SOCIAL WORK THEORY AND PRACTICE I

I. ASSESSMENT The process of gathering, analyzing and collating salient data in a way that encompasses the nature of the problem, the functioning of the client and significant others, motivation of the client to work on the problem, environmental factors that contribute to the problem and resources available or needed to address the problem (Zastrow, 2010). CHARACTERISTICS OF ASSESSMENT Assessment is ongoing - from initial contact through to termination of the case. The context involves: information gathering to assess clients problem and resources additional information reassessment is usually required Assessment is two-fold incorporates clients active involvement in the change process to the best of his/her abilities. Content is derived from: Worker client interaction Worker observation of client This facilitates empowerment of the client and provides the individual with a sense of self-worth. Assessment is individualized client specific as each individual comes with his/her own unique situation Assessment is limited the process is never complete as it is impossible to gain complete understanding of any situation It is important that the worker has sufficient understanding to help theclient resolve issues especially in a crisis situation.

ASSESSMENT TASKS 1. Identification of the need/ problem as well as the clients strengths/resources. 2. Identification of the information needed to further understand the problem and to determine the appropriate treatment to address the problem. 3. Collection and analysis of the information.

SOURCES OF INFORMATION 1. Clients verbal report - this is often the primary source of data and in many cases the only source. A variety of information can be had this way: the description of the problem, feelings about the problem, views of the persons personal resources to combat the problem, persons motivation to make effort to resolve the problem, the history of the problem and what has been done in an attempt to manage the problem. In some cases, such as substance dependence, the client might not tell the truth and so it will be necessary to verify clients detail of the situation with other sources such as the community, family member, friend, neighbor or school community. 2. Assessment forms -these forms usually collect social/demographic data such as name, telephone number, educational background, forensic and employment histories, next of kin among others 3. Psychological tests - administered by psychologists or psychiatrists. These are test which seek to gather information on relationships, self-esteem, depression, stress, phobias, abuse, etc. These instruments are used to assess the clients level of functioning. 4. Nonverbal behaviour - these cues are important to the worker in identifying what the client is actually thinking and feeling. Nonverbal behaviours include gestures, breathing, posture, eye movement, eye contact and tone of voice among others. Such cues give information about stress levels, or even whether the client is telling the truth. 5. Home visits and interaction with significant others - this yields information about how client interacts with others as well as environmental factors. GUIDE FOR ASSESSING PROBLEMS 1. What specifically are the problems? It is important in assessment to articulate the dimensions of the problem/s as accurately as possible. 2. How is the problem viewed by the client? The meaning the client assigned to the problem can be more important than the problem itself. 3. Who is involved in the problem system? This system consists of all the people who are involved in the problematic situation.

4. How are the participants involved? This question seeks to identify the role of each member of the problem system. Detailed information will be needed on how each affect and is affected by the problem. 5. What are the causes of the problem? Knowing this is usually important in determining ways of intervention. 6. Where and when does the problem occur? 7. What are the frequency, intensity and duration of the problem? Such information helps in specifying the severity of the problem and clarifies its impact on the family. 8. What is the history of the problem behaviour?This helps to identify the event /s that precipitated the problem and what was happening in the persons life at the time the problem began. 9. What does the client want?If the clients desires are realistic and obtainable, then the worker should focus on helping the client to achieve same. If however what the client wants is not realistic, this should be fully explained to the client. 10. How has the client attempted to handle the problem? This can reveal valuable information on the clients coping and problem-solving skills. 11. What skills does the client need to combat the problem? 12. What external resources areneeded to combat the problem? 13. What are the clients skills, resources and strengths?This could help empower client to use skills they already posses. 14. What are the recommended courses of action? Otherwise called the treatment plan or intervention plan, this involves setting goals and working to achieve those goals. These are goals that should be set by both client and worker.

II.

INTERVIEWING The interview is the primary tool of the social worker. It is the structure for operationalizing the interaction between worker and client (Johnson and Yanca, 2007). PURPOSE OF INTERVIEWING Each interview should have a specific purpose or goal. Generally this purpose may be to obtain information needed to carry out some task or function, or to work together to meet the clients need. Hence, some interviews are directed towards getting information and others towards giving help. Most interviews are however, geared at obtaining both. The method used in conducting an interview is largely dependent on the purpose of the interview. Although interviewers should be clearly aware of their objectives, it is usually unwise to seek to realize these objectives through direct action. That is, interviewers should allow clients to talk freely about their problems and situations, rather than ask pointed questions that may inhibit the clients. The type of information sought is determined primarily by the function of the agency from which the client seeks help. It is essential therefore, that the interviewer be thoroughly acquainted with the purpose and significance of each question that is asked. The interviewee should be made to understand that each question is important. The interviewer may need to explain in clear terms to the client, reasons behind some of the questions asked. More often than not, interviewees are put at ease by the interviewers straightforward statement of purpose. Always remain open to the possibility that the client may have problems that he or she is unable to articulate. The interviewers first task therefore is to put the client at ease and to stimulate discussion about the problem. Because some clients interpret their inability to answer questions as a failure, it is sometimes best to frame questions as issues to think about over time instead of demanding an immediate answer. It is also possible to probe too deeply. Some sleeping dogs are better left sleeping, especially if the interviewer is unprepared to handle such disclosure when they arise.

HOW TO INTERVIEW To be skillful at interviewing takes many years of practice. The interviewer must be consciously aware of the subtleties in the interviewing process for the interview to be

spontaneous and seamless. In other words, techniques must be learned, absorbed and utilized naturally.

TECHNIQUES 1. Observation - listen to what is not said. Be aware of inconsistencies and gaps in the clients story. From all the details observed in an interview select only a few items to report. This means that the interviewer is asked to report what he or she considers salient points. It is always good to remember that we are not totally objective and so what one interviewer considers salient might not be thought to be by another, as we all see the world from our vantage point. That is why it is important to get the clients view on the situation. 2. Listening- this is fundamental to the interviewing process. A good interviewer is a good listener. The person who often interrupts the client, or who is too silent is not a good listener. People appreciate listeners who indicate by relevant comments or questions that they have grasped the essential points of the story. 3. Begin where the client is- the first step in the interview process is to make the client feel comfortable. To do so, the interviewer must be relaxed. Clients can be quickly put at ease if they are allowed to state their purpose for seeking the service. Allow the client to talk freely at first. The interviewer should try to match his/her style of language with that of the client. 4. Questioning- this is a crucial part of interviewing. Abrupt or trick questions are inappropriate. Questions should not be framed in an accusing manner. Do not be the amateur detective. Ask questions that will help the client, not those that seek to satisfy your curiosity. The questions asked should serve to obtain needed information and to channel clients information in fruitful ways. Try to adjust the pace of questioning to fit the clients needs. To go too slowly could suggest lack of interest and to go too quickly can cause the interviewer to miss important cues. 5. An interviewers comment is usually closely aligned to the questions that interviewer asks. There is a lot of difference between expression and communication. To effectively communicate the interviewer pays attention to his manner of expression. The interviewer must think professionally while using the language of the client. 6. Answering personal questions- these sometimes arise during interview because a client wants to be polite or thinks it is the social thing to do. Sometimes a clients ethnic background taught them that it is something desirable to do in developing a meaningful

relationship. Other times, it could be the way client introduce his or her problem to the interviewer. 7. Leadership- interviewers should assume leadership throughout the interview process, by encouraging clients to express themselves. When interviewers know the function and policy of their agencies, as well as the areas in which they may serve clients, they are more effective in guiding the interview along a path that will help them determine how to help clients.

8. Interpretation- the interviewer must be able to interpret various clues to clients underlying situations as presented through the clients behaviours and conversations. There are several types of variables that affect the nature of interviews. These include How the interview was initiated was it a voluntary action on the part of the client? Was it formally planned, or a walk-in request? Where the interview takes place does the interview takes place in an office, at home, a hospital ward or some other setting? The experience of the worker and client with each other have this worker and client had previous contact with each other? Is this contact a part-time limited or long term contact?

PREPARING FOR THE INTERVIEW In preparation for the interview the worker has 3 tasks: a) planning the environment for the interview (worker thinks about the physical conditions of the interview). The space is so arranged to encourage working together b) planning the content of the interview in planning the content the worker should recall the goals for this particular interview, in addition to the task to be accomplished. Notes of previous sessions may also be reviewed, and so during this stage the structure of questions and of the interview itself will be taken into consideration c) tuning in in tuning in the worker first tries to anticipate the clients needs and feelings in the interview and to think about his/her own response to those feelings and needs. The worker tries to identify his/her own feelings and /or attitude that may interfere with communication. STAGES OF THE INTERVIEW An interview has several stages, these are: 1. Theopening or beginning phase where there is relationship-building and assessment takes place.

2. The middle/working-together stage which involves evaluation, planning and action. It involves evaluating success and barriers to success and taking action to maintain success and overcome barriers. 3. The ending stage which is the termination of the interview.

III.

ESSENTIALS OF COUNSELLING Counsellors try as best as is possible to select approaches that best suit the individual needs of their clients. Steps that are used to begin and strengthen the helping relationship include: 1. Make personal contact The relationship between client and counsellor is the foundation of counselling. This means that the counsellor and the client must make contact. This involves being with, communicating with, and touching the client emotionally. During this phase, be open to the clients lead. If he/she starts to chat, chat for a minute then return to the business of counselling. This helps to develop trust in the client. 2. Develop a working alliance/partnership It is important that the counsellor engages the client in such a way that both work together to resolve the issue(s) that brought the client to counselling. This is facilitated through the worker extending understanding, respect and warmth. Counsellors should employ good listening skills as this helps them to learn about their clients, and so develop bonds of trust and support. 3. Explain couselling to the client Clients often approach counselling expecting to be cured. If mistaken expectations are not addressed, clients may fail to progress or drop out of counselling. Areas to be explained depend upon the following: a) b) c) d) presenting problem agency policies and procedures informed consent forms limitations to what a client can do

e) responsibility of the client he/she does most of the talking, experiences painful emotions before healing begins f) people are not in counselling because they are weak or insane g) issues of confidentiality h) realistic hopes of improvement 4. Pace and lead the client This is how much direction the counsellor gives the client. Two effective ways of pacing clients are reflection of feelings (counsellor recognizes what the client feels and then voices the feeling) and restating contents of a conversation (counsellor notices the clients expression and paraphrases it). This facilitates the counsellors ability to develop a good sense of when to continue to probe or stop.

5. Speak briefly Generally counsellors should speak less than their clients. Except when summarizing communicate with clients in one or two sentences. Counsellors can employ the technique of minimal encouraging; using phrases such uh huh to show active listening. 6. Say nothing when you dont know what to say It is largely the clients job to talk. During silent periods in sessions the counsellor may sit quietly and allow the client to resume talking. Silence doesnt necessarily mean withdrawal from the helping process, but rather, it allows the client time to process thoughts and feelings. 7. Confront as much as you support In counselling, confronting does not mean opposing the client, but rather pointing out discrepancies between the clients goals and actions. It is unwise to use confrontation in the initial stages of the counselling relationship. Once a bond has been established between the counsellor and the client confrontation may increase the clients awareness and motivation to change. 8. Individualize your counselling The counsellor is encouraged to develop his/her own style of counselling. Observe the clients use of language in an effort to engage at a matching conceptual level. Be careful not to use jargons that will confuse clients. The counsellor may need to make adjustments to his/her language or posture so that style suits each client. Remember, you talk with clients, not to them. 9. Notice resistance

Resistance by client could indicate his/her level of readiness for change and the type of intervention that the counsellor should use. It is important that resistance be explored at the appropriate time if the client is to progress in treatment. 10. Focus on feelings of clients It is important that clients express their feelings in sessions; however, this often proves difficult for them. Counsellors recognize and address these feelings of clients in an effort to help them get rid of emotional pain. Counsellors typically look out for the following feeling words anger, fear, sadness and joy. 11. Plan for termination at the beginning of counselling Termination should not be abrupt, it should be planned. Counsellor and client should have a tentative understanding of when the counselling engagement will end. The counsellor should talk with the client about how he/she feels about the termination. The counsellor should say goodbye, summarize the counselling experience and discuss the clients future plans. 12. Arrange the physical setting appropriately The counselling process is impacted by the physical characteristics of the counsellor as well as the counselling setting. Bearing this in mind the counsellor should: a) dress appropriately b) remember confidentiality c) attend to the physical space sit so there is no obstacle between self and client d) conduct counselling in a quiet setting e) avoid interruptions and distractions f) be prompt g) invest in a box of tissue

IV.

THE HELPING RELATIONSHIP This relationship is where there is an agreed on purpose; a specific time frame; one in which the worker devotes self to the interests of the client; and one that carries the authority of specialized knowledge, a professional code of ethics, and specialized skill. Characteristics 1. Concern for others This is an attitude that reflects warmth, sincere liking, friendliness, support, and an interest in the client. It communicates a real desire to understand person in situation. 2. Commitment and obligation This is a sense of responsibility for the helping situation. Dependability and consistency are also involved. The worker must have a willingness to enter into the world of others, with its hurts and joys, its frustrations and commitments. 3. Acceptance This is a nonjudgmental, noncritical attitude on the part of the worker, as well as a realistic trust of the client and respect for the clients feelings. Belief that the client can handle his/her own problems and can take charge of his/her own life. 4. Empathy The ability to communicate to the client that the worker cares, has concern for the client, is hearing what the client is perceiving, wants to understand, and is hearing and understanding.

5. Clear communication This is the capacity to communicate with the client in ways that enable the client to fully understand the message being sent. 6. Genuineness The workers honesty about self and his/her own feelings. This is the ability to separate the experiences and the feelings of the worker from those of the client. Genuineness on the part of the worker allows the client to become what the client wants to be. It is present when the workers communication is understood and comfortable for the client. The workers style of helping should not be an inflexible use of technique. 7. Authority and power This is the expectation that the client will work to fulfill needs and responsibilities and will want to resolve the situation. This involves encouraging the client to go beyond the present level of functioning and providing guidance and resources so that goals can be reached. It involves insistence that the client does what he/she can for him/herself. The workers knowledge and skills are the bases for authority and power. The client must know that the workers power and authority are not to be used to dominate or control him/her but to assist him/her in having his/her needs, and those of others around him/her, met in a positive, mutually beneficial manner. 8. Purpose The helping relationship has a purpose known to, and accepted by, both worker and client. *According to Compton &Galaway, this is the most important characteristic of all.

V.

THE TREATMENT PLAN The treatment plan is one of the most important aspects of intervention. It is the tool that the counsellor and client create to guide them through the treatment process. Treatment planning begins as soon as the initial assessment is completed as the client may have needs that must be addressed immediately. Each treatment plan is individualized because each client is different, for the same goal, the counsellor may have different objectives. The treatment plan incorporates goals (brief statement of the problem that the counsellor hopes to help client resolve/behaviour to change in the client) that may be short, medium or long term. They are geared toward the client learning new and more functional ways of coping with lifes challenges. It is facilitated through various objectives (specific, observable skill needed to achieve a set goal) and techniques. It is centred on the problem that the client brings to treatment. The plan comes at the end of the diagnosis of the problem, and it: tells what the client will do intreatment takes into account all the physical, emotional and behavioural problems relevant to the clients care takes into consideration the clients strengths and weaknesses

The treatment plan details the therapeutic interventions what is going to be done, when it is going to be done and who is going to do it. The plan must take into consideration each of the clients needs and outline clear ways of addressing each need. The treatment plan must be measureable - set of problems that staff can measure. The problem must be specific issue of the individual that needs treatment. Writing the treatment plan 1. Identify the problem(s) of the client what is the problem and why does the client need your intervention 2. Write the long-term goals statement of the clients identified problem 3. Write the short-term goals and objectives small measureable steps which need to be accomplished to ensure that long-term goals are achieved 4. Write interventions actions to be taken that will enable client to achieve short-term goals and objectives 5. Ensure that both counsellor and client sign the treatment plan

CASE ANALYSIS TEMPLATE 1 2 Topic/Area of Concern Brief Scenario

Issues for Counselling

Etiology/Cause

Goals for Counselling & Treatment

Therapeutic intention Short

Approach

Medium

Long

Applicable Counselling Theories

Applicable Counselling Techniques

Intervention

Resources

10 Timeline 11 Possible Obstacles

VI.

SOCIAL WORK THEORIES Their construction Social work is complex and varies according to the culture in which it is practiced. Theories about social work must therefore be a product of the context in which they arise. They must also influence the contexts, because theories affect what people do and say within social work. Hence, Rein and White (1981) stated: The knowledge that social work seeks must be developed in living situations in the field. This does not only include the clients situation, but all the other intersecting network of offices, agencies, professionals, government structures and pressure groups that act together on the agency. Malcolm Payne therefore argues that social work theory is created within social work, out of an interaction with social work practice, which in turns interacts with wider social contacts. He further noted that 3 sets of forces construct social work. Those which create and control social work as an occupation. Needs would call for social work. Certain protocol would control it as an occupation.

Those which create clientele among people who seek or are sent for social work help. There has to be criteria for who seek help. Those who need restoration to former functioning. Those which create the social context in which social work is held. The implementation of social policies which creates an environment in which practice takes place.

This in part speaks to the statements and understanding of who is a social worker and what processes define one as such. This to a large extent depends on social changes in society. Political and public perception of personal need condition those social forces and the way in which services should be organized to meet such needs. Organization of services and agencies, legislation, economic capacity and managerial techniques of an organization affect how social work is done in that organization. A major feature of social work theory is the extent to which it can offer explanations and guidance in dealing with the pressures put by clients on the perception of workers of their social circumstances. A theory which is inadequate in dealing with the needs of a client will likely be partially accepted or replaced by another. Theory is a statement of what social work is and prescribes what social workers must do in various situations. It follows therefore, that to some extent social work theory is defined not only by academic developments and empirical study, but by what social workers actually do.

Use in Practice Practice is a process. To make this process effective, relationship is important - relationship between worker, client and agency. In practice, there need to be a broad knowledge base, theoretical backing, assurance that practice is culturally relevant, the underpinning of ethical values, laws/rules which govern whatever is done and relevant skills such as communication, comprehension and relationship building. Knowledge in social work is derived from 2 main sources: i. Confirmed knowledge by virtue of empirical testing and/or observations. ii. Assumptive knowledge accepted and acted upon as though it was true, but which has not yet been confirmed by empiricism. How this comes about according to Payne quoting Berger and Luckmans (1971) idea of social construction is that : Our social activities become habitual and so we share ideas about how things should be or how things are. We also behave according to this shared knowledge.

We institutionalize these conventions (habits, behaviours) as many now agree about the understanding of that aspect of society. These understandings are now legitimized by a process that attach meanings and integrate these ideas about reality in an organized plausible system.

Uses of Theories Theories help practitioners to do the following: o describe what happens during practice o provide a model which can be applied to a wide range of situations in a structural way, so that principles and actions can be extracted that will give our practice consistency o provide approaches and perspectives on complex human activities, which enable participants to order their minds and help them manage the situations presented during practice o offer explanations that will help us understand why an action results in particular circumstances and help identify the circumstances when these happen o account for what we have done during practice o prescribe certain actions, so we know what to do when faced with certain situations/problems

Distinctions between the terms Model, Perspective and Theory 1. Model - describes what happens during practice in a general way. It applies to a wide range of situations in a structured form so as to give a framework to activities in a consistent manner. Examples Problem-solving Task-Centred Solution-Focused Cognitive-Behavioural Crisis Narrative

2. Perspective - expresses values or views of the world which allows participants in practice to order their minds in such a way that they are able to manage themselves during practice. Examples Strengths Feminist Eco-systems 3. Theory - accounts for why an action resulted in a particular way (explanatory). Examples of Developmental Theories Systems Psychodynamic Social Learning Conflict Examples of Developmental Theories Moral (Kohlberg) Cognition (Piaget) Psychosocial (Erikson) Integrating Theory with Practice Studies have shown that there is often difficulty by some student social workers in applying theory in the practice setting. Payne suggests three approaches to deal with this difficulty. 1. Use theories to clarify, criticize and interrogate each other - for example case workers may sometimes see resistance to treatment as unhelpful and something to overcome. However, the worker could view this resistance as a defense against hurt; it could be a sign that something important is being kept back by the client that needs to be revealed. In each of these cases, a theoretical position is taken which informs the judgment or assessment of the work role. We tend to think about clients on a rational level in terms of case-work or cognitivebehavioural work. In psychodynamics for example, clients are viewed based on emotional motivations. We need to beware of seeing clients problems as based solely on their thought processes or perceptions, lack of emotions or lack of control. We should ask ourselves what the emotions are and what the behaviours represent. 2. Choose one theory (selectivity) - some theories are written to be self-sufficient, covering all or most eventualities the worker might encounter. Theories of this type are psychodynamic and systems theories. Some theories that workers find useful, might not completely cover the range of issues presented by the client and so the worker must put together different theories. Selecting one theory will work however, if it is clear enough to

the worker and if the worker has a good grasp of its concepts to be able to apply it in the required circumstances. 3. Put theories together (eclecticism) - given the complexity and diversity of issues social worker have to deal with in their everyday functions, eclecticism usually takes place. That is, workers use different aspects of different theories together. This can be used in different ways for example using crisis intervention in the initial stage in the case of an emergency, then using psycho-dynamic over the long term for the same client. It could also mean using different theories for different members of a family system. Eclecticism therefore means a reliance on the workers skill, knowledge and value bases which offer a secure base for moving among theoretical ideas.

VII.

CASE RECORDING Clinical records can be considered to be the legal business of the organization and as such, must be maintained in a manner consistent with agency policies, procedures and professional practice standard. An organization would be in trouble if the legal integrity of its records is questioned. Writing Guidelines The following are some basic principles in maintaining clinical records. Every entry should be made near or at the time the matter occurred. Entry should be made by person in the agency with knowledge of the act, event, condition, opinion or diagnosis appearing in the record. Every formal session with client, progress and current status of client should be recorded, dated and signed by person making entry. Every contact made or attempts at making contact should be recorded. Dates are to be entered in chronological order. Clients records should be kept in a secure place and be accessible only to authorized persons. Each page should identify the client by name and registration number. If a mistake is made during entry, do not obliterate the original entry. Instead draw a single line through the error, date and sign it. Then rewrite the correct entry. Only use abbreviations which are approved by your agency . Never use pencils to make entries. Black ink is preferable, as this facilitates legible photocopying. Informed consent entries, including explanations of benefit and risk of treatment or any other procedure should be carefully documented and signed by both client and worker and where applicable witnessed in writing. Record the clients own words and use quotation marks when recording what the client said.

Be careful about what and how you record. The client might someday read it.

Process Recording According to Graybeal and Ruff (1995), this is a continuum of methods that records the process of work, ranging from written record to audio and videotaping, to observation. Another definition by Urbanowski and Dwyer (1988) of process recording is the written account of the dynamic interaction that occurs during an interview or in other forms of client contact. Purpose To enhance learning and to develop a knowledgeable, skilled and ultimately autonomous, professional social worker who examines his/her practice in a systematic, objective critical way. Benefits i. It forces students to carefully listen and concentrate on each interaction between themselves and clients and teaches them to recall what they hear and see (Urdang, 1975), therefore helping them to become active rather than passive observers (Goldberg, 1985). ii. It provide students with a tool for interviewing and re-experiencing interactions as well as the opportunity to record thoughts, reactions and analyses on the work as it unfolds. It helps field instructors in their effort to individualize students and develop educational plans. It also helps to identify strategies used by students and provides the opportunity for supervisors to review and comment on each interaction between student and clients. It helps to integrate classroom learning into field practice. A model for process recording 1. Preparation and purpose (preparation)

iii.

iv.

At this stage base line or current information is captured. The aims and plans for contact with client are defined and so too would be barriers to contact. Clarification of roles and preliminary arrangements needed for that first contact would also be concretized. 2. Process and relevant information (observation) At this stage initial observation of client will be done. Verbatim or paraphrased description of what happened interpersonally (the content-dialogue) will be recorded. 3. Students thoughts and analyses (knowledge) At this point students will record their response and gut feelings on the interaction and content of dialogue with clients. The examination of students and clients functioning will also be examined. 4. Interventions (skills) This is an analysis of intervention, identification of skills and strategies used and the extent to which the intervention(s) met the need of the client would be done at this point. 5. Next steps (planning) The planning of future directions where the clients are concerned; what further contacts are to be made, what worker needs to do, what needs to be done by client and relating plans to problems identified. 6. Questions (questioning) This is evaluating whether the purpose of the session was accomplished and questions related to the students practice knowledge and skills will be asked. SOAP format of progress notes recording: S subjective: clients views of the problem or progress. The writer first writes a capital S, and then circles it. Write the clients subjective view of the problem or events using the clients own words in parenthesis. O objective: writers objective observations of progress of client. Similar to the S, write a capital O and circle it. Then write your objective observations of the clients behaviour and personal appearance. Ws the client hostile, distracted, suspicious, argumentative? Was there suicidal or homicidal ideations? A assessment: writers assessment of clients affect, mental status and psychosocial functioning. Was the client looking sad, angry, flat, suspicious, euphoric, ashamed, depressed, anxious or fearful? P plan: plan for future treatment as it relates to progress of client.

Do you and the treatment team continue with the current treatment plan, or do you need a chance to update the treatment plan in light of documented problem or events? NB: Each organization has its format for documentation. It is important therefore, that in the case report writing skills, concepts rather than specific forms be learnt.

VIII.

TERMINATION OF THE CLIENT-WORKER RELATIONSHIP The closing of a case or the termination of services to a client should be viewed as a component of the helping process. Ideally, termination is a mutual decision made by worker and client. This should be done in a timely and responsible manner. Factors to be considered when deciding to terminate Have the agreed upon service goals been reached? Has an agreed upon time limit to service provision been reached? Is the problem or situation that brought the client to the agency sufficiently resolved so the client can function within an acceptable range and not at high risk of being harmed by self or others? Has the worker and/or agency made a reasonable investment of time, energy, and skill without measurable results? Has the client and/or worker reached a point where one or both do not anticipate benefit from future contacts? Has the client become inappropriately dependent upon worker or agency? Would the client be more appropriately served by another agency or a professional with specialized training? Does a change of circumstances require termination of services (client is moving from area served by agency, worker moving to another job)

Transfer or reassignment of the client to another worker within the agency is sometimes necessary. In a sense this too is a type of termination. Intra-agency transfer becomes necessary when:

the worker will no longer be available to serve the client (worker moving to another job ) the client will be better served by someone with specialized skills or knowledge a conflict between the worker and client cannot be resolved and is interfering with service provision or client progress for some reason, the worker simply does not like the client and cannot develop or demonstrate necessary empathy and warmth there is a serious and insurmountable gap in mutual understanding and communication caused by differences in values, religious beliefs, language, or cultural background

The social worker has a professional obligation to make a termination or transfer as positive as is possible.

Guidelines to aid the process of termination 1. The worker should do everything possible to keep termination from being abrupt or unexpected. Termination should be discussed during the contracting phase of the helping process. The client should be reminded that intervention is goal oriented and time limited so the client is aware that termination is inevitable. 2. The client will be gradually prepared for termination if the intervention includes, as it should, an ongoing monitoring and evaluation of progress. 3. Realize that, in some cases, termination can be difficult because of your own psychological needs. Some workers strongly want to be needed and appreciated and may maintain contact with the client even when there is no professional reason for doing so. The worker must guard against this potential problem. 4. As termination approaches, it is desirable to gradually decrease the frequency of contact. If the client is quite dependent on the worker, the weaning process should be accompanied by efforts to connect the client with natural helpers and informal resources within his/her neighbourhood or social network. 5. The feelings of loss and anger that often accompany the ending of any important relationship should be discussed by the worker, even if they are not first mentioned by the client. 6. The scheduling of a follow-up interview or telephone contact several weeks after official termination may be reassuring to the client who fears separation. Also, the client should be informed that he/she can return to the agency if the need arises. 7. In a case where the client wants to terminate but the worker has sound reasons for wanting to continue, the worker should explain these reasons to the client. The worker should also

explain any possible adverse consequences of terminating. If the client still wishes to terminate, his/her decision should be respected.

IX.

GENERALIST SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE This is practice in which the client and worker together assess the need in all of its complexity and develop a plan for responding to that need. A strategy is chosen from a repertoire of responses appropriate for work with individuals, families, groups, agencies and communities. The unit of attention is chosen by considering the system needing to be changed. The plan is carried out and evaluated. Social Work is practiced on three levels; these are casework (micro), group work (mezzo) and community work (macro). The generalist practitioner is knowledgeable and skilful in the application of methods at all three levels. The worker may practice using a combination of methods (Farley, et al, 2006, p. 63). The levels at which social workers practice in the helping process are outlined below. Casework Individual or family The social worker is involved in direct practice with individuals or families. The client is included in each step of the change process as much as is possible (Johnson &Yanca, 2004, p. 68). At this level the worker-client relationship is very critical as the type of relationship that is established can either make or break the helping process. Group Work

This is the goal-directed activity with small treatment and task groups aimed at meeting socio-emotional needs and accomplishing tasks. This activity is directed to individual members of a group and to the group as a whole within a system of service delivery. It refers to planned, orderly worker activities carried out in the context of professional practice with people. The following are purposes of group work: aim to support or educate members help members socialize and achieve personal growth provide treatment for members problems and concerns help members develop leadership skills so they can take increasing responsibility for the groups development (Toseland& Rivas, 2012,p. 11) Community Work embraces both direct work with community groups and work with interorganizational and planning levels. It is also concerned with enabling members to collectively overcome problems and enhance the common feelings, solidarity and competence in the community. Involves everybody from all angles, so all stakeholders can work together to plan and enable people to become empowered.

This is done through one of or a combination of the following modalities: Locality development/Community development This model asserts that community change can best be brought about through broad-based participation by a wide spectrum of people at the local community level. The model seeks to involve a cross-section of individuals in identifying and solving problems. Some themes emphasized in this model are democratic procedures, consensus approach, voluntary cooperation, development of indigenous leadership and self-help. Social action The social action model assumes that a disadvantaged (often oppressed) segment of the population needs to be organized, perhaps in alliance with others, to pressure the power structure to increase resources or for social justice. Social planning The social planning model emphasizes problem solving. It assumes that community changes in a complex industrial environment require highly trained and skilled planners who can guide complex change processes.

X.

THE ROLES OF REFERRING AND FOLLOW-UP IN PRACTICE 1. Referral This is the process by which a social worker enables a client to know and use another resource. It involves supplying the referral agency with information that may be helpful in providing service to the client and then following up on the usefulness of the service to the client. The worker must obtain written permission from the client/clients guardian, usually called a release of information, before sharing any identifying information about the client system with an outside service (Johnson &Yanca, 2004, p.261). Referring a client doesnt mean the end of the workers professional responsibility to that individual. The worker may ask client to report back to him/her so as to secure a progress report. This often facilitates a successful referral. Referral involves: a problem has been identified by worker and client for some time

the client is being sent on to a new phase, a new experience, another source of help, leaving the worker behind or being left by the worker more is involved than just saying goodbye to the client

Guidelines in making referrals a) Ascertain the clients readiness for referral, remember, the client will more likely follow through with a referral if they see the need for it. b) Determine together what source best matches the clients wishes. It is important that the counsellor is familiar with the policies, procedures and quality of service provided by the referred agency. c) Respect the clients right to self determination, as you make recommendations as to which resource is most likely to benefit the client. d) Avoid making false promises or conveying unrealistic reassurance re: what another agency can do in assisting the client. e) Avoid specifying what another practitioner in another agency will do. Practitioners have different methods and their own styles of carrying out their functions. The following steps are useful in facilitating the successful connection between the client and the referred agency. a) Write out the necessary facts about contracting the agency; including information such as name and address of agency, how to get an appointment. b) Provide the client with the name of a specific contact person(s). c) Prepare a brief statement addressed to the agency outlining the problem and services required by the client (involve client in this process). d) Encourage the client to call the agency from your office if possible, to set up an appointment. e) Arrange for a family member/ friend to accompany client to the agency if he/she exhibits signs of apprehension. Counsellor may wish to accompany client in exceptional cases. 2. Follow-up This is an essential aspect of effective referrals. It provides an opportunity to review clients experience with the new agency and to conduct an informal evaluation. If the client is still considered a part of the service plan, follow-up can occur within the context of a regular meeting. If not, the worker may do so by telephone. The purpose of follow-up therefore is to help the worker to: gain information about the appropriateness of the service for the client and others who may have similar needs make appropriate referrals in the future

advocate for the client/assist the client in receiving the needed service elsewhere determine why the service was not utilised (Johnson &Yanca, 2004, p.261).

Elements of effective follow-up a) Takes place from six to twelve months b) Support clients through periodic checks and review of plan or aftercare being received. c) Monitor client for regress, drug use among others. d) Look for life changes allows for adjustments in the clients treatment plan to deal with the changes e) Help clients identify trigger mechanisms experiences that prompt the cravings and urges to revert to former modes of behaviour

XI.

ENGAGING THE INVOLUNTARY CLIENT The workers role is to build a working relationship with a client who was forced into contact with a social worker or an agency. The involuntary client is one who was mandated to go into treatment. The external pressure to seek professional help may have come from the Courts, Probations Due to this, some clients may be resentful, angry and often belligerent. It can therefore be a challenge to engage this client during the helping process. In such cases the workers authority is more pronounced. The worker has to be fair and compassionate in exercising authority. In this way, it could be atherapeutic experience for the client, who likely associates authority with abuse and exploitation.

Using authority in a therapeutic way involves: showing warmth, understanding, and support to the client demonstrating a non-threatening and non-coercive attitude helping the client to see that you are reasonable clarifying your roles and functions, and also your expectations of client being sensitive Also take into consideration the following: how the client may feel reveal truthful information about why he/she is involved with your agency when you first meet with the client explain the role of confidentiality if you have to prepare a report for the court, the client has a right to know inform the client of the adverse consequences that may occur if he/she refuses to conform be prepared to encounter hostility, anger, shame, embarrassment and other defensive reactions allow client as much self-determination as possible within the legal limits

XII.

ENGAGING THE HARD-TO-REACH CLIENT The worker is required to build a relationship with a client who is distrustful and reluctant to become involved in the helping process. It is hard to build a relationship with thehard-to-reach client. Many of these individuals are socially isolated, fearful and distrustful. Many are distrustful due to past life experiences. Many have mental disorders and are uncomfortable with interpersonal relationships. The greatest challenge with working with the hard-to-reach client is to break through his/her mistrust. Guidelines to follow when working with hard-to-reach clients

Be prepared to tolerate a great deal of testing behaviours. Be patient when progress is slow Be tactful with these clients as their feelings are easily hurt and they can be supersensitive at the hint of rejection. Do not do anything that can be interpreted as criticism Remember that first impressions last, and that these clients form quick judgements which are most often negative You may have to do many things for the client in the early stages, before you can actually begin to do things with the client. For a while this may feed the clients dependency needs, but this is okay as it is saying to the client it is safe to open up. Encourage frequent contact with client. This demonstrates the workers ongoing concern for the client Explain to the client that his/her decision not to discuss a topic is respected and that you will not discuss them. However, try and engage client in a discussion as to why some topics are difficult to discuss and why people want to withhold and protect certain information Be willing to use unconventional methods to engage with clients

XIII.

RESPONDING TO THE MANIPULATIVE CLIENT Social workers need to be able to identify these characters or characteristics in individuals who are manipulative. Many manipulators are called sociopaths, psychopaths or described as having anti-social personality disorders. Many have a history of criminal activities; they lack social conscience and show no remorse or guilt. They lack empathy and are unable to appreciate the feelings of others. They are smooth talkers, superficial, grandiose in thinking, and shallow in emotions, impulsive, have a strong need for excitement and risk taking.

Guidelines for working with the manipulative client Be respectful as with any other client Be direct and cautious when dealing with them Be clear about your roles and functions what you can and cant do as a professional Outline clearly your expectations of the individual Demonstrate firmness and strength of conviction Become suspicious when the client takes an inordinate interest in your personal life or your feelings about your job Become suspicious when the client begins to say you are the only person who understands me if you could just do this one thing for me, how your husband must love you. Consult with your peer or superior if you suspect that you are being drawn into a manipulation. Discuss the issue with other team members, often you will find that the client has given each member a different story Examine your actions and feelings Inform your client that you do not want him/her to lie to you. Sometimes confrontation works, but one has to be careful. Take careful note of the clients body language

XIV.

RESPONDING TO THE DANGEROUS CLIENT/SITUATION To respond to a potentially violent client or a dangerous situation in a manner that reduces the risk of being harmed. At times the practice of social work places the worker in danger. According to the NASW Workforce Study of licensed social workers, 2006 workers in criminal justice, child welfare,

and the addiction field were considerably more likely to experience dangerous situations than workers in other areas of practice (, p. 224). It is not surprising that workers dealing with clients experiencing high levels of distress will at times face problems of workplace safety. A social worker may also encounter various biohazardous materials in health care facilities and possibly during visits to clients homes. To minimize the risk of being injured, the social worker should adhere to the following guidelines: 1. Never enter a potentially dangerous situation without first consulting with others about your plans. 2. A history of violent behaviour is the best predictor of future violence. Statistically speaking, an individual with one or more of the following characteristics and life experiences is more likely to commit the following acts: a) has a history of committing violent acts b) is violent when under the influence of alcohol or abuse c) is/was the target of family violence during childhood d) is/was the target of violence in his/her community e) has been publicly humiliated f) is part of a violent peer group g) is experiencing a high level of stress h) is a male teen or a young adult i) has experienced a traumatic brain injury 3. The office/meeting room where the social worker will encounter a dangerous client should be set up so the worker has quick and easy access to the door or another escape route. The room should also be clear of items that could easily be grabbed and used as a weapon (letter openers, staplers, paper weight...) 4. An agencys recordkeeping system should use some method of flagging the case record of a dangerous client so the social worker who is to meet the client for the first time can take appropriate precautions. In addition, the agency should have a pre-established emergency communication code so all staff will recognise a disguised request for assistance. 5. When making a home visit that could develop into a dangerous situation, keep your office informed of your itinerary and check in by phone according to a pre-arranged schedule. Before entering a home/building, take a few seconds to look around and think about your safety. (Are you alone?; Where are the escape routes?) 6. Never move through a doorway as a response to an invitation to come in unless you can see the person who is speaking and he/she has seen you. When entering a room

containing a hostile person, move in slowly. Remain on the periphery until you can assess the situation, and then move in slowly. Do not move into the persons space. Intrusive movements may trigger violent behaviour. 7. Be alert to anything about the situation that feels/looks unusual or out of place. We all possess an unconscious danger detector. Thus, trust your gut feelings. If you feel afraid, assume that you are in danger, even if you cannot pinpoint why you are feeling this way. 8. Most people who are angry will vent for 2-3 minutes then begin to calm down. However, some individuals are further stimulated and aggravated by what they are saying and thinking. If an angry individual is not calming down after a few minutes, assume that the situation has become more dangerous. 9. Do not touch an angry person; do nothing that could be interpreted as threatening. If possible, sit rather than stand, because sitting is a less aggressive stance. Also encourage the client to sit, as it usually has a calming effect. However avoid sitting in an overstuffed chair or sofa because it can be difficult to rapidly get up and out of a wellcushioned chair. Avoid sitting on a cushioned chair or sofa, because it may contain a needle left over from a drug injection. Pick a hard, moveable chair that can be used for protection if you are attacked. 10. Be alert to signs of imminent attack, such as flaring nostrils, rapid breathing, dilated pupils, pulsing veins, grinding teeth, pointing fingers, clenching fists, choppy movements and speech, crouching upper body, and bobbing or dipping movements of the body. Do not turn your back to an angry or distraught person or let that person walk behind you. If the danger level of the situation escalates, leave. 11. When in the home of a potentially violent person, be alert to the fact that guns are usually kept in the bedroom and that the kitchen contains numerous potential weapons. If the person has threatened you and then moves quickly to one of these rooms, leave immediately.

REFERENCES

Compton, B. et al. (2005). Social Work Processes: Ca. Brooks/Cole Farley, William O. et al. (2006). Introduction to Social Work: Ma: Allyn and Bacon Fox, R. &GutheilI. A. (2000).Process recording: a means for conceptualizing and evaluating practice: Johnson, Louise C. and Yanca, Stephen J. (2004). Social Work Practice: A Generalist Approach: MA: Pearson Education, Inc. Payne, M. (1997). Toseland, R. W. & Rivas, R. F. (2011). An Introduction to Group Work Practice. New York: Allyn and Bacon Journal of teaching in social work, vol.20, 1, 2, 39-55. http://www.vcu.edu/slwweb/currentstudents/fieldinstruction/processrecording .html