Chapter 2 The Structure of the Atom

2.1 Matter 1) What is Matter? Anything that occupies space. Has mass. Made up of tiny and discrete particles (atoms, molecules or ions).

Matter Element Atom Molecule Compound Molecule Ion

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What is element and compound? Element: A substance that cannot be broken down into anything simpler by chemical reaction. Compound: A substance consists two or more elements that are chemically bonded (molecule or ions). Define atom, molecule and ion. Atom: Smallest particle of an element. Molecule: A group of two or more atoms. Ion: A positively charged / negatively charged particle. Kinetic theory of matter Matter consists of tiny and discrete particles that are constantly moving. Move in random motion and collide with one another. When substance is heated, particles gain kinetic energy and move faster. When substance is cooled, particles lose kinetic energy and move slower. Diffusion Movement of particles from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration.

Experiment 1 : Diffusion of particles in a gas, liquid and solid Gas Diagram Liquid Solid

Observation

The reddish-brown vapour spreads quickly throughout the two gas jars in a few minutes.

The purple colour of potassium manganate(VII) solution spreads slowly throughout the water. After a few hours, the water turns uniformly purple.

The purple colour of potassium manganate(VII) spreads very slowly into the gel. After a few days, the gel turns entirely purple.

Conclusion

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Diffusion occurs in solids, liquids and gases Diffusion occurs slowest in solids, faster in liquid, fastest in gases. Diffusion supports kinetic theory of matter.

Experiment 2 : Rate of diffusion depends on the mass of the gas particles Gases with low molecular masses diffuse faster than those with high molecular masses. Set-up of the apparatus used to compare the rates of diffusion of ammonia gas, NH, and hydrogen chloride gas, HCl.

Observation: A white solid ring formed nearer to the end with the hydrogen chloride. The white solid is ammonium chloride NH4Cl, a compound produced from the reaction of ammonia gas and hydrogen chloride gas when they meet inside the glass tube. This experiment shows that the ammonia molecules move faster than the hydrogen chloride molecules. Ammonia gas diffuses faster than hydrogen chloride gas because the molecular mass of ammonia is less than that of hydrogen chloride HCl.

Experiment 3: Rate of diffusion depends on the temperature The higher the temperature, the faster the particles move and so the faster the diffusion. For example, the colour of potassium manganate(Vll) spreads through the water much more quickly in hot water than in cold water.

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Three physical states: Solid, liquid and gas States of matter Solid Liquid Gas

Arrangement of particles The particles are closely packed together in an orderly manner. The particles are not free to move. They only can vibrate and rotate about their fixed positions. Very strong The particles are less closely packed together and not in orderly manner. The particles can vibrate, rotate and move throughout the liquid. Moderately strong The particles are further apart from one another. The particles move in random motion. They collide frequently with each other. Very weak

Movement of particles

Attraction force between particles Energy content of particles 7)

Low energy

Moderately high energy

A lot of energy

Change in the state of matter Tips!!! When bonds are broken, energy is absorbed. When bonds are formed, energy is released.

Melting Solid to liquid, heat is absorbed; particles gain energy and vibrate vigorously to break away from their fixed position. Evaporation/boiling Liquid to vapour, heat is absorbed; particles gain enough energy to break away from the liquid to form vapour. Sublimation Solid to vapour, heat is absorbed, particles get enough energy to break away completely from the solid and form a gas. Eg. iodine, ammonium chloride and solid carbon dioxide. Freezing Liquid to solid, heat is released; particles slow down their vibration and stop moving. Condensation Vapour to liquid, heat is released; particles lose energy and move more and more slowly to form liquid.

8) Heating and cooling curve of a substances Heating Curve

Cooling curve

Gas Gas Liquid Liquid Solid Solid

A Solid state. A to B Heating causes the particles to absorb more energy and vibrate faster. Temperature and kinetic energy increases. B Still in solid state. The heat energy absorbed by the particles is enough to overcome the forces of attraction between solid. The solid begins to melt. B to C Mixture of solid and liquid. The temperature remains constant, named as melting point. The heat energy absorbed by particles is used to overcome the forces of attraction between particles. C Liquid state. C to D Continuous heating. Temperature and kinetic energy increases. D Liquid state. The heat energy absorbed by the particles is enough to overcome the forces of attraction between liquid. The liquid particles begin to change to gas. D to E Mixture of liquid and gas. The temperature remains constant, named as boiling point. The heat energy absorbed by particles is used to overcome the forces of attraction between particles. E Gaseous state. E to F Gas particles continue to absorb more energy and move faster. Experiment 4: Melting and freezing points of naphthalene, C10H8 A) Heating of naphthalene

U Gaseous state. U to V During cooling, temperature and kinetic energy decreases.

V Still in gaseous state. Forming of bonds due to stronger forces of attraction. The gas begins to condense and become liquid. V to W Mixture of gas and liquid. The temperature remains constant- boiling point. The energy released during the formation of bonds is equal to the heat energy released to the surroundings. W Liquid state. W to X Continuous cooling More decreases in temperature and kinetic energy of the particles. X Liquid state. Stronger forces of attraction and particles move closer to one another. The gas begins to freeze into solid. X to Y Mixture of liquid and solid. The temperature remains constant - freezing point. The energy released during the formation of bonds is equal to the heat energy released to the surroundings. Y Solid state. Y to Z Solid state. Temperature decreases as cooling continues.

Discussion: (a) A water bath is used instead of direct heating with Bunsen flame. This is to ensure that the naphthalene is heated evely. And, naphthalene is flammable. (b) The naphthalene is stirred continuously to ensure an even heating.

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Cooling of naphthalene

Discussion: (a) The boiling tube containing the liquid naphthalene is placed in a conical flask. The air trapped in the conical flask is a poor conductor of heat. This helps to minimise the heat loss to the surroundings which may affect the accuracy of the freezing point obtained. (b) The naphthalene is stirred continuously to avoid supercooling. Supercooling is a condition in which the temperature of a cooling liquid drops below its normal freezing point, without the appearance of a solid.

2.2 Atomic Structure 1) Important Scientist and Their Contributions

Scientist John Dalton (1808) Atomic theory

All matter is made up of atoms. Atoms small indivisible particles. Atoms cannot be created and destroyed. Atoms an element are alike. Atoms it combine in simple ratio. Atoms chemical reactions result from combination / separation of atoms.

J. J. Thomson (1897)

Atom is a sphere of positively-charged sphere which contains tiny negativelycharged particles, called electrons.

Ernest Rutherford (1911)

Discovered proton- positively-charged particles. Protons and most of the mass of atoms concentrated in small, central region called nucleus. No of protons = No of electrons

Niels Bohr (1913)

Electrons orbit in shells around nucleus at a fixed distance.

James Chadwick (1932)

Neutrons electrically neutral subatomic particles. Neutrons mass almost the same with a proton. Nucleus of an atom consists of protons and neutrons.

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Concepts of the Modern Atomic Model Nucleus of an atom consists of protons and neutrons. Electrons moving around the nucleus (orbits / electron shells/ quantum shells) The electrons are moving in shells at very high speed and we cannot determine the position of the electrons at a particular time. The relative atomic mass and relative charge of the subatomic particles of an atom: Subatomic particles Proton, p Neutron, n Electron, e Relative atomic mass 1 1 Relative charge +1 0 (neutral) -1

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Proton number Proton number = the number of protons Also known as atomic number. Since atoms are neutral, number of protons = number of electrons Nucleon number Nucleon number = number of protons + number of neutrons Also known as mass number Examples: i. The proton number of atom Y is 13 and its nucleon number is 27. How many protons, neutrons and electrons in atom Y?

ii. A chlorine atom has 17 protons and 18 neutrons. What are the proton number and nucleon number of the atom?

iii. Lithium has a proton number of 3 and a nucleon number of 7. How many protons, electrons and neutrons are present in an atom of lithium?

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Symbol of the elements (refer to periodic table)

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Standard representation for an atom of any element:

Examples: i. Determine the number of neutrons, proton number and nucleon number.

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A carbon atom has 6 protons and 7 neutrons. Represent the atom in the standard form.

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Phosphorus-32 has 17 neutrons. What are the proton number and nucleon number of the atom? Represent the atom in standard form.

2.3 Isotopes and their Importances 1) Oxygen Isotopes

16 17

Isotopes atoms of the same element with same proton number but different nucleon numbers.

Atomic number 8 8 8

Mass number Electrons Protons 16 17 18 8 8 8 8 8 8

Neutrons 16 - 8 = 8 17 - 8 = 9 18 - 8 = 10

O O

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Hydrogen There are three isotopes of hydrogen with mass numbers 1, 2 and 3 and atomic number 1. Isotopes
1 2

Atomic number Mass number Electrons Protons 1 1 1 1 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 1

Neutrons 1-1=0 2-1=1 3-1=2

H Protium H- Tritium

H- Deuterium
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Chlorine Chlorine is a mixture of two isotopes with atomic number 17 and mass numbers 35 and 37 respectively. Isotopes Atomic number Mass number Electrons Protons
35 36

Neutrons 35 - 17 = 18 37 - 17 = 20

Cl

17 17

35 37

17 17

17 17

Cl 2)

Isotopes of an element have the same a. proton number/number of protons in an atom. b. number of electrons in an atom. c. electron arrangement. d. chemical properties because they have the same electron arrangement. Isotopes of an element have different a. nucleon numbers. b. numbers of neutrons in an atom. c. physical properties (such as density, melting point and boiling point), though these differences are very small. Uses of isotopes in daily life Two types of isotopes: the radioactive and the non-radioactive isotopes Gamma-rays emitted from cobalt-60used in radiotherapy for treatment of cancer. Iodine-131is used in the treatment of thyroid diseases. Carbon-14 can be used to estimate the age of bone, wood or fossils. Phosphorus-82 is used in the study of metabolism of phosphorus in plants. Uranium-235 is the most common fuel used in nuclear power stations. Gamma rays of cobalt-60 are used to destroy bacteria without changing the quality, flavour or texture of the food.

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2.4 The Electronic Structure of an Atom 1) Electrons arrangement:

2) Hydrogen

Valence electrons electrons that are found in the outermost occupied shell of an atom. Helium Lithium Nitrogen

Neon

Sodium

Phosphorus

Calcium