiva
Destroyer gods Hindu eschatology Hindu gods Shaivism Tamil deities Triple deities Names of God in Hinduism Justice gods

Navigation menu

Create account Log in

Article Talk
Read Edit source Editbeta View history
Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia

Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Toolbox Print/export Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch Aragons

Asturianu

() Bosanski Brezhoneg Catal esky Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Espaol Esperanto Euskara Franais Galego Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia slenska Italiano Basa Jawa Kiswahili Latina Latvieu Lietuvi Magyar

Bahasa Melayu Nederlands

Norsk bokml Norsk nynorsk Occitan Ozbekcha Piemontis Plattdtsch Polski Portugus Romn Scots Simple English Slovenina Slovenina / srpski Srpskohrvatski / Suomi Svenska Tagalog Trke Ting Vit Vro Winaray

Edit links This page was last modified on 10 September 2013 at 17:58. Text is available under the Creative Commons AttributionShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

 Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Mobile view