Chapter Chapter 1 1

I Introduction to EIA ntroduction to EIA

1.1 Emergence of EIA
EIA is one of the successful policy innovations of the 20
th
Century for environmental
conservation. It is a formal process in many countries and is currently practiced in more than
100 countries. EIA as a mandatory regulatory procedure originated in the early 1970s, with the
implementation of the National Environment Policy Act (NEPA) 1969 in the USA. Much of the
initial development was in a small number of high-income countries, like Canada, Australia, and
New Zealand (1973-74). However, there were some developing countries as well, which
introduced EIA relatively early - Columbia (1974), Philippines (1978).
The EIA process really took off after the mid-1980s. In 1989, the World Bank adopted EIA for
major development project, in which borrower country had to undertake the EIA under the
Bank's supervision.
Table 1: Evolution and history of EIA
Period Development of EIA
Pre-1970 Project review based on the technical/engineering and economic analysis.
Limited consideration given to environmental consequences.
Early/mid 1970s
EIA introduced by NEPA in 1970 in US.
Basic principle: Guidelines, procedures including public participation requirement instituted.
Standard methodologies for impact analysis developed (e.g. matrix, checklist and network).
Canada, Australia and New Zealand became first countries to follow NEPA in 1973-1974.
Unlike Australia, which legislated EIA, Canada and New Zealand established administrative
procedures.
Major public inquires help to shape the process development.
Late 1970 and early 1980s
More formalised guidance.
Other industrial and developing countries introduced formal EIA requirements (France, 1976;
Philippines, 1977) began to use the process informally or experimentally ( Netherlands, 1978)
or adopted elements, such as impact statements or reports, as part of development
applications for planning permission (German states [lander], Ireland).
Use of EA by developing countries (Brazil, Philippines, China, Indonesia)
Strategic Environment Assessment (SEA), risk analysis included in EA processes.
Greater emphasis on ecological modelling, prediction and evaluation methods.
Provision for public involvement.
Coordination of EA with land use planning processes.
Mid 1980s to end of
decade
In Europe, EC Directive on EIA establishes basic principle and procedural requirements for all
member states.
Increasing efforts to address cumulative effects.
World bank and other leading international aid agencies establish EA requirements.
Spread of EIA process in Asia.
1990s
Requirement to consider trans-boundary effects under Espoo convention.
Increase use of GIS and other information technologies.
Sustainability principal and global issues receive increased attention.
India also adopted the EIA formally.
Formulation of EA legislation by many developing countries.
Rapid growth in EA training.
Source: International Study of the Effectiveness of Environmental Assessment, final report,
Environmental assessment in a changing world, Prepared by Barry Sadler, June 1996.
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1.2 History of EIA in Nepal
In Nepal, EIA has been integrated in major development projects since the early 1980s. In the
planning history of Nepal, the sixth plan (198085), for the first time, recognized the need for
EIA with the establishment of Environmental Impact Study Project (EISP) under the Department
of Soil Conservation in 1982 to develop necessary instruments for integration of EIA in
infrastructure development projects. However, the government of Nepal enunciated
environment conservation related policies in the seventh plan (NPC, 19851990). In order to
enforce this policy and make necessary arrangements, a series of guidelines were developed,
thereby incorporating the elements of environmental factors right from the project formulation
stage of the development plans and projects and to avoid or minimize adverse effects on the
ecological system
In Nepal, the governments Environmental Impact Assessment Guideline of 1993 inspired the
enactment of the Environment Protection Act (EPA) of 1997 and the Environment Protection
Rules (EPR) of 1997 to internalizing the environmental assessment system. The process
institutionalized the EIA process in development proposals and enactment, which makes the
integration of IEE and EIA legally binding to the prescribed projects. The projects, requiring EIA
or IEE, are included in Schedules 1 and 2 of the EPR, 1997. Progresses were made in the
Environmental protection issue during the 8
th
five year plan (19921997). The following
developments in Environmental protection were achieved during that time:
Formulation of Environment Protection Act 1997
Establishment of Ministry of Environment
Development of National Environmental Policies and Action Plan, EIA guidelines
developed
Consideration of environmental concerns in hydropower projects
Development of industrial, irrigation and agricultural policies that undertook environmental
concerns
Nepal's eighth five year plan, formulated after the participation in the Rio Earth Summit in 1992,
was an important policy document. The plan realized the need of EIA integration into
economic development projects, and emphasized the formulation and implementation of
the projects and programmes with the inclusion of environmental protection measures.
The plan has also emphasized the adoption of the integrated approach and the sustainability
concept, while formulating the environmental legislation. Furthermore, the plan had established
the environmental section under the concerned minis-tries, develop indicators, set-up
standards and implement working procedures in order to minimize likely environ-mental
impacts of the development activities. The plan has shown a strong commitment to
prepare EIA guidelines for big development projects such as road, hydropower, irrigation,
industry, housing, drinking water, sewerage etc., and implement projects and programmes
only after EIA study. The eighth plan period (NPC, 1992 - 1997) has made a contribution that is
remarkable and notable in institutionalizing the EIA system in Nepals development planning
and administration. During this period, the government of Nepal adopted and implemented the
National EIA Guidelines of 1993, GoN (1993).
During the plan period of the government, the Environment Protection Act, 1996 and the
Environment Protection Rules, 1997 were enacted and enforced.
The ninth plan (NPC, 1997 - 2002) adopted a policy of participatory EIA system and it
emphasizes on making necessary procedures for the involvement of local bodies,
communities, private sector, non governmental organizations (NGOs) and government
agencies, NPC (2002). The plan has also focused on the need for conducting EIA study
in order to ensure biodiversity conservation while implementing development projects in
remote areas, GoN (2002). The plan has realized the need for human resource
development, research and studies, monitoring and evaluation, environmental auditing,
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and strengthening of the environmental resource centre and academic institutions in
order to cater for skilled human resources in environmental management of the country.
1.3 Definition & Types of EIA
The EIA is both science and art. EIA as a science or a planning tool deals with the
methodologies and techniques for identifying, predicting and evaluating impacts associated with
a particular project. EIA as art or procedure for decision-making or a management tool has to
do with those mechanisms for ensuring an environmental analysis of such actions, complying
with the policy and legal provisions, and influencing the decision-making process.
1.3.1 Some Definitions of EIA
Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) can be defined as the study to predict the effect of a
proposed activity/project on the environment.
Some of the definitions of EIA are mentioned below.
The International Association for Impact Assessment (IAIA) defines an
environmental impact assessment as "the process of identifying, predicting, evaluating
and mitigating the biophysical, social, and other relevant effects of development
proposals prior to major decisions being taken and commitments made.
Munn (1979) defines EIA as a need to identify and predict the impact on the
environment and on mans health and well being of legislative proposals, policies,
programs, projects and operational procedures and to interpret and communicate
information about the impact
Wathern (1988) defines EIA as a process having the ultimate objective of providing
the decision-makers with an indication of the likely consequences of their actions
Canter (1996) defines EIA as the physical-chemical, biological, cultural and socio-
economic components of the total environment
1.3.2 Types of EIA
(i) Strategic EIA (SEA)
In order to address environmental issues at higher levels of decisions, EIA is being applied
under the name of Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA). This is considered a second-
generation EIA process, and it is believed that this process moves beyond the impact fixation
of project-level EIA.
Therefore, SEA is defined as the formalized, systematic and comprehensive process of
evaluating the environmental impacts of a policy, plan or programme and its alternatives
(Hydropower Vs Thermal power in power sector). It is, in other words, the EIA of policies, plans
and programmes, keeping in mind that the process of evaluating impacts, at a strategic level, is
not exactly the same as that at a project level. Although policies, plans and programmes are
generally described as strategic, they are not identical, and many of them require different
variations of SEA. A policy is generally defined, as an inspiration and guidance for action, a
plan as a set of coordinated and timed objectives for the implementation of the policy, and a
programme as a set of projects in a particular area. Policies, plans and programmes (PPPs)
may be sectoral (e.g., transport, Hydropower), or spatial (e.g., national, local). In theory, PPPs
are tiered; a policy provides a framework for establishment of plans, plans provide frameworks
for programmes, and programmes lead to projects.
Use of SEA:
Following are uses of SEA.
(i) It facilitates in the selection of project alternatives.
(ii) It makes project specific EIA cheaper and quicker.
(iii) Impacts of several projects (cumulative impacts of multi-sectoral developments) within
a defined geographical area and in a certain period of time can be assessed.
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(ii) Project level EIA
EIA study undertaken at individual project level is called as project level EIA. Example includes
EIA of water supply projects, Road projects, Housing projects, Hydropower projects, Sewerage
projects etc.
(iii) Legislative EIA
Any EIA study undertaken for a bill or legislative proposal to parliament that would result in
significant impacts on the environment is referred to as legislative EIA. E.g., Water Resources
Act, Hydropower Policy, Tourism Development Policy.
(iv) Supplemental EIA
This type of EIA is undertaken if new components of the project are added in a already EIA
completed project. Such EIA is needed if substantial changes relevant to the environmental
concerns are made to a proposed action.
1.3.3 Major functions of EIA
The major functions of EIA are:
Identify potential environmental impacts;
Examine the significance of environmental impacts;
Assess whether or not the impact can be mitigated;
Recommend preventive and corrective measures;
Assist decision makers to determine whether the particular development/project should
go ahead; and
Provide information to decision-makers and other interested parties about
environmental implications.
1.3.4 Costs and benefits of EIA
Although there are costs associated with undertaking EIA, experience has shown that the
potential savings over the life of a project can repay the investment many times over. The
savings can be economic (e.g. identification of least cost alternative) as well as environmental
(e.g. impact reduction, maintaining other resource use opportunities).
Scope of study, schedule and budget for EIA study is interrelated. Maintaining the scope of
work will also maintain the budget. Cost associated with EIA study ranges from 0.01% to 0.66%
of the project cost. It also depends upon the impact identification and prediction methods
adopted.
Benefits
The benefits of EIA can be direct, such as the improved design or location of a project, or
indirect, such as better quality EIA work or raised environmental awareness of the personnel
involved in the project.
In general the benefits of EIA include:
Better environmental planning and design of a proposal. Carrying out an EIA
entails an analysis of alternatives in the design and location of projects. This can result
in the selection of an improved technology, which lowers waste outputs or an
environmentally optimum location for a project. A well-designed project can minimise
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risks and impacts on the environment and people, and thereby avoid associated costs
of remedial treatment or compensation for damage.
Ensuring compliance with environmental standards. Compliance with
environmental standards reduces damage to the environment and disruption to
communities. It also avoids the likelihood of penalties, fines and loss of trust and
credibility.
Savings in capital and operating costs. EIA can avoid the undue costs of
unanticipated impacts. These can escalate if environmental problems have not been
considered from the start of proposal design and require rectification later. An
anticipate and avoid approach is much cheaper than react and cure. Generally,
changes which must be made late in the project cycle are the most expensive.
Reduced time and costs of approvals of development applications. If all
environmental concerns have been taken into account properly before submission for
project approval, then it is unlikely that delays will occur as a result of decision-makers
asking for additional information or alterations to mitigation measures. Increased project
acceptance by the public.
1.4 Project Types, impacts and their types
1.4.1 Project Types
EIA generally applies to projects, which require construction (e.g., infrastructure, or
manufacturing projects). There are two types of projects: Point and Band type.
Point refers to power stations, bridges etc., and Band refers to linear projects such as roads,
electrical transmitting lines, etc.
1.4.2 Types of Environmental Impacts
Any economic development project, whether it is a simple and small or a large and complex it
has some environmental implications. The environmental implications may be beneficial or
adverse, but the main objective of impact identification is to specify areas that are likely to be
affected by the implementation of a project. Environmental impact, by definition, implies an
alternation of environmental conditions or creation of a new set of adverse or beneficial
environmental consequences caused by the action under consideration.
In many cases, the terms impact and effect are used synonymously. However, the term
impact is an outcome of two preceding events. We can take an example of air pollutant
deposited on the leaves of crops which slow down the photosynthesis process (change) and
reduces crop yield (effect), affecting the farmers economically (adverse impact). Effect is used
to mean a change in a parameter state (a change in noise level from 40 dB to 55 dB at a
residential area during the day). Impact is the predicted consequence of this change in terms of
human response (partial hearing loss of people, causing stress and anger).
(a) Based on nature of impact
Direct and Indirect Impacts
A direct impact is a change (physical, chemical or biological) to the environment because of
the activity (e.g., building a road, constructing an irrigation canal, establishing a waste-water
system). Impacts which have immediate effect on the receptors are called direct or first order
impacts. For example, noise from construction activities, loss of forest area. Direct impacts are
those occur through direct interaction of an activity with an environmental, social, or economic
component. For example, a discharge of industrial effluent into a river may lead to a decline in
water quality. Direct impacts on one environmental component may lead to indirect impacts on
other components.
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Impacts which have indirect effect on the receptors as a result of previous/preceding activities
are called indirect impacts. For example, the decline in water quality in the river may lead to a
secondary indirect impact on fish in the river. In turn, the impact on the fish population may lead
to reduced harvests of fish with corresponding reductions in fishing incomes.
Indirect impacts may include growth-inducing impacts and other effects related to induced
changes to the pattern of land use, population density or growth rate, and related effects on air
and water and other natural systems including ecosystems.
Reversible and Irreversible Impacts
An impact is reversible, if after a certain period of time, the pre-development situation can be
recreated (either through natural processes or with human assistance). Depletion of dissolved
oxygen (DO) in water is a reversible impact.
An impact is irreversible when the pre-development situation cannot be recreated. Destruction
of archeological sites is an irreversible impact.
Beneficial or positive impact is a beneficial environmental outcome and considered to be
desirable, such as increased biodiversity, or better health as a result of a cleaned water supply,
economic growth.
An adverse or negative impact is an adverse environmental outcome, such as a
contaminated water table from sewage systems, erosion from poorly planned infrastructure
activities, or decimation of existing vegetation through the introduction of livestock. Such
outcomes can sometimes be irreversible and have a chain of impact on poverty such as poor
health or a reduction in livelihood potential.
Primary and Secondary Impacts
Impacts associated directly to project (proposed action) are called primary impacts. It includes
impacts related to construction and operation of the facilities and land use changes.
Secondary impacts are indirect or induced changes likely to be stimulated or induced by the
proposed action. For example, removal of vegetation (primary impact) induces excessive soil
erosion (secondary impact) which in turn reduces the DO content and finally affects aquatic life.
Cumulative Impacts
Impacts that result from the incremental impact of the proposed action on a common resource
when added to other impacts from past, present, and reasonably foreseen future actions are
called cumulative impacts.
Ancillary Impacts
These are ancillary industrial development and service facilities attracted by the project. These
type of impacts are indirectly attributed to the implementation of the original project.
Local/Regional/National/Global Impacts
Extent category sitespecific, local, regional, national, transboundary
Extent may range from its origin to different places depending upon the type and nature of the
project.
Site specific (SS) confined to project area
Local (L) extent of impact is local
Regional (R) impact may extend to watershed level
National (N) Resources are affected at the national level
Transboundary (T) Some of the impacts may influence countries across the border
Short Term (ST) impacts are those impacts as lasting less than three years, Medium Term (MT)
as lasting for 3-20 years and Long Term (LT) impacts last for more than 20 years
Duration category Temporary and Permanent
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Impacts occurring during preconstruction stage related to land acquisition and compensation or
the development of auxiliary works such as storage facility for construction materials are
temporary.
An impact that lasts from construction to operation stages are referred as Permanent.
Typology of environmental impacts
Category of Impacts Types of Impacts
type
biophysical, social, health or
economic
nature direct or indirect, cumulative, etc.
magnitude or severity high, moderate, low
extent
local, regional, transboundary or
global
timing immediate/long term
duration temporary/permanent
uncertainty low likelihood/high probability
reversibility reversible/irreversible
significance* unimportant/important
*Impact significance is not necessarily related to the impact magnitude. Sometimes very small impacts,
such as the disturbance of the nest of a pair of endangered birds, may be significant. When determining
the significance of the potential impacts of a proposal, all of the above factors should be taken into
consideration.
(b) Based on receiving environment
i. Biological and Physio-chemical Impacts
Impacts in this category relate to effects on biological resources such as vegetation, wildlife,
crops, and aquatic life.
Impacts affecting soil and land forms, or creation of a propensity for soil erosion, floods and
sedimentation, would be considered as physical impacts.
Chemical impacts relate to project activities that cause a chemical change in air/water/soil
quality. Smoke emitted from a brick factory, for example, may change the amount of sulphur
dioxide (SO2) content of ambient air, while untreated effluent discharged directly into a river by a
paper factory may change the chemical characteristics of the river.
The biological component covers all elements, including different forms plant life, structures,
functions and their interaction with other components of an ecosystem. Another component of a
biological system is the animal life, which ranges from microscopic protozoans to large animals
such as elephants occupying different niches in trophic-dynamic systems.
ii. Social Impact
A study of socio-economic impacts would examine project action that alters the existing social
and economical condition of communities within or around the project location. Socio-economic
impacts may prove either adverse or beneficial. For example, an expanded irrigation facility
designed to enhance agricultural production would be beneficial; while the project might also
result in water-logging that could produce a salinity problem with is adverse consequences.
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Social impacts can be subdivided into the following:
demographic impacts - such as displacement and relocation effects; and changes in
population characteristics,
socio-economic impacts - including income and income multiplier effects,
employment rates and patterns, prices of local goods and services, and taxation
effects,
cultural impacts - traditional patterns of life and work, family structures and authority,
religious and tribal factors, archaeological features, social networks and community
cohesion,
institutional impacts - including demands on the government and social service,
NGOs housing, schools, criminal justice, health, welfare and recreation, and
gender impacts - the implications of development projects on the roles of women in
society, income-generating opportunities, access to resources, employment
opportunities and equity.
iii. Cultural Impacts
Project impacts on cultural heritage should be considered. Areas of study should include
historic sites, religious shrines or areas, or traditional practices that may be affected.
Cultural resources refer to archaeological, historical, religious, cultural and aesthetic values.
Cultural resources are part of the resource base, it is therefore important that the development
options, under consideration are screened for potential impact on cultural properties. In the
process of conducting EIA, it is essential; to check; whether or not the area contains UNESCO
World Heritage Sites, which now number over 300 sites recognised as having outstanding
universal value.
A project that involves a large-scale modification or disturbance of land and is located in an
area where there are cultural resources requires an intensive survey by qualified
archaeologists. On the basis of findings of intensive survey the decision-makers have to decide,
whether or not the project should go ahead or whether to adopt project alternatives or devise
mitigation measures to be adopted, along with institutional training and monitoring
requirements, etc.
If in the project site, there are some buried materials of archaeological/ historical value,
discovered within three meters under the earth's surface, they are called "Archaeological
Chance Finds", and the construction contractor should comply with the following rules and
national archaeological laws:
notify relevant departments of such findings,
request a site inspection,
completely halt work until inspection results are received, and
decide whether or not to proceed with further work.
If sacred religious shrines needed to be relocated from the project area, the first step is to
determine whether the shrines are of national or local significance. This has to be confirmed by
consulting a national heritage register. If it is a national treasure, then the concerned
departments, NGOs and local people should agree on whether relocation is possible. However,
such an intervention should be scientifically sound, locally acceptable and nationally agreeable.
If the shrine to be relocated is only of local significance, the local people, community leaders,
NGOs and others should reach in consensus and local people should be involved in the
process of relocation.
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iv. Economic Impact
The focus in economic impact assessment is the estimation of the change in economic variable
caused by:
project construction and operation
workforce requirement and the income earned by workers,
materials and other inputs for the project, and
capital investment.
It is essential to estimate the size of labour force, skilled manpower requirement and the
duration of their involvement. Requirement of manpower varies at different stages of project
implementation; for example, the need for labour peaks at the mid point of construction and
then declines gradually. An estimation of capital expenditure on local materials, and services is
also required for economic evaluation.
A thorough analysis of the labour force and the local economy requires information on:
the categories of labour available,
the categories of labour that are highly demanded and employed, not employed and
partly employed,
estimation of unemployed labour; proportion of female looking for employment, and
the number and type of employment likely to be generated by project implementation.
Social effects are the outcomes of economic impacts, and this is particularly true for the project
in which immigration of workers from outside is dominant. This does not happen always;
however, it happens when the labour market in the local area is insufficient. Migrant labour
forces can take up any type of employment and create social problems.
1.5 The EIA Process and Project cycle
1.5.1 Stages in EIA Process
The environment impact assessment consists of eight steps with each step equally important in
determining the overall performance of the project. The eight steps of the EIA process is briefly
presented below:
Screening: First stage of EIA, which determines whether the proposed project,
requires an EIA and if it requires EIA, then the level of assessment required.
Scoping: This stage identifies the key issues and impact that should be further
investigated. This stage also defines the boundary and time limit of the study.
Impact analysis: This stage of EIA identifies and predicts likely environmental and
social impact of the proposed project and evaluates the significance.
Mitigation: This step in EIA recommends the actions to reduce and avoid the potential
adverse environmental consequences of development activities.
Reporting: This stage presents the result of EIA in a form of a report to the decision
making body and other interested parties.
Review of EIA: It examines the adequacy and effectiveness of the EIA report and
provides information necessary for the decision-making.
Decision-making: It decides whether the project is rejected, approved or needs further
change.
Post monitoring: This stage comes into play once the project is commissioned. It
checks whether the impacts of the project do not exceed the legal standards and
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implementation of the mitigation measures are in the manner as described in the EIA
report.
Each stage of the EIA process has been described in detail subsequently. The overview of the
EIA process is represented in figure 1.1.
The process starts with the screening stage, which determines whether or not a proposal
should be subjected to a full EIA or whether additional inquiry is needed to determine this. Many
agencies categorize projects at this stage to reflect the significance of potential impacts or risks
that it might present.
The identification of issues and impacts that are likely to be important as well as the terms of
reference (TOR) for EIA in consultation with key stakeholders are done at the scoping stage.
To achieve a transparent and democratic decision-making process, scoping meeting should
always include the concerned public, civil society groups and NGOs.
Scoping determines whether the project proponent should prepare an IEE or EIA, and the
significant issues to be analyzed in depth in the IEE/EIA. In case an EIA is deemed needed for
a project, reasonable alternatives should be at the scoping phase. Hence, a set the Terms of
Reference (TOR) for the IEE/EIA will be prepared.
Terms of Reference is a list of guidelines to assess the impact and prepare the EIA for each
and every project. It (i) describes the impacts that should be addressed, (ii) provides a work
plan, (iii) directs the EIA to comply with existing laws, regulations, policies, and administrative
processes, and (iv) provides a time frame and describe the specifics actions needed.
The next stage of the EIA process is the examination of alternatives that are based on
preferred or most economically, environmentally and socially sound option for achieving project
objectives.
The impact analysis stage identifies and predicts the likely environmental, social and other
effects of a proposed project. It also evaluates its scale and significance, taking into accounts
both technical information and stakeholder views. Impact mitigation and management
determines the measures necessary to avoid, minimize or offset significant adverse impacts
and, (where appropriate) incorporate these into a management plan or management system.
The next stage is the preparation of EIA report. Documents ought to clearly and impartially
report the impacts of the proposed project, recommended measures for mitigation, the
significance of residual effects, and the concerns of communities affected and other interested
parties.
Information dissemination and public consultation is the next phase. This means make the
EIA results available in a timely manner and in location(s), format(s) and language(s) that allow
relevant stakeholders to form an opinion and comment on the proposed course of action. The
document will be open for mandatory public commenting period during this stage. Oral
public hearings will also be held during this stage.
The EIA review is the final stage. The appropriate authorities determine whether the report
provides a satisfactory assessment of the proposed development activity and contains the
information required for decision making.
Project Approving Authorities normally appoint a Technical Evaluation Committees (TEC) to
provide expert review report at this stage.
The decision will be given immediately after the review stage. If the project is approved it will
be notified to the public through national newspapers.
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Figure 1.1: Generalized process flow sheet of the EIA process
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1.5.2 EIA Process and Project cycle
EIA reports are prepared to fulfill the administrative procedural requirement and made available
to the decision makers and other interested parties. The production of EIA reports is important
and they must be of high quality and it should not be taken as a product only. The report
should assist decision makers in taking decision about the projects. To meet its objectives, EIA
has to be proactive it should be initiated in the beginning of the project cycle and continue
throughout the life of a project. The main linkages between EIA and the typical project cycle
are presented below.
Figure 1.2: EIA Process and Project Cycle
A. Project Concept/Identification
At the initial stage of the project planning, information on the detailed project designs will not be
available, but the basic nature of the project will be known (for example, whether it is to be a
coal, oil or nuclear power station; a highway or a dam/reservoir) power output, and an area of
land which is likely to be inundated and the site or sites where the project is being proposed to
be implemented. At this stage, the project may be subject to "screening" to decide whether a full
and comprehensive EIA report must be prepared.
If screening recommends that an EIA report is required, then the initial study will begin. At this
early stage quick environmental overview/reconnaissance or preliminary EIA can indicate
whether any of the alternatives proposed are environmental "disastrous". These can be
eliminated from further consideration, and new alternatives can be identified. Major benefits of a
"quick and dirty" overview are as follows:
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identification of "viable" alternatives (from an environmental viewpoint), and
provision of an early indication of likely significant impacts for further EIA work.
B. Pre-feasibility Stage
A series of investigation takes place during this stage, they are:
existing basic and additional information from the field are collected; and
technical, economic and cost benefit assessments are carried out.
The main EIA activities, at this stage, are identification of issues/impacts for investigation and,
formulation of the Terms of Reference (TOR) for the EIA. The term used for this activity is
"scoping".
C. Feasibility Stage
This stage provides a basis for the approval of a project. Various tasks carried out are:
a) Technical feasibility: includes consideration of alternatives, preliminary design and
specification, materials, cost estimation for construction, operation and maintenance.
b) Financial feasibility: includes analysis of direct cost of project.
c) Economic feasibility: Includes cost and benefit analysis of the project.
d) Institutional sustainability: includes need assessment of involvement of personnel,
training, strengthening and capacity building of the agency which will operate and own
the project.
EIA comprises:
Identification, prediction and assessment of anticipated impacts;
Evaluation of significant impacts and alternatives;
Recommendation of mitigation measures and estimated cost;
Preparation of monitoring and auditing plan and cost associated with them; and
Preparation of EMP/EMAP.
EIA study should be carried out:
during feasibility stage in conjunction with economic, technical and design work,
preliminary EIA works such as scoping and preparation of TOR should be carried out
during project pre-feasibility stage,
if EIA is carried out late in project cycle as an "add on", the process of EIA becomes
cumbersome, time consuming and expensive to incorporate the EIA recommendations
in the project construction.
D. Project Appraisal and Decision
During the project appraisal, a decision is made by the proponent or by the government, and in
some case by the lending agencies, as to whether the project is viable. At this stage, EIA
results will be put into consideration with feasibility study. An application for authorisation(s) has
to be made by the project proponent to a local/central government agency. This decision is the
final and determines whether a project is to be implemented. The EIA report also plays an
important role in this decision making process.
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E. Detail Engineering Design Phase
Activities carried out at this stage include:
final engineering design;
preparation of drawings;
preparation of specifications;
detail cost estimate; and
preparation of contract packages (tender documents).
At this stage, in the project cycle, the EIA report will act as a "reference" guide to the
implementation and use of mitigation strategies and monitoring schemes. Thus, the usefulness
of an EIA report does not end with the "official" authorisation to proceed. It may form a basis for
management plan to assist project implementation and management practice. For example,
EIA report recommendations can form a part of contract tender documents. Design work needs
to adapt to the EIA report recommendation. Cost consideration for each and every activity of
environmental consideration as estimated by Environmental Management Plan (EMP) must be
integrated in engineering cost estimate. All the conditions and actions related to environmental
aspects should be clearly mentioned in contract package.
F. Project Implementation Phase
Prior to the project construction, a guiding document called Project Implementation Plan (PIP)
should be prepared which includes;
arrangements for consultants, contractors, finance, reporting, monitoring and evaluation
for the the construction of project;
The EMP should be prepared which basically deals with all the environmental actions to
be undertaken in the process of project construction, operation and maintenance,
specific mitigation measures for anticipated impacts, and monitoring schemes.
G. Construction and Operation Phase
During the construction phase, the EMP proposed by the EIA report should be implemented.
During the construction and operation of project, monitoring of EMP implementation should be
carried out.
Lastly, after the project is completed, an "audit" can be made to determine how close the EIA's
predictions were to the actual impacts of the project. This forms a valuable records for others
conducting EIAs on similar projects in the future. The environmental auditing is to be carried out
after two (2) years of operation of project.
Linkage between EIA and Project Cycle
Project Phase EIA Activities
Project concept/identification phase Screening to determine the level of environmental
assessment needed
Pre-feasibility phase Scoping and TOR preparation
Identification of issues
Impact investigation
Feasibility (economic, technical and
preliminary design work) phase
EIA activities carried out:
Alternative analysis
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Impact prediction
Impact evaluation
Mitigation measures and monitoring
program
EMP preparation
Project appraisal and Decision phase Project viability and authorization made based on
EIA and technical and economic feasibility
Design phase
Detail survey
Detail engineering design
Tender document preparation
Incorporation of EIA recommendation
Design work needs to adapt to the EIA
result. (possible conflict between design
team and EIA team)
Project implementation phase
Construction
Operation
Implementation of mitigation measures and
monitoring scheme/plan
Post construction phase Environmental auditing
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Chapter 2
Screening and IEE
2.1 Introduction
Many projects are considered by the government for implementation every year. EIA needs
only to be applied for those actions which may significantly affect the environment. It is
therefore important to establish mechanisms for identifying projects requiring EIA. This process
of selection is referred to as screening.
Screening is the first step of EIA process and assists in determining whether a development
proposal requires an environmental assessment (EA) or not. If required what level of
assessment should be carried out to assess the possible impacts of the proposed action on the
environment.
2.2 Objectives of Screening
Screening of development proposals during the early stages of project planning accomplishes
the following:
i. Saves money;
ii. Saves time (i.e., avoids unnecessary delays);
iii. Immediately identifies environmental issues of major concern; and
iv. Establishes whether an EIA study needs to be conducted.
2.3 Screening Procedure/Criteria
The National EIA Guidelines, 1993 uses lists of projects, thresholds and sensitive areas as
criteria to assist screening. All development projects can be divided into three broad categories:
Projects requiring IEE;
Projects requiring EIA; and
Projects for which it is not clear whether an EIA or IEE is needed.
Screening is an exercise to distinguish the actions/projects which will have potential impacts on
the environment based on knowledge and experience. The exercise may be performed in
several ways.
The following criteria may be used to know the level of EA of the proposal:
Size and nature of the project such as large, medium, small or infrastructure or
service sector projects;
Location of the project such as in protected areas, heritage sites, dense
settlements, prime farm land, and/or environmentally sensitive areas;
Regulatory provisions, i.e., inclusion of projects requiring EA in laws, if any;
Estimation on possible impacts of projects and comparison with the thresholds
set; and
Analysis on the potential impacts based on readily available data.
16
Based on above mentioned detail, screening criteria can be grouped under following three
categories:
Figure 2.1: Screening Defined
1. Threshold Criteria
This method of screening establishes the thresholds for key features of a project, or an
environmental parameter which exceeded the thresholds, would require an EIA. Such
thresholds can range from environmental factors such as the size of agricultural land used for a
development project, location, cost, outputs, infrastructure demands, and national standards for
air, water and noise.
Capital investment or project cost may also be used as financial threshold. This threshold is an
indicator of whether a project may be characterized by the following elements, occupation of
large land area or involving high valued land and dislocation of large number of people, large
project size requiring costly machinery or processing plant. The application of financial
threshold criteria sometimes becomes misleading since small scale project with low financial
investment may have significant environmental impacts. Alternatively, projects exceeding the
financial threshold may not produce any significant impacts. Therefore, relying solely upon
financial threshold may result in incorrect decisions. It is therefore recommended that such
thresholds criteria be utilised in conjunction with other screening criteria.
2. Project Type Criteria
To further assist in the initial screening decision, development projects can be divided into
three broad categories.
Projects/proposals listed in Schedule 1 of EPR 1997 should undergo IEE
process;
17
Projects/proposals listed in Schedule 2 of EPR 1997 requires full scale EIA
process;
Proposals not listed in Schedule 1 but operation of any plan, project or
programme of any development project, physical activities or change in land
use with a cost of NRs. 50 million to 250 million require IEE; and
Proposals not listed in Schedule 2 but operation of any plan, project or
programme of any development project, physical activities or change in land
use with a cost of more than NRs. 250 million require EIA.
3. Sensitive Area Criteria
Proposals for projects which are proposed to be located within or near environmentally
sensitive areas are required to have an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) report
prepared unless exempted by the Act. These areas include the following categories:
Areas of unique historic, cultural, archaeological or geological interest and
wetlands;
Ecologically fragile areas;
National parks, wildlife sanctuaries and protected areas;
Wilderness areas containing rare or endangered species of animals or plants
and their habitat;
Semi-arid, alpine or tundra areas;
Flood-prone and other hazard zones;
Residential, school and hospital areas; and
Areas with major source of public water supply
2.4 IEE (Introduction)
Projects, in which the requirement for an EIA needs to be ascertained, should be subjected to
an Initial Environmental Examination (IEE). IEE is carried out to determine whether potentially
adverse environmental effects are significant or whether mitigation measures can be adopted to
reduce or eliminate these adverse effects. IEE requires more in-depth analysis than applied in
the screening procedure. Consequently, an IEE involves more time and resources. IEE also
requires expert advice and technical input from environmental specialists so that potential
environmental problems can be clearly defined. When an IEE is able to provide a definite
solution to environmental problems, an EIA is not necessary.
To prepare an IEE, it is necessary to initially make a checklist that briefly describes the project
activities to be implemented and natural resources to be affected.
Typical activities such as siting of the project, resource demand, waste production and
regulation, policies and guidelines are required to be included in IEE process. For any particular
project only a few of these may be significant and therefore the first step is to narrow the list of
activities likely to be produce significant effects on the environment. The interaction matrix
shown (Box 6) illustrates the process of identifying significant impacts. The horizontal column in
the matrix describes the proposed project activities, and the vertical column lists the
environmental parameters that might be affected. The response of each environmental
parameter to each project action is represented by an interaction cell and should be checked by
a rating number ranging from 1 to 3, 1 represent no significant impact, 2 moderate impact and 3
major impact.
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2.5 Methods for IEE
After a project has been screened and found to have potentially significant environmental
impacts, an IEE is undertaken to determine the probable environmental impacts associated with
the project and ascertain whether a full-scale EIA is required. The IEE is usually conducted with
a limited budget, and is based on existing information and the professional judgment of people
who are knowledgeable about impacts from similar projects.
The three primary objectives of the IEE are to:
1. identify the nature and severity of specific, significant environmental issues associated
with the project;
2. identify easily implementable mitigative or offsetting measures for the significant
environmental issues. If the IEE shows there are no significant environmental issues
which need further study, then the IEE serves as the final EIA Report; and
3. develop the TOR for the full-scale EIA study should more detailed assessment be
needed, or any special topic reports which may be required instead of, or in addition to,
the full-scale EIA.
The IEE process involves identifying potentially significant environmental issues, and resolving
those issues which are easily mitigated. Conducting an IEE ensures a focused TOR for a full-
scale EIA because it identifies the issues requiring resolution and provides background
information on them. The objectives of the IEE may be met without extensive financial and
human resources, thereby increasing efficiency. The most crucial requirements for IEE
execution are excellent judgment and appropriate experience, since evaluations and decisions
are based on limited information. Competent EIA practitioners need to be involved in the IEE
phase because the decisions made at this stage affect the composition and scope of the EIA
performed on a project. A poor IEE report could result in failure to recognize significant
environmental impacts, but a good report can result in efficient resolution of significant
environmental issues.
2.6 Process for Initial Environmental Examination Study
Projects for which the necessity for an EIA cannot be easily ascertained are subjected to an
IEE. An IEE is carried out to determine if significant environmental effects are likely to occur
and require a detailed study for mitigation measures. A detailed IEE study can then be carried
out to propose such measures. The IEE requires:
Adequate in-depth analysis
Adequate technical input of environmental specialists
Adequate resources and time
If an application of IEE provides a solution for potential problems, there is no need for
conducting a full-scale EIA.
An IEE for development projects should be carried out at an early stage of project
planning. As determined by EPR and its first 1999 amendment, the IEE should be carried
out for projects listed under schedule 1.
Projects mentioned in Schedule (1) of EPR must undergo an IEE process. However, in
the case that some problems cannot be solved at the IEE stage, there is also a provision
that the IEE may recommend for the application of EIA. This has been explicitly
mentioned in Rule (6) of EPR.
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The legal process for undertaking IEE has been described in Rules (3) and (5), Sub-Rule
(2) of Rule (7), Rule (10), and Sub-Rule (1) of Rule (11) of EPR applicable to Hydropower
Projects, and is as follows:
1. The proponent must carry out an IEE for the designated project as specified in
Schedule
(1) of EPR.
2. The project proponent should prepare a TOR based on the format given in Schedule
(3)
of EPR, to be submitted to concerned department and ministry for approval.
3. In the process of preparing the IEE report, the proponent should affix the notice in
concerned VDCs/Municipalities/DDCs, Schools, hospitals, and health posts, as well
as publishes the notice in a national daily newspaper. This notice must request
the concerned institutions and individuals to offer their written opinions and
suggestions within 15 days pertaining to the possible impacts on the local
environment from the implementation of the project. The proponent should
prepare a deed of public enquiry (Muchulka) of that action. Opinions and suggestions
recorded in response to the notice shall be included in the IEE report prepared as per
Rule (7), and the format mentioned in Schedule (5) should be followed. The reports
should include the recommendation letters of the concerned VDCs and
municipalities.
4. Upon submission of IEE report with all necessary documents, as required by the
prevailing laws, the concerned agency after reviewing and examining the reports can
approve the project within 21 days of submission; if it is found that implementation of
the project will have no adverse impacts on the environment.
5. If the IEE recommends the undertaking of an EIA for the selected project, the
proponent must carry out a full-scale EIA.
2.7 TOR for IEE
The scoping process has been removed from IEE in the first amendment of EPR (1999).
Thus, TOR for IEE also represents the scoping process to some extent, and TOR should
be presented here for the purpose of reference. The proponent should develop a TOR to
be submitted to authorized department and concerned ministry for approval.
If the proposed project falls within Schedule (1) of EPR, the TOR is required to provide
specific guidelines for IEE study.
TOR preparation assists in:
Systematizing the working procedure
Delineating the specific activities to be implemented
Fitting the IEE study into the context of existing polices, rules and administrative
procedures
Accomplishing the work within a specified time frame
Giving emphasis to the most important elements for study
Providing technical guidance in delineating the specific environmental aspects for
study
2.8 Difference between IEE and EIA
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IEE EIA
Generally conducted for small scale
project
Scoping not required
IEE to be approved by Concerned
Body within 21 days
EMP not required
Environmental auditing not required
15-days public notice to be published
in national daily newspaper and notice
to be affixed in the project area after
the preparation of the draft IEE report
Deals with generally known and easily
predictable impacts
Public input at different stages of
report preparation
May recommend for further
assessment
Generally conducted for large scale
projects
Scoping required
EIA to be reviewed by Concerned
Body and approved by MoSTE within
60 days and by the latest within 90
days upon its receipt
EMP required
Environmental auditing required
Public hearing is mandatory after the
preparation of draft EIA report
Also deals with unknown impacts
Public inputs also during the approval
process
In general does not recommend for
further assessment
Chapter 3
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Scoping and Preparation of Terms of Reference (ToR)
3.1Objectives of Scoping
Scoping is a process to determine what should be the coverage or scope of the EIA study for a
project proposal as having potentially significant environmental impacts. It also helps in
developing and selecting alternatives to the proposed action and in identifying the issues to be
considered in an EIA. The primary output of scoping is the terms of reference (TOR) required to
conduct an EIA and to prepare the EIA report.
Scoping is a critical, early step in the preparation of an EIA. The scoping process identifies the
issues that are likely to be of most importance during the EIA and eliminates those that are of
little concern. Scoping ensures that EIA studies are focused on the significant effects and time
and money are not wasted on unnecessary investigations.
The purpose of scoping is to identify:
the important issues to be considered in an EIA;
the appropriate time and space boundaries of the EIA study;
the information necessary for decision-making; and
the significant effects and factors to be studied in detail.
In addition, the scoping process can be used to help define the feasible alternatives to a
proposed action. Not all EIA systems make provision for the generation or review of alternatives
during scoping. These may follow, instead, from the issues that are identified as important.
Scoping provides the foundations for an effective and efficient EIA process. When
systematically carried out, scoping highlights the issues that matter and results in Terms of
Reference for an EIA that provide clear direction to the proponent on what is required. This
increases the likelihood of an adequately prepared EIA report. The scoping process itself can
vary in scope, complexity and time taken. A comprehensive approach to scoping may be
needed for large-scale proposals, which have a range of impacts that are potentially significant.
Key objectives of scoping are to:
identify concerns and issues for consideration in an EIA study;
collect issues and concerns of the stakeholders and/or affected communities;
enable those responsible for an EIA study to properly brief the study team on the
alternatives and on impacts to be considered at different levels of analysis;
determine the assessment methods to be used;
prioritize issues and concerns for EIA study;
provide an opportunity for public involvement in determining the issues to be assessed,
facilitate early agreement on contentious issues
establish terms of reference (TOR) for EIA study
The elements of scoping differ to some degree with the EIA requirements established by
different countries and international agencies. A comprehensive scoping process will include all
or a combination of the following functions:
identify the range of community and scientific concerns about a proposed project or
action;
22
evaluate these concerns to identify the significant issues (and to eliminate those issues
which are not important); and
organize and prioritise these issues to focus the information that is critical for decision
making, and that will be studied in detail in the next phase of EIA.
3.2Scoping Process
The steps involved in scoping process are described in details below:
(a) Making a plan for public Involvement
A public involvement or communication plan is one of the most important internal planning tools
for those conducting a scoping exercise. The major purpose of scoping at an early stage of
project planning is to clearly define all the communities and agencies which should be allowed
to influence decisions relating to the proposal. The plan should identify whom to talk to, as well
as when and how to undertake the communication exercise. Consent must be obtained from
the authorities and government agencies concerned. The project proponent, relevant experts,
local people affected, as well as special interest groups should be considered for inclusion in
the list of persons to be covered by the communication plan. Methods for involving affected
interests and for collecting information include:
securing written submissions from relevant government agencies and the public,
holding community meetings and public hearings,
conducting preliminary field study/observation of sites, and
conducting workshops/seminars and establishing an intersectoral task force.
(b) Assembling relevant existing Information
At this stage, information should be collected on the nature of the project, including preparation
of a preliminary list of potential environmental impacts and practical alternatives, accompanied
by maps, drawings and other aids for a fuller understanding of the project proposal. This key
information will help in formulating appropriate mitigation measures and will form the basis of
further discussion.
(c) Distribution of Information to affected persons
The information collected in step (b) should be processed and assembled into an information
package and distributed to appropriate individuals and organizations for comment. Government
departments and concerned local and regional officials should be contacted. For major projects,
it is always advisable to issue a general public notice inviting public comment and to hold public
meetings at the project site as well as at the central level to facilitate consultation and
interaction.
The project proponents should be responsible for obtaining and making information available to
the parties concerned. In cases, where the individuals affected by the proposed project should
be identified, information should be sent directly to local community groups.
For larger projects, however, where the number of affected persons is not known, the
information should be disseminated through the media or by sending the information package
to the location within the area, where interested individuals may visit. The village communities
concerned should be actively involved and made responsible for the collection of all written or
verbal reactions to the project proposal from the local people.
(d) Identifying major Issues of public concern
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All the concerns and issues raised by affected interests, should be compiled into a
comprehensive list. Each contribution should be categorised and no issue or concern should be
ignored or rejected in the compilation of the list.
(e) Evaluating the significance of Issues on the basis of available Information
Once the issues have been identified and grouped, their scientific validity needs to be carefully
evaluated. If certain questions of a technical nature remain unresolved, a discussion panel or
workshop can be organized at an appropriate venue to resolve the problem.
(f) Establishing priorities for environmental assessment
Although grouping of the issues is undertaken in step (d), a more detailed exercise should be
conducted at this stage. Issues to which immediate solutions can be provided or issues which
have no relevance to the proposed project should be dropped. The key issues remaining should
be arranged in order of priority.
(g) Developing a strategy for addressing priority issues
Issues to which immediate solutions can be provided -- such as suggesting feasible alternatives
or mitigation measures that can be implemented at an early stage -- should be removed from
the list. For those issues which need further information in order to be resolved, a terms of
reference (TOR) should be prepared in order to define guidelines for further study. The extent
of information required for a detailed EIA depends upon the type, level, and magnitude of the
project concerned.
3.3Approaches to scoping
A systematic and transparent approach should be taken to sifting and paring down the
concerns, issues and impacts. This can be undertaken in three steps:
1. Compile a long list of concerns from the information available and the inputs of
stakeholders. No attempt should be made at this stage to exclude or pre-judge
concerns.
2. Derive a short list of key issues and problem areas based on their potential significance
and likely importance for decision-making on the proposal. This phase involves
evaluating the issues against selected criteria; for example, differentiating serious risks
or threats from effects that can be mitigated
3. Classify and order the key issues into impact categories by reference to policy
objectives and scientific concepts, such as emission levels that may exceed health or
environmental standards. Such a synthesis or aggregation provides a coherent
framework for drafting the Terms of Reference for the EIA study.
The table below contains an indicative list of activities to be carried out when scoping in
accordance with this approach. The list begins with getting ready by preparing a profile of the
scope under key headings and using this as a basis for informal consultations with key
stakeholders. Once this round of discussion has occurred, the three steps described above take
place with iterations between them. Finally, the Terms of Reference are established, with
provision for adjustment and feedback as and when necessary during the EIA process.
In practice, the first phase of scoping opening out the list of concerns and issues is much easier
to achieve than the next two. With few exceptions, most EIA systems experience difficulties in
narrowing down and focusing on the issues that matter. This imposes certain limitations when
preparing Terms of Reference, with potential knock on effects on the next stage of work on the
EIA study. Ultimately, it is the responsibility of the proponent or competent authority to bring the
scoping process to a conclusion.
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Indicative list of scoping activities
Activity Items
(As stated these steps are only indicative, and should be tailored to meet the requirements of
the particular situation.)
Getting ready 1. Prepare a preliminary or outline scope with headings such as:
objectives and description of the proposal
the policy context and environmental setting
data and information sources, constraints etc.
alternatives to the proposal
concerns, issues and effects identified to date
provision for public involvement
timetable for scoping, EIA and decision making
2. Develop the outline scope by informal consultation and by assembling
available information, identifying information gaps, etc.
3. Make the provisional scope and supporting information available to the
public.
Undertaking
scoping
4. Draw up a long list of the range of issues and concerns.
5. Evaluate their relative importance and significance to derive a short list of
key issues.
6. Organise the key issues into the impact categories to be studied.
Completion and
continuity
7. Amend the outline scope to progressively incorporate the information from
each stage.
8. Establish the Terms of Reference for the EIA, including information
requirements, study guidelines, methodology and protocols for revising work.
9. Monitor progress against the ToR, making adjustments as needed and
provide feedback to stakeholders and the public.
Depending upon the EIA system, responsibility for scoping may lie with the proponent, with the
competent authority, or with the EIA agency or an independent body set up for the purpose. In
many cases, some form of guidance will be given on the conduct of scoping, the procedures to
be followed and the methods that can be used to undertake the consultative and technical
components of this activity.
A custom-tailored scoping process will include an overview or profile of the proposal, the
environment and community that is likely to be affected, the possible alternatives, the range of
potential impacts, and the ways these may be mitigated or managed. In addition, the following
should be addressed:
geographical area(s) and the time-frame(s) for impact analysis;
the policy and institutional frameworks under which the EIA will be conducted;
existing information sources, gaps and constraints on methodology;
the scheduling of the EIA study, and the allocation of resources and responsibilities;
and
the relationship to the decision-making process including modification of design and
selection of alternatives as well as final approval of the proposal.
A proposed plan for public involvement in the EIA process (including the scoping phase) should
be prepared. Early consideration should be given to the means of informing and involving the
people who are likely to be directly affected by or interested in a proposal. A first step is to draw
up a list of participants who should be involved in scoping. Both the overall approach to scoping
and the mechanisms for consultation need to take into account local values, traditions and
culture.
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3.4Scoping methods
The following public involvement methods are used in the conduct of scoping:
notification/invitation for public comment and written submissions;
consultation with the various stakeholders;
public and community meetings; and
issues workshops and facilitated discussion.
Although scoping is a distinct, early process within EIA, the significant effects continue to be re-
interpreted throughout an EIA study, the decision-making process and project implementation
and monitoring. Unforeseen issues that require further consideration may arise in any of these
phases. The work undertaken for an EIA study on a particular issue (the impact of toxic effluent
on aquatic species and human health, for example) may uncover further questions, some of
which may become contentious. In some cases, earlier guidance may need to be revisited, for
example relating to data collection and analysis or the criteria used to interpret the significance
of effects. Ultimately there are no right answers to these questions, just a succession of
judgements that try to balance the available resources for the study (both time and money) with
the legitimate concerns of the participants.
By involving the public, scoping process helps to build confidence in the EIA process. Often, the
scoping process is the first major point of contact with the stakeholders who are affected by or
interested in the proposal and the alternatives. It provides an important opportunity to inform
them about the proposal and the EIA process, to understand their concerns and to set out the
role and contribution of public involvement in decision-making. Experience indicates that where
scoping responds to stakeholder and public inputs, even though it cannot always accommodate
them, there is likely to be increased acceptance of the EIA and decision making processes.
3.5Terms of Reference and its main components
Terms of reference (ToR) are normally prepared following the screening stage and after a
decision for a partial or full project EIA and therefore are usually the product of scoping.
However, there are no hard and fast rules for preparation of ToR.
Importantly, ToR for an EIA study must be finalised before a proponent solicits proposals to
carry out the work. Once the ToR have been compiled, they should be submitted to the review
agency for approval. This is usually done by the proponent in collaboration with the team
responsible for the initial scoping. ToR is important because they:
provide formal guidance for practitioners on the range of issues that must be addressed
in the EIA process;
clarify to the proponent "what is expected of them";
provide the proponent with a basis for project analysis;
provide the reviewing agency with a tool for compliance; and,
establish the framework for the review process by providing benchmarks against which
the EIA process (as a whole) and the EIS (in particular) can be evaluated.
ToR may be prepared by the developer, an agency and/or consultant requested by the
developer, or the developer in consultation with a donor (in case of a donor funded project, e.g.
the World Bank). Responsibility for ensuring that the ToR for an EIA study are technically
adequate, i.e. they are systematic, clear and tailored to the specific context of the project, rests
with the EIA agency.
Terms of Reference for a full EIA can refer to some or all of the following items:
purpose and application of the Terms of Reference;
statement of need for and objectives of the proposal;
26
project background and description;
study area or impact zone(s) (e.g. the affected environment and community);
applicable policy and institutional considerations;
EIA requirements and decision-making particulars;
provisions for public involvement;
alternatives to be examined;
the impacts and issues to be studied;
the studies to be carried out (e.g. approach, time & space boundaries);
the requirements for mitigation and monitoring;
the information and data to be included in the EIA report;
the timeframe for completion of the EIA process; and
the means for making changes to the ToR if necessary.
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Chapter 4
Establishing the Environmental baseline
4.1Introduction
Baseline information is important reference point for conducting EIA. The term "baseline" refers
to the collection of background information on the biophysical, social and economic settings
proposed project area. Normally, information is obtained from secondary sources when there
exists a facility of database, or the acquisition of new information through field samplings. The
task of collecting baseline data starts right from the period of project inception; however, a
majority of this task may be undertaken during scoping.
Baseline data are collected for two main purposes:
to provide a description of the status and trends of environmental factors (e.g., air
pollutant concentrations) against which predicted changes can be compared and
evaluated in terms of importance, and
to provide a means of detecting actual change by monitoring once a project has been
initiated
It is often forgotten why the baseline information is collected, where to incorporate them and
what level of understanding is required. Sometimes, it becomes too superficial, while in other
cases it goes deeper, and it the end much of the investment on time and money are being
wasted.
Collection of baseline data should be designed to satisfy information requirements and should
be relevant to EIA analysis. Only baseline data needed to assist prediction of the impacts
contained in the TOR should be collected.
4.2The Environmental setting
The description of environmental setting includes the characteristics of the area in which the
proposed action would occur. Project area is defined as the area within which all effects,
impacts, features and potential compensation efforts would occur. The levels of details of the
description of the study area should be sufficient to convey to readers or reviewers the precise
nature of the natural and human resources, potentially affected by the proposed action and its
alternatives.
The following are the major environmental parameters of the proposed project area for which
the existing baseline information required to be assessed.
Physical Environment topography, geology and geo-dynamics, soil types and
productivity, surface and groundwater condition, land use pattern of the direct impact
area and immediate influence area, watershed condition, source-based air and water
quality, pollution and noise levels etc.
Biological Environment Terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, type of flora and fauna
with their species composition, status and habitat (both terrestrial & aquatic),
environmentally sensitive areas such as wetlands, prime agricultural land, protected
areas and/or other areas as defined by the regulatory framework, areas having
protected, endemic, endangered and rare species, diversity in ecosystem and species
levels, stock of timber and firewood in the areas to be cleared for project construction
and operation etc.
Socio-economic Environment Population and demography, development needs
and potentials, infrastructure facilities (road, transportation, irrigation, electricity, and
telecommunication etc.), and social service facilities (drinking water, school and health),
economic activities such as agriculture, livestock, trade, business etc., different
28
category of land and property to be affected, possible land and property acquisition, if
any, etc.
Cultural Environment location and condition of archaeological, historical and
religious sites, cultural and religious practices etc.
The levels of detail description of the environmental setting will vary with the nature of the
proposed action and affected resources. When an action (and its anticipated effects) is a point
and essentially confined to a particular piece of property then it is generally appropriate to
describe all natural and man-made features of the property and the vicinity (Corridor of Impact).
This approach would be appropriate for the IEE/EIA of a moderate size industrial/commercial
facility or for a residential development. When an action is a band type such as a transmission
line, pipeline or canal, roads, the discussion of existing environment may necessarily be less
detailed and in certain categories only.
Collection of baseline data should be designed to satisfy information requirements and should
be relevant to EIA analysis. Only baseline data needed to assist prediction of the impacts
contained in the TOR should be collected. Intensive and focussed efforts to collect baseline
data must be directed by the requirements of the TOR.
4.3Data Sources
Published, unpublished and/or official decisions and records, measurement, observation and
local people are the sources of information. They can be grouped into two types of sources.
1. Secondary Sources When there exists a facility of database, this type of source can
be used to collect baseline information. This type of source include published and
unpublished documents such as project document, village/district profile, topographical
maps, aerial photographs, other maps such as geological maps, forests and vegetation
maps, operational forest management plans, soil maps, air and water quality data of
monitoring stations, if available, climatological record, hospital data, economic survey,
internet etc.
2. Primary Sources This type of source involves the acquisition of new data/information
through field samplings/surveys etc. It includes field data, laboratory analysis, sampling
and analysis of air and water quality, soil, noise level, tree and shrubs measurement,
plant counting, estimation of wild animals, population dynamics, socio-economic
survey, listing and functioning of infrastructure and social service facilities, economic
conditions of the project affected families, listing of cultural resources including
archaeological and historical sites, cultural practices, photographs and audio-video
cassettes etc.
Some of them could be collected through focus group discussion (FGD), meetings with
VDC and DDC and other district level and central level institutions with participation of
possible project affected families (PAFs), women, disadvantaged group of people, etc.
4.4Methods of data collection
Baseline data related to various components of environment (physical, chemical, biological,
socio-economic and cultural) could be generated by employing following methods.
(a) General Methods
Following general methods are used for baseline information collection.
Literature Review: Necessary and relevant information could be collected
through the review of published and unpublished documents, reports such as
project reports, feasibility reports etc.
Map Interpretation: Available maps particularly the maps related to
physiography, land utilization, land use, vegetation, soil, and geology could be
interpreted to collect site-specific information. These maps also provide
information on settlement pattern, resource rich areas, cultivated lands, barren
lands, hazard prone areas, environmentally sensitive areas, forests etc.
29
Checklists: Various types of checklists could be used to collect and verify
necessary information. Depending upon the nature of information required,
descriptive checklist, i.e., list of environmental parameters with guidelines on
measurement could also be used. Sometimes scaling checklist, i.e., subjective
scaling of parameter values using symbol or letter to indicate positive or
negative impact are also used. In the scaling checklist, the following symbols
can be used over the environmental parameters considered. They are:
++ = Very positive
+ = Positive
0 = Neutral
- = Negative
_ = Very negative
Matrices: A two dimensional checklist can be used to collect peoples
perception over the possible impacts of the project activities on the
environment. In the matrix, environmental parameters and project activities
should be listed on X and Y-axis respectively.
Questionnaire: Questionnaires are generally used to collect socio-economic
and cultural information.
(b) Resource-based Methods
Depending upon the natural resources available in the area and the nature of information
require, the following methods could be used to collect necessary baseline information.
Physical: The latitude and longitude of the project area could be fixed in the
topographic map. The altitude should be recorded with altimeter or it could be
known from the topo map. A site-specific map of the project area could be
developed taking into account the land uses. The topographical variation,
landslides and potential sites, settlements, water bodies, cultivated areas,
sensitive sites etc could be located in that map. The soil characteristics could
be determined by colour chart. The soil sample could be collected by augur or
other methods and analyzed in the laboratory to ascertain the soil composition
and properties. Similarly, air and water samples could be taken from the
representative areas and analyzed by standard methods. The background
noise level could be measured through audiometer.
Biological: If the project is planned to be implemented in the forests and/or
passes through the forest area, the directly affected area should be inventoried
to know the stock of forests, species composition and possible loss of forest
area.
Socio-economic: Socio-economic information could be generated through
pre-structured or open questionnaires, household survey, Rapid Rural
Appraisal (RRA) and Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) techniques.
Qualitative information could also be generated through interview and noting,
cassette recording etc. Household level of detail information could be collected
through questionnaires. Adequate attention should be given to generate data
related to project affected families. Information on income and expenditure,
agriculture production etc could be obtained through questionnaires while
record of schools and health posts provide information on available education
and health facilities.
4.5Survey Equipment and Materials
Various types of equipment and materials could be used to generate field level information.
Some of them are mentioned below:
30
Equipments Global Positioning System (GPS) meter, altimeter, soil auger,
sound meter, low/high volume sampler, camera, binocular, cassette recorder,
measuring tape, plant press etc.
Maps Physiographic/toposheets, district/village maps, land use and land
capability maps, geological maps, vegetation/forest maps, trekking maps, aerial
photos, other photos etc.
Keys Reference kays for the identification of plants and animals in the field.
Test Kits Water quality test kits, specimen bottles, preservatives etc.
Logistics Full set of adequate questionnaires, torchlight, extra battery and
film rolls, medicines, insect repellent, reference letter (to the institutions for
necessary assistance/cooperation) etc.
4.6Importance of baseline data
There are four decision making points in the sequence of EIA implementation. The nature and
the extent of baseline information required at each of the decision points are quite different. The
following example of a hydroelectric development project, in relation to likely to impact on fish
population will illustrate the four critical decision points and the requirement of baseline
information, at each stage.
A series of potential sites for generating hydropower has been identified at different stretches of
the Modi River in Nepal: The most promising site, where preliminary investigation has
suggested a possibility of 30 MW of hydropower generation.
(a) Decision on the Project Approval
Tor tor Ham (Sahar fish) a delicious long-distance migratory fish, is available in plenty in the
entire stretch of the Modi River. This species of fish has been reported to migrate upstream for
breeding in summer and downstream for feeding in the winter time. Most of the fishermen living
on the river side adopt traditional technology to catch the fish and sell their harvest to the local
market.
One of the major environmental concerns of damming of the river is to impose an obstruction to
the upstream and downstream migration of the fish which in turn would like to create a number
of issues.
report from fishermen of the area indicated that the population of fish has declined
recently due to the excessive fishing,
the obstruction likely to be created by damming would further reduces population and
may destroy fish spawning area,
the Sahar fish (Tor tor sp) is considered to be most delicious hills stream fish, liked by
the local people
The fish resource comes under the jurisdiction of Department of Fish and Fishery of the
government; the current legislation does not account for the regulation of river fish resources in
Nepal. However, in absence of such, regulatory mechanism, it would be highly relevant to
consult the local fishermen and the local government about their consensus to proceed with the
project, that are likely to produce adverse effect for fish resources of the area.
For justification of the issues, it is necessary to have sufficient information on the following
parameters:
data on current abundance of fish
fish migratory pattern
spawning characteristic,
localities
the current rate of fish exploitation, and
the economic
If information on above parameters is available, the second aspect is to design mitigation
measures such as:
carryout feasibility study in order to establish a fish hatchery to replace the possible loss
of fish production,
31
examine the feasibility for installing a fish ladder in order to facilitate the fish migration,
and
explore the possibility of opening-up the potential habitat and spawning ground by
removing the obstacle in tributary river.
On the basis of availability of above justifications the project should be approved by the
authority.
(b) Decision on the Location of Project
If the project is approved for implementation, then the second decision would be to find out an
appropriate location for the construction of a dam. Engineering feasibility might have proposed
several sites for dam construction, and on the basis of technical and economical consideration,
the best site might have been identified. However, from the point of view of the environment,
particularly, in the case of fish resources, a more detailed and focused baseline study should
have to be conducted at each alternative sites proposed, mainly on:
a) site for damming, which would be likely to have less effect on fish spawning grounds;
b) site which would be likely to create more area for spawning; and
c) site which would be likely to impose minimum obstruction for fish migration.
(c) Decision on the Project Design
At this stage decisions and recommendations should be incorporated into the project design.
Primarily the following aspects have to be considered:
the hydrological regime of the river should be well understood,
a coordinated mechanism in the project design is necessary for maintaining the regular
water flow downstream, and
the design has to incorporate all recommended mitigation measures, and also a fish
ladder to be included in the design, if necessary.
All considerations at the design stage should be backed by baseline information, and whether
or not all measures recommended in previous decisions have been taken into consideration in
project design.
(d) Decision on the Operation of Project
Consideration at this stage of project, establishes monitoring and operational feedback system
to ensure that the design features built into the project are properly implemented. A number of
study should be made at this stage. For example survival rate at of juvenile fish above the dam
should be compared with that in unaffected parts of the river to assess whether newly
developed habitat is being used to the extent predicted; and the relationship between fish
production in the river, and commercial catches.
32
Chapter 5
Impact Identification, Prediction and Evaluation
Techniques
5.1 Methods of impact identification
In the history of EIA, an enormous variety of methods have been devised to help undertake
EIAs and prepare EIA reports. These EIA methods are structured, formal frameworks which
allow impact data to be identified, manipulated and presented. Some methods are suited to one
of these tasks, whereas other methods can be used for all of them.
These methods are tools used to assist EIA implementation, not rigid formula to be used
exactly as described here. They can be modified, adapted, extended or simplified to meet the
needs of a particular EIA.
These methods can be divided into two categories and used for:
a) Identifying impacts; and
b) Presenting the results of the EIA in the EIA report.
The most common formal methods used for impact identification are:
I. Ad hoc method
II. Checklists
III. Matrices
IV. Networks
V. Overlays and geographic information systems (GIS) and
VI. Expert systems
(i) Ad Hoc Method
Ad hoc methods are not really methods as they do not structure the problem so it is more
amenable to systematic analysis. A good example of an ad hoc method is a team of experts
assembled for a short time to conduct an Environmental Assessment. Each expert's
conclusions are based on a unique combination of experience, training and intuition. These
conclusions are assembled into a report. Sometimes this is the only required or possible
approach. In other instances, when more scientific methods are available, it is not sufficient
to rely on ad hoc methods.
The information is stated in simple terms that are readily understood by the lay person. No
information about the cause-effect relationship between project actions and environmental
components is provided. The actual impacts on specific environmental components likely to
be affected by the project or those that may require further investigation are not identified.
The method merely presents the pertinent information without resorting to any relative
weighting of importance. This method is used for IEE and not used for comprehensive EIA.
This method is very easy to use, but does have a few drawbacks (Lohani and Kan, 1983):
it may not encompass all the relevant impacts; because the criteria used to
evaluate impacts are not comparable, the relative weights of various impacts
cannot be compared;
it is inherently inefficient as it requires sizeable effort to identify and assemble an
appropriate panel of experts for each assessment; and
33
it provides minimal guidance for impact analysis while suggesting broad areas of
possible impacts.
(ii) Checklists
As one of the first EIA methods, checklists are still in use, though, in many different forms.
Usually, checklists consist of environmental factors, which may be affected by project activities.
Checklists can range from simple lists of items to more complex variations, which incorporate
guidance on the scaling and weighting of impacts. Checklist technique is used for identifying the
project impacts. Such lists usually cover all possible impacts of the project. In the earlier days
of EIAs, simple checklists containing only the environmental indices were extensively used.
Checklists are standard lists of the types of impacts associated with a particular type of
project. Checklists methods are primarily for organizing information or ensuring that no
potential impact is overlooked. They are a more formalized version of ad hoc approaches
in that specific areas of impact are listed and instructions are supplied for impact
identification and evaluation.
There are four general types of checklists:
a. Simple Checklist: It provides a list of environmental parameters with no
guidelines on how they are to be measured and interpreted.
b. Questionnaire Checklist: This method includes a set of questions to be
answered.
c. Descriptive Checklist: It includes an identification of environmental parameters
and guidelines on how to measure data on particular parameters.
d. Scaling Checklist: It is similar to a descriptive checklist, but with additional
information on subjective scaling of the parameters.
e. Scaling Weighting Checklist: I t i s similar to a scaling checklist, with
additional information for the subjective evaluation of each parameter with
respect to all the other parameters.
Varying levels of information and expertise are required to prepare checklists. Simple
checklists may require only a generalized knowledge of the environmental parameters likely
to be affected, and access to an information base. Alternatively, simple checklist methods can
be used to summarize the results of an EIA. Scaling weighted checklists are likely to require
more expertise to prepare.
a) Simple checklist: These checklists contain only a list of environmental factors and are
very simple to use. The simple checklist focuses attention only on those factors, which
have to be considered for EIA analysis. Their use ensures that a particular factor is not
omitted from analysis. In essence, these checklists act as a memory aide. However, they
do not give any guidance on how impacts should be assessed, and they do not advise
the type of predictive technique to be used and the type of data required.
34
Project
Activities
Standard
Legislative
Requirements
Team of Specialists
Possible Impacts
Table 5.1: Typical Project Checklist by Impact Area
Potential Impact Area Construction Phase Operation Phase
A. LAND TRANSFORMATION
AND CONSTRUCTION
Adv
erse
Effe
ct
No Effect Beneficial
Effect
Adverse
Effect
No Effect Beneficial
Effect
a. Compaction and setting
b. Erosion
c. Ground cover
d. Stability (Slides)
e. Waste
B. WATER RESOURCES
a. Quality
b. Drainage
c. Ground and Surface Water
C. AIR QUALITY
a. Oxides (Sulphur, carbon, nitrogen)
b. Particulate matter
c. Chemicals
D. PUBLIC UTILITY SERVICES
a. Schools
b. Police
c. Water supply and Power system
e. Sewerage system
E. BIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS
a. Wildlife
b. Trees, shrubs
c. Grasses
F. TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM
a. Safety
b. Movement
G. COMMUNITY STRUCTURES
a. Relocation
b. Mobility
c. Services
d. Recreation
H. OTHER (List as appropriate)
b) Questionnaire checklist: This method includes a set of questions to be answered.
The questions are listed under generic categories such as "terrestrial ecosystem" and
"disease vectors". Those assessing impacts must attempt to answer the questions in all
categories. There can be three answers, depending on how much is known about the
particular impact under consideration. For example, if it were known that an impact was
likely or unlikely, then the appropriate answer (Yes/No) would be marked. However, if
insufficient evidence is available for a definite response, the "Unknown" category
should be marked. This indicates that further work is needed to ascertain whether an
impact is likely. The following table shows a small section of a questionnaire checklist.
35
Part of a Questionnaire Checklist
The following is an example of an EIA checklist based on rural and urban water supply and
sanitation projects.
Table 5.2: Checklist for water supply project
Indicative list of scoping activities
Aspects of EIA Checklist Questions Yes No
Additional
Data Needs
Sources of
Impacts
1. Require the acquisition or conversion of significant areas of land
for reservoir/treatment works etc.?
2. Result in significant quantities of eroded material, effluent or
solid wastes?
3. Require significant accommodation or service amenities to
support the workforce during construction (eg > 100 manual
workers)?
Receptors of
Impacts
4. Flood or otherwise affect areas which support conservation
worthy terrestrial or aquatic ecosystems, flora or fauna (eg
protected areas, wilderness areas, forest reserves, critical habitats,
endangered species); or that contain sites of historical or cultural
importance?
5. Flood or otherwise affect areas which will affect the livelihoods
of local people (eg require population resettlement; affect local
industry, agriculture, livestock or fish stocks; reduce the availability
of natural resource goods and services)?
6. Involve siting sanitation treatment facilities close to human
settlements (particularly where locations are susceptible to
flooding)?
7. Affect sources of water extraction?
36
a) Are there known disease problems in the Yes No Unknown
project area transmitted through vector species,
such as mosquitoes, flies, snails, etc.?
b) Are these vector species associated with:
* aquatic habitats? Yes No Unknown
* forest habitats? Yes No Unknown
* agricultural habitats? Yes No Unknown
c) Will the project provide opportunities for vector Yes No Unknown
Control through improved standards of living?
Estimated impact on disease vectors?
highly adverse insignificant highly beneficial.
Environmental
Impacts
8. Cause a noticeable permanent or seasonal reduction in the
volume of ground or surface water supply?
9. Present a significant pollution risk through liquid or solid wastes
to humans, sources of water extraction, conservation worthy
aquatic ecosystems and species, or commercial fish stocks?
10. Change the local hydrology of surface water-bodies (eg.
streams, rivers, lakes) such that conservation-worthy or
commercially significant fish stocks are affected?
11. Increase the risk of diseases in areas of high population density
(eg. onchocerciasis, filariasis, malaria, hepatitis, gastrointestinal
diseases)?
12. Induce secondary development, eg along access roads, or in the
form of entrepreneurial services for construction and operational
activities?
Mitigation
Measures
13. Be likely to require mitigation measures that may result in the
project being financially or socially unacceptable?
c) Descriptive Checklist: It is an extension to simple checklist. It includes an identification
of environmental parameters and guidelines on how to measure data on particular
parameters. In this method, for each of the identified environmental factors, workable
state of the art methods and techniques for impact identification, data collection, analysis,
and evaluation are included. Simple and descriptive checklists can be used in IEE
(scoping stage assessment).
d) Scaling Checklist: It is similar to a descriptive checklist, but with additional
information on subjective scaling of the parameters. Impact of a project is rated on a
scale of -5 to +5. Negative sign indicates adverse impact and positive sign indicates
positive or beneficial impact.
Table 5.3: Scaling Checklist for Environmental Impact Assessment
1. Environmental
Parameter
2. Alternative Rating 3. Remarks
5. 1 6. 2 7. 3 8.
9. Ground water
quality
10. 0 11. 0 12. 0 13. No effect
14. Air quality 15. -1 16. -2 17. -2 18. Little effect
19. Noise level 20. 0 21. 0 22. -1 23. Little, if any
effect
24. Health 25. -3 26. -3 27. -2 28. Moderate effect
29. Education 30. +1 31. +1 32. +2 33. Little positive
effect
34. Surface water
quality
35. -2 36. -1 37. -1 38. Little effect
39. Biota 40. -1 41. 0 42. 0 43. Little effect
Table 5.4: Summary Rating of Scaling Checklist:
Rating Analysis Alternatives
1 2 3
No. of plus rating 1 1 1
No. of minus rating 4 3 4
Algebraic sum of
ratings
-6 -5 -4
Average of ratings -1.2 -1.25 -0.8
Best option Alternative 3
37
e) Scaling weighting Checklist (SWC): It is similar to scaling checklist but additional
information is provided as to the subjective evaluation of each parameter with respect
to all the other parameters. Battelle Environmental Evaluation System (BEES) is a
type of SWC. It can be used both for impact identification and impact evaluation.
Following are the steps involved in this method:
1. Obtain baseline data on the identified factors and subsequently predict the changes in
them due to project activity.
2. The predicted factors are then converted into environmental quality scale values using
the appropriate functional curve. E.g.; Typical functional curve for DO
For drawing functional curve divide Environmental Quality (EQ) scale ranging
from 0 to 1.
EQ value is obtained from functional curve corresponding to the value
measured on actual scale.
Table 5.5: Determination of Parameter Importance Value (PIU)
Impact Area Ranking Weighting (W) PIU (100*W)
Water quality 1 1/7 14
Air quality 2 2/7 29
Noise level 3 3/7 43
Health 1 1/7 14
Final Impact Score 7 1.0 100
Overall Environmental Impact Evaluation System
Impact Area PIU EQ EIU (PIU*EQ)
Water quality 14 0.2 2.8
Air quality 29 0.1 2.9
Noise level 43 0 0
Health 14 0.3 4.2
Final Impact Score 8.9
(iii) Matrices
There are several types of matrices used in Impact Identification in EIA. The simple
matrix refers to a display of project actions or activities along one axis, with
appropriate environmental factors listed along the other axis of the matrix. When a
given action or activity is anticipated to cause a change in an environmental factor,
this is noted at the intersection point in the matrix and can be further described in
terms of magnitude and important considerations. Many variations of the interaction
matrix have been utilized in EIA. The following table is the illustration of simple
matrix.
a) Leopold Matrix (LM)
This method was developed by Leopold et al. (1971), and it has been used for the
identification of impacts. It involves the use of a matrix with 100 specified actions and 88
environmental items. In constructing the matrix, each action and its potentiality for
creating an impact on each environmental item must be considered. Where an impact is
anticipated, the matrix is marked with a diagonal line in the interaction box. The second
step in using the Leopold Matrix is to describe the interaction in terms of its magnitude (M)
in the upper section and importance (I) in the lower section of each box.
The magnitude of an interaction or impact is represented by numerical scale; it is
described by the assignment of a numerical value from one to ten. The value, ten
represents the largest magnitude and the value, one represents the lowest magnitude,
38
whereas values near five represent impacts of intermediate magnitude. Assignment of
a numerical value for the magnitude of an interaction is related to the extent of any
change (for example, if noise levels in a village were expected to increase by 20 dB(A),
this is a large increase at night and may score 8 or even 9). The scale of importance
also ranges from one to ten. The higher the value, the higher the importance; the lower
the value, the lower is the importance. Assignment of a numerical value for importance
is based on the subjective judgement of the multi-disciplinary team working on the EIA.
Plus (+) or minus (-) can be used to show whether an impact is beneficial or adverse.
b) Modified Graded Matrix (MGM)
Lohani and Thanh (1980) used another grading system in which relative weights are
assigned to each development activity. If the relative priority of development activity is
determined, the total value of a particular activity is the sum of the vertical column
represented by that in the matrix, multiplied by the priority value. Finally, the total
value of all the interactions is the sum of all horizontal values in the matrix. This
method is particularly helpful in identifying major activities and in defining areas where
attention is mostly needed in the process of analysis.
c) Impact Summary Matrix (ISM)
An impact summary matrix can clearly identify the potential impact areas, predict the
impact severity, specify the corresponding mitigation measures, and help in
identification of agencies responsible for implementing mitigation measures. This kind
of matrix is simple, covers all the aspects, and provides a complete overview of EIA
in summary form. Additionally, it provides an easy guide for decision-makers.
39
Table 5.6: Sample of Leopold Matrix
40
Table 5.7: A summary Impact Matrix of a road project
P
h
a
s
e
/
A
c
t
i
v
i
t
y
Likely Impacts Environmenta
l Impacts
Environmental Measures
R
e
s
p
o
n
s
i
b
i
l
i
t
y
N
a
t
u
r
e
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e
E
x
t
e
n
t
D
u
r
a
t
i
o
n
C
o
n
s
t
r
u
c
t
i
o
n

P
h
a
s
e
Beneficial Impacts Augmentation Measures
Employment
generation in
mandays
Unskilled = 125,000
Semiskilled = 85000
Skilled = 55000
D H L ST Involve local people to the extent possible with
special care on gender equality
Project
O
p
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

P
h
a
s
e
All weather transportation
facility, Enhance income
generating activities etc.
In M L LT Ensure bioengineering treatments in landslide
zones & encourage management of
surrounding forests through community
approach
Project & CFUGs
S
i
t
e

C
l
e
a
r
a
n
c
e
Adverse Impacts Mitigation Measures
Change in land use
Loss of 45.34 ha of
low land khet
Loss of 35.87 ha of
upland bari
Loss of 5.67 ha of
forest
Loss of 165 houses
D
D
D
D
H
H
M
H
SS
SS
SS
SS
LT
LT
LT
LT
Provide compensation as per prevailing laws
for all resources lost
Project
E
a
r
t
h
w
o
r
k

e
x
c
a
v
a
t
i
o
n

a
n
d

T
u
n
n
e
l

w
o
r
k
s
Increase in slope failure,
erosion and exacerbate
landslides
D H SS ST Provide catch drains and slope protection
works
Minimize earthwork in rainy season
Project
Generation of construction
spoils
D H SS ST Design in balancing depth
Dispose spoils at designated place only
Project
(iv) Networks
41
Networks are those methodologies which integrate impact causes and consequences
through
identifying interrelationships between casual actions and the impacted environmental factors,
including those representing secondary and tertiary effects.

Network method begins with a list of
project activities or actions and generates a network of cause-condition-effects (i.e., chain of events).
This type of method is basically an attempt to recognize that a series of impacts may be triggered by a
single project action. It provides a roadmap type of approach to the identification of second- and third-
order effects. While drawing a network, first start with a project activity and then identify the types of
impacts which would initially occur. The next step is to select each impact, identify the impacts which
may be induced as a result of these; then select each of these impacts and identify which may be
further induced as a result. This process is repeated until all possible impacts are identified. Sketching
this in a network form is commonly referred to as an impact tree. Networks are very good in
identifying impacts, cumulative interactions and showing these to decision makers.
An example of simple network for showing impacts from a chemical plant
(v) Overlays and geographic information systems (GIS)
Overlay mapping and GIS are methods for identifying the spatial distribution of impacts, and can
assist in identifying where cumulative impacts and impact interactions may occur as a result of a
project. Both methods involve the preparation of maps or layers of information which are then
superimposed on one another. This can be to provide a composite picture of the baseline
environment, identifying the sensitive areas or resources; to show the influences of past,
present and future activities on a project or receiving environment; and to identify where several
impacts can cumulatively affect one particular receptor.
Manual overlay mapping uses a series of transparent maps with different information shown on
each which are then superimposed. The areas where there are overlaps of information can be
determined, these therefore being the areas where there are potential significant cumulative
impacts or where impact interactions may take place. GIS is a computer-based system into
which data is input and layers of information created representing different resources or impact
distributions. These are overlain within the system and again the areas of potential cumulative
impacts or interactions identified.
The methods can be used to produce maps of the cumulative impact on a specific receptor from
one project, or can map the impacts from a number of projects on receptors. They can also be
used to show previous impacts, and to predict future impacts.
Overlaying Component Maps
42
Sites of Ecological
Importance
Water Quality
Landscape
Considerations
Development A
(eg Industrial
Plant)
Development B
(eg. road scheme)
Complete Composite Map
Figure 5.1 The Compilation of an Overlay Map from Various Component Maps
Spatial analysis can be applied to a range of projects and environmental conditions. GIS is
particularly suited to large scale or complex projects and for projects where analysis or modelling
is required. However, GIS can be expensive and it is often not appropriate for small scale
projects. For such smaller scale simple projects overlay techniques are more suitable.
(vi) Expert systems
Calyx is a computerized decision support system that is used to determine the potential
environmental impacts of projects. The user enters the information that describes the activities to
be carried out as part of the project, and the components of the environment present at and
around the project site likely to be affected by the project. Calyx contains a set of impact rules
that describes the conditions, under which environmental impacts will occur, based on general
principles. These rules were initially developed in Canada and have been modified extensively
with input from other countries in Asia.
The Calyx software combines the information provided to it describing the project and its
environmental setting with the internal database of impact rules to determine the relative
magnitude of potential environmental impacts. It provides a user-friendly interface that leads users
through the process of describing the project and the environment, determining and analysing
impacts and producing reports. In addition, Calyx contains databases of mitigation measures and
monitoring procedures that are indexed to environmental impacts.
Comparison of Impact Identification Methods
Main advantages and disadvantages of impact identification methods
Method Advantages Disadvantages
Checklists easy to understand and use
good for site selection and
priority setting
simple ranking and
weighting
do not distinguish between
direct and indirect impacts
do not link action and impact
the process of incorporating
values can be controversial
Matrices link action to impact difficult to distinguish direct
43
good method for displaying
EIA results
and indirect impacts
have potential for double-
counting of impacts
Networks link action to impact
useful in simplified form for
checking for second order
impacts
handles direct and indirect
impacts
can become very complex if
used beyond simplified
version
Overlays easy to understand
focus and display spatial
impacts
good siting tool
can be cumbersome
poorly suited to address
impact duration or
probability
GIS and
computer expert
systems
excellent for impact
identification and spatial
analysis
good for experimenting
heavy reliance on
knowledge and data
often complex and
expensive
5.1 Methods of impact prediction
Impacts may be of different magnitude, extent and duration, and helps to evaluate the
significance of the impact. They are:
Magnitude: It is defined as the severity of each potential impact. It indicates whether the
impact is irreversible or reversible and the potential rate of recovery. It is often
expressed as high (H), medium (M) and low (L).
Extent: It is the spatial extent or the zone of influence (ZoI) of the impact. An impact can
be site-specific or limited to the project area (SS); a locally occurring impact within the
watershed of the proposed project (L); a regional impact that may extend beyond the
watershed (R); and a national impact affecting resources on a national scale (N).
Duration: Duration of impact represents the temporal dimension of environmental
impacts. An impact which generally lasts for only 3 to 9 years after project initiation may
be classified as short-term (ST). An impact which continues for 10 to 20 years may be
defined as medium-term (MT), and impacts that last beyond 20 years are considered
long-term (LT). Impacts produced during the construction phase of a project are
generally short-term.
There are many potential methods available for predicting impacts on a variety of resources.
No prediction methods are perfect and new or improved methods are constantly being
developed.
Predictive methods are extrapolative and/or Normative.
Extrapolative Methods are those in which the predictions are made on the basis of past
and present data and which include trend and scenario analysis (the common sense
forecast of the future), analogies (transferring experience from elsewhere), and intuitive
forecasting from group consensus (Delphi Method).
Normative Methods examine how the fulfillment of a desired target is achieved. For
example, if in one construction project, a target set is to employ 50% of the local
populace. Meeting this target, may require changing the project and associated
44
employment policy.
In general, the prediction methods are divided into the following six types described
below:
1) Mathematical Model
Such models are based on cause-effect relationships usually expressed in the form of
mathematical functions. They may be simple input-output models or of complex dynamic
types. Such models are primarily used for predicting the impact only partially (e.g.,model for
phosphorus retention in a lake, or model to predict the economic multiplier in a particular
area). Models which are comprehensive and provide a holistic approach are often rare,
except in some cases of land-use planning.
Mathematical models are divided into two types.
deterministic models are usually derived through fixed relationships. They are
more commonly used in socioeconomic impact prediction. For example, the
economic multiplier in a project where injection of money in the project area
takes place and the impact on the economy of the project area is examined, and
the stochastic model is a probabilistic type in which the prediction depends
upon the degree of probability of occurrence of a number of events in a given
area and time.
A simple model termed a 'mass balance model' is usually applied for indicating the input
from one compartment resulting in the output for another. If the inputs are water, food, and
chemicals in one compartment, the outputs would be water and wastes flowing out into
another compartment. Mass balance models are primarily useful for predicting impacts from
industries or manufacturing sections.
2) Statistical Models
Statistical techniques such as regression or component analysis are sometimes used to
indicate the relationship between the data and test hypothesis, for example, in predicting
flood frequencies.
3) Geographic Models
Satellite images, physical maps and aerial photographs provide information on existing
resources. Prediction of impacts of the development project can be made by analysing
the effect of project activities on the resources present in the location by using GIS
techniques.
4) Field and Laboratory Experimental Methods
Field inventory carried out prior to project implementation provide the baseline information of
resources. For example, a fish resource survey in the River of Nepal indicated that a long-
distance migratory fish species are existing in the river. It could then be determined that the
construction of a dam in the upstream part of the river might create an obstruction for their
upstream migration of the fish for breeding. Such an impact
would lead to the decline of the fish population in upstream of the dam unless mitigation is
planned to deal with the problem.
Similarly, laboratory tests also provide some insight on the effects of certain activities on the
resources. For example, the application of DDT in fields might inhibit the growth of seedling
of crops. The laboratory simulation tests would determine what doses of DDT might inhibit
45
the growth and the application of up to what range of doze would be safer.
5) Physical Models
These models are closely linked to field and laboratory experiments making critical
engineering and other decisions on site. Basically, a model of an area likely to be
impacted is constructed but on a smaller scale. For example, it could show the physical
parameters of a Run-of-river hydropower project. Both natural features such as
topography and socio-cultural features such as villages, schools and bridges are included. In
the case of rivers, the effect of impoundment on flow can be calculated. Tunnel and pipeline
routes as well as locations of power houses and labor camps can be shown. The deposition
of waste can also be demonstrated on the model, to make decisions about how it is to be
handled.
6) Expert Judgment
Expert judgment refers to an event occurring due to certain activities in a particular
location that may be analogous to other locations of similar conditions with similar
activities.
The experience of one place could very well be utilised for similar places elsewhere where
the environmental impacts are unknown. For example, many irrigation development
projects produce effects of salinization. Decisions on anticipated impact based on past
experience are the result of conceptual models often referred to as 'expert judgments'.
The assessor is responsible for selecting impact prediction methods for the particular
development project in question, bearing in mind the following that is:
produce acceptable results,
be replicable,
be consistent, and
be adaptable.
5.2 Impact evaluation techniques
Once an impact is predicted, a decision needs to be made on the significance of the impact. For
example, a fishery is likely to decline by 25 percent due to implementation of a proposed
project. How important is this decline? This question can be answered in a number of
ways:
Scoping results may be used as a guide;
Relevant national laws, regulations or policies which may give protection to the
species;
Expert judgment (scientists); and
Reconvening the scoping sessions.
Evaluation of impacts should be based on comparing the values against set standards.
5.3.1 Prediction and Assessment of Impacts on the Air Environment
This section addresses basic concepts of and a methodological approach for conducting a
scientifically based analysis of the potential air quality impacts of proposed projects and
activities.
46
(a) Basic Information on Air Quality Issues
In order to systematically address the air quality impacts of potential projects or activities, it is
necessary to be familiar with basic information regarding air pollution.
(i) Definition of Air Pollution
Air pollution can be defined as the presence in the outdoor atmosphere of one or more
contaminants (or pollutants) in such quantities and of such duration as may be (or may tend to
be) injurious to human, plant, or animal life, or to property (materials), or which may
unreasonably interfere with the comfortable enjoyment of life or property.
(ii) Information on types and categories of air pollutants
Air pollution can be caused by the presence of one or more contaminants. Air pollutants can be
divided into two categories: gases and particulates. Gases include sulphur dioxide, oxides of
nitrogen (NOX), carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons ozone, hydrogen sulphide, smoke and haze.
Particulates represents any dispersed matter, solid or liquid, in which the individual aggregates
are larger than single small molecules (about 0.0002 micrometers, m, in diameter) but smaller
than about 500 m.
(iii) Sources of Air Pollutants
Air pollutant sources can be categorized according to the type of source and their spatial
distribution. According to source type, they are natural sources and manmade sources. Natural
sources include plant pollens, wind blown dusts, volcanic eruptions, forest fires, lightening
generated forest fires etc. Man-made or anthropogenic sources include transportation vehicles,
industrial processes, power plants and construction activities etc.
According to spatial distribution, they are single or point source (stationary) and area sources or
multiple sources (stationary or mobile). Single or point source includes pollutant emissions from
industrial processes stacks, fuel combustion facility stacks etc. Area sources include vehicular
traffic, fugitive-dust emissions from resource-material stockpiles or construction, military training
activities etc.
(iv) Effect of air pollutants
The effects of air pollutants can be classified under the following four headings:
I. Effect on materials
Air pollutants affect certain materials by property devaluation because of odours, deterioration
of materials (concrete statuary), discolouration of painted surfaces on cars, buildings and bridge
structures etc.
II. Effect on plants and crops
Air pollutants can affect plants and crops by abnormal growth patterns, leaf discolouration, or
spotting and death of plants.
III. Effect on human health
Human health effects include eye irritation, headaches and aggravation of respiratory difficulties
etc.
IV. Effect on physical features
The physical effects of pollutants on the atmosphere can be classified as follows:
Effects on visibility: The visibility is reduced due to the concentration and physical properties
of particulate pollutants present in the atmosphere. The stormy wind raises dust particles
resulting in decrease in the visibility. In unsaturated humidity conditions, the hygroscopic
particles pick up moisture and as they increase in size, the visibility is affected. Fog and
photochemical smog reduce the visibility considerably.
Effects on urban atmosphere and weather conditions: Urban air pollution is mainly caused
due to smoke, dust, fog and other aerosols, and all of these affect the weather conditions.
Polluted area becomes cloudier, foggier, resulting in reduction of solar radiation to an extent of
about 30%.
(b) Meteorological Aspects of Air Pollution Dispersion
47
Air pollutants discharged from anthropogenic sources gets dispersed into the atmosphere into
various directions depending upon prevailing winds (direction as well as speed), temperature
and pressure conditions. It is essential that these air pollutants emitted from the source must
first be transported and diluted in the atmosphere before these undergo various physical and
photochemical transformations and ultimately reach their receptors. Otherwise, the pollutant
concentrations will reach dangerous levels near the source of emission. Following are the
meteorological parameters that influence air pollution dispersion:
(i) Wind direction and Speed
The direction and speed of the surface wind governs the drift and diffusion of air pollutants
discharged near the ground level. The higher the wind speed at or near the point of emission,
the more rapidly the pollutants would be carried away from the source. The concentration of the
pollutants, so dispersed, will go on decreasing with the distance. However, if the wind speed is
low, the dispersion will not be effective, and the pollutants tend to concentrate near the area of
their emission. If the speed is less than 0.5 m/s, there is no direction and if the speed is greater
than 2 m/s, it is called high speed. Wind direction in a particular area is summarized in wind
rose diagram.
(ii) Temperature
The term "adiabatic process" means warming by compression, or cooling by expansion, without
a transfer of heat or mass into a system. As air moves up or down within the atmosphere, it is
affected by this process. This temperature difference will be 5-1/2 degree decrease per 1,000
feet increase in altitude. This is also termed the dry adiabatic lapse rate. The atmosphere may
or may not have a temperature distribution that fits the dry adiabatic lapse rate. Usually it does
not.
The actual lapse rate may be greater or less than the dry adiabatic lapse rate and may change
by levels in the atmosphere. This variation from the dry adiabatic lapse rate is what determines
whether the air is stable or unstable. If the air is unstable, the vertical movement of air is
encouraged, and this tends to increase fire activity. If the air is stable, vertical movement of air
is discouraged, and this usually decreases or holds down fire activity.
(iii) Dry Lapse Rates
The actual temperature lapse rate in a given portion of the atmosphere could range from a plus
15 per 1,000 feet to a minus 15 per 1,000 feet. These would represent the extremes of very
stable air to very unstable air. Rather than be concerned with all of these degrees of stability or
instability, we usually describe the atmosphere as falling into one of five conditions.
The vertical air temperature distribution in the atmosphere is highly variable. For dry air it
ranges as follows:
1. Very stable : Temperature increases with increase in altitude. This is a "plus"
temperature lapse rate, or an inversion.
2. Stable : Temperature lapse rate is less than the dry adiabatic rate, but temperature
decreases with altitude increase.
3. Neutral : Temperature lapse rate is the same as the dry adiabatic rate of 5.5 degrees
Fahrenheit per 1000 feet increase.
4. Unstable : Temperature lapse rate is greater than the dry adiabatic rate. It may be 6
degrees Fahrenheit or more.
5. Very unstable : Temperature lapse rate is much greater than the dry adiabatic rate,
and is called super-adiabatic.
(iv) Atmospheric Stability and Instability
The earth's gaseous mantle, called "the atmosphere," is very fluid, with air constantly moving
and mixing, and that air changes in temperature, moisture, pressure, and other properties.
48
Air moves horizontally or vertically in response to the earth's rotation, to large and small
scale pressure gradients, to various lifting mechanisms, and to gravity. Vertical movement
of air, either upward or downward, is generally influenced by the degree of stability or
instability of the atmosphere at any particular time.
Atmospheric stability: The resistance of the atmosphere to vertical motion.
Temperatures normally increase as we get closer to the earth's surface. This is due in part to
the greater molecular activity of denser, more compressed air at lower altitudes. These
conditions change throughout a 24-hour period, as the daytime solar heating and night
time heat loss to and through the atmosphere tend to modify the temperature distributions.
(c) Conceptual approach for addressing air environment impacts
To provide a basis for addressing air environment impacts a six-step is suggested for the
planning and conduction of impact studies. The six generic steps are:
(1) Identification of air pollutant emissions and impact concerns related to the
construction and operation of the development project;
(2) Description of the environmental setting in terms of existing ambient air quality,
emission inventory, and meteorological data in the project study area;
(3) Procurement of relevant laws, regulations, or criteria related to ambient air
quality and/or pollutant emission standards;
(4) Conduction of impact prediction activities;
(5) Assessment of impact significance; and
(6) Identification and incorporation of mitigation measures
Step 1: Identification of the types and quantities of air pollutants and their impacts
When analyzing any proposed project-activity, initial step is to consider what types of air
pollutants might be emitted during the construction and/or operational phases of the proposed
project, and the quantities in which such air pollutants are expected to occur. Use of emission-
factor information organized according to project type or activity is a suggested approach. An
emission factor is the average rate at which a pollutant is released into the atmosphere as a
result of some activity, such as combustion or industrial production, divided by the level of that
activity (U.S. EPA, 1973). Emission Factors relate the types and quantities of pollutants
emitted to indicators such as production capacity, quantity of fuel burned, or vehicle-miles
travelled by an automobile.
Step 2: Description of existing ambient air quality information of project study area
Existing air quality conditions can be described in terms of ambient air quality data, emission
inventories, and meteorological information which relates to atmospheric dispersion.
Step 3: Procurement of relevant air quality standards and regulations
The primary sources of information on air quality standards, criteria, and policies will be the
relevant government agencies which have a mandate for overseeing the air resources of the
study area. Documentation of this information will allow the determination of the significance of
air quality impacts incurred during projects implementation and will aid in deciding between
alternative actions or in assessing the need for mitigation measures for a given alternative.
Step 4: Conduction of impact prediction activities
Air quality impact prediction can be based on one to several approaches, including mass
balances, the use of simple to detailed mathematical models, and other considerations.
(a) Mass-Balance Approaches
49
Air pollutant emissions from the construction and/or operational phase of a project-activity can
be considered in relation to the existing emission inventory for the study area. This approach
will necessitate the development of an inventory representing a mass balance of the total air
pollutant emissions from all sources for a proposed project or activity entering the atmosphere
during the construction and/or operational phase.
Predict the increase in the existing emission inventory for one or more pollutants as a result of
the construction and operation activities.
Percentage increases can be calculated for each pertinent pollutant and each project-activity
phase. A total percentage increase could be calculated by summing the values of all the
pollutants in the inventory.
(b) Mathematical Model
Dispersion Equations
Pollutants emitted into the atmosphere are mixed thoroughly with the surrounding air and
diluted by atmospheric dispersion. This dispersion is primarily due to turbulent diffusion
and bulk air flow. The turbulent diffusion models are based on Ficks law of molecular
diffusion. Several equations/models have been developed to estimate the concentration
of pollutants in the plume at any distance x, y and z, in horizontal down-wind direction,
horizontal cross-wind direction and vertical direction respectively.
Gaussian Plume Model
The Gaussian plume model is a (relatively) simple mathematical model that is typically applied
to point source emitters, such as coal-burning electricity-producing plants. Occasionally, this
model will be applied to non-point source emitters, such as exhaust from automobiles in an
urban area.
One of the key assumptions of this model is that over short periods of time (such as a few
hours) steady state conditions exist with regard to air pollutant emissions and meteorological
changes. Air pollution is represented by an idealized plume coming from the top of a stack of
some height and diameter. One of the primary calculations is the effective stack height. As the
gases are heated in the plant (from the burning of coal or other materials), the hot plume will be
thrust upward some distance above the top of the stack -- the effective stack height. We need
to be able to calculate this vertical displacement, which depends on the stack gas exit velocity
and temperature, and the temperature of the surrounding air.
50
Once the plume has reached its effective stack height, dispersion will begin in three
dimensions. Dispersion in the downwind direction is a function of the mean wind speed blowing
across the plume. Dispersion in the cross-wind direction and in the vertical direction will be
governed by the Gaussian plume equations of lateral dispersion. Lateral dispersion depends on
a value known as the atmospheric condition, which is a measure of the relative stability of the
surrounding air. The model assumes that dispersion in these two dimensions will take the form
of a normal Gaussian curve, with the maximum concentration in the center of the plume. The
"standard" algorithm used in plume studies is the Gaussian plume model, developed in 1932 by
O.G. Sutton. The algorithm is as follows:
Where:
C(x,y,z) is the concentration of the emission (in micrograms per cubic meter) at any point x meters
downwind of the source, y meters laterally from the centerline of the plume, and z meters above
ground level.
Q is the quantity or mass of the emission (in grams) per unit of time (seconds)
u is the wind speed (in meters per second)
H is the height of the source above ground level (in meters)

y
and
z
are the standard deviations of a statistically normal plume in the lateral and vertical
dimensions, respectively
This algorithm has been shown in a number of studies to be fairly predictive of emission
dispersion in a variety of conditions. In this algorithm, we are concerned with dispersion in all
three dimensions (x, y, and z):
longitudinally (in the x direction) along a center line of maximum concentration running
downwind from the source
laterally (in the y direction) on either side of the center line, as the pollution spreads out
sideways
vertically (in the z direction) above and below a horizontal axis drawn through the
source.
51
Effective Stack Height
The value for the effective stack height, H, is the sum of the physical stack height, h, and the
plume rise H.
H may be computed from Hollands formula.
Where
Vs = stack velocity, m/s
d = stack diameter, m
u = wind speed, m/s
P = pressure, kPa
Ts = stack temperature, K
Ta = air temperature, K
The other major calculations for a simple Gaussian plume model are as follows:
The stability categories were developed in the late 1970s, and are based on wind speed,
insolation, and extent of cloud cover. As shown above, we can calculate the values the
standard deviations from the downwind axis for these six conditions or categories using the
algorithms above.
For concentration calculated at ground level(i.e. z = 0),
Ground level centre line concentration
If the ground level concentration is required only in the down wind horizontal direction (i.e. x-
direction), y = 0, above equation reduces to the following form
Again, when the effluent is discharged at ground level, the effective stack height H is zero and
above equation is further reduced to the form
In the above equations, are functions of downwind distance x as well as of
atmospheric stability. Figures 5.2 and 5.3 give the values of y and z respectively, for various
types of atmospheric stabilities.
52
( )
1
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

+

d
T
T T
P
u
d v
H
s
a s s 2
10 68 . 2 5 . 1
Figure 5.2 Values of y for different atmospheric stabilities
Figure 5.3 Values of z for different atmospheric stabilities
53
Step 5: Assessment of impact significance
Impact significance assessment refers to the interpretation of the significance of anticipated
changes related to the proposed project. One basis for impact assessment is public input;
which could be received through a scoping process or through the conduction of public
meetings and/or public participation programs. Professional judgment can also be used in
relation to the percentage changes from baseline conditions in terms of air-pollutant emission
levels and/or exposed human population. Some numerical standards or criteria can be used as
a basis of interpretation.
Step 6: Identification and incorporation of mitigation measures
Mitigation measures refer to project-activity design or operational features that can be used to
minimize the magnitude of the air quality impacts. The key approach is to revise the design as
needed in order to reduce the air pollutants expected to be emitted from the project-activity. The
revised project or activity can then be reassessed to determine if the mitigation measures have
eliminated or sufficiently minimized the deleterious air quality impacts.
5.3.2 Prediction and Assessment of Impacts on the surface water
environment
Many types of projects have impact implications for the surface water environment (rivers, lakes,,
estuaries, or oceans). Effects can be represented by quantity and/or quality changes; these
changes can, in tur, have aquatic faunal or floral species and aquatic ecosystem implications.
Projects which create impact concerns for the surface-water environment include (1) industrial
plants or power plants withdrawing surface water for use as cooling water; (2) power plants
discharging heated wastewater from their cooling cycles; (3) industries discharging process
wastewaters; (4) municipal wastewater treatment plants discharging treated effluents; (5)
construction of dams for purposes of water supply, flood control, or hydropower generation; (6)
river channelization projects for flow improvements; (7) deforestation and agricultural
development resulting in nonpoint-source pollution associated with nutrients and pesticides,
and irrigation projects leading to return flow laden with nutrients & pesticides; (8) commercial
hazardous-waste disposal sites, and /or sanitary landfills, with resultant runoff water and
nonpoint-source pollution; and (9) tourism related projects adjacent to surface water bodies.
(a) Basic information on surface-water quality parameters
Surface water comprises rainfall, runoff, base flow, and so on. Each of these inputs to the
surface water system can contribute natural compounds of relevance to water quality. For
example, rainfall in highly industrialized regions may consist of acidic precipitation which is
introduced to the surface water; runoff may bring with it natural organics, sediments, and so on;
and base flow may have elevated levels of hardness from the flow of the water through the sub-
surface. Human activities may increase the concentration of existing compounds to enter the
surface water. For examples, discharge of wastewater (treated or untreated) greatly adds to the
organic loading of the surface water and clearing of land can result in increased erosion and
sediment load in the surface water.
Surface water pollution can be defined as the excessive concentrations of particular substances
for sufficient periods of time to cause identifiable effects. Water quality can be defined in terms
of the physical, chemical, and biological characterization of the water. Physical parameters
include colour, odour, temperature, solids, turbidity etc. Chemical parameters associated with
the organic content of water include BOD, COD, TOC and TOD. Similarly, inorganic chemical
parameters include salinity, hardness, pH, acidity, alkalinity, and the presence of substances
including iron, manganese, chlorides, sulphates, heavy metals (mercury, lead, chromium,
copper and zinc0, nitrogen, and phosphorus. Biological properties include bacteriological
parameters such as coliforms, fecal coliforms, specific pathogens, and viruses.
In evaluating surface-water pollution impacts associated with the construction and operation of
a potential project, two main sources of water pollutants should be considered: nonpoint and
point. Nonpoint sources are also referred to as area or diffuse sources. Nonpoint pollutants
refer to those substances which can be introduced into receiving waters as a result of urban
54
area, industrial area, or rural runoff. Point sources are related to specific discharges from
municipalities or industrial complexes.
(b) Effect of pollutants
Soluble organics with high BOD wastes cause depletion of oxygen in water which can result in
fish kills, undesirable aquatic life, and undesirable odours. Suspended solids decrease
water clarity and hinder photosynthesis processes. Excessive nitrogen and phosphorus
can lead to algae overgrowth. Chlorides can impart salty taste to water.
(c) Conceptual Approach for addressing surface-water environment impacts
Step 1: Identification of surface-water quantity or quality impacts
When analyzing any proposed project-activity, initial step is to determine the features of the
proposed project, and the potential alternatives which either have been or could be considered.
Key information related to the project includes (1) the type of project and how it operates in a
technical context, particularly with regard to water usage and wastewater generation, or to the
creation changes in water quantity or quality; (2) the proposed location of the project; (3) project
construction period; (4) potential environmental outputs from the project during its operational
phase, including information related to water usage and water-pollutant emissions, and waste-
generation and disposal needs; (5) the identified need for the proposed project in the particular
location; and (6) any alternatives which have been considered, with generic alternatives for
factors including site location, project size, project design features, and pollution control
measures, and project timing relative to construction and operational phases.
It is necessary to develop a list of materials to be utilized during the project implementation and
of those materials which will require disposal. Materials that may result in surface-water
contamination include fuels & oils, preservatives, bituminous products, insecticides, solid and
liquid wastes, and other chemicals etc.
Step 2: Description of existing surface-water resource conditions of project study area
It involves describing existing (background) conditions of the surface-water resources
potentially impacted by the project. Relevant activities include assembling information on water
quantity and quality, identifying unique pollution problems, highlighting key climatological
information, conducting baseline monitoring, and summarizing information on point- and
nonpoint pollution sources and on water users and uses.
Information should be collected on flow variations (quantity) and quality of surface-water in the
river reach of concern. Any unique pollution problem that have occurred in the project study
area (e.g., fish kills, excessive algal growth should be noted.
Information on pollution sources and water uses may include:
what other sources of surface-water pollution already exist in the study area & also to
consider current and potential usage of the surface-water resources for water supply
purpose.
Current number of surface-water users and the quantities associated with such uses
should be assembled.
Types of information that may be accumulated:
General estimates of the number of users (public, private, industrial etc)
Types of water use (drinking water, recreation, agriculture/irrigation etc.)
Location and rates of existing surface-water withdrawals
Step 3: Procurement of relevant surface-water quantity-quality standards
To determine the severity of the impacts from a project, it is necessary to make use of
institutional measures for assessing impact significance. Surface-water quantity and quality
standards, regulations, or policies are examples of these measures. The standards include
National Guidelines on water quality for different purposes and WHO guidelines.
55
Documentation of this information will allow the determination of the significance of surface-
water quality impacts incurred during projects implementation and will aid in deciding between
alternative actions or in assessing the need for mitigation measures for a given alternative.
Step 4: Conduction of impact prediction activities
Impact prediction refers to the quantification (or, at least, the qualitative description), where
possible, of the anticipated impacts of the proposed project on various surface-water
environment factors. Various methods are used in the prediction of impacts such as:
Mathematical models;
Laboratory testing; and
Analogous information on actual impacts from similar types of projects in other, similar
geographical locations.
Mass-Balance Approaches
One mathematical-modelling prediction approach uses mass-balance calculations to determine
average downstream concentrations resulting from point- or nonpoint-source discharges or to
determine percentage changes in stream flow or pollutant loadings. The results can be
compared to pertinent effluent limitations, quality-quantity standards, or baseline flow and
quality characteristics.
Mathematical models use mathematical equations to represent the functional relationships
between variables. In general, sets of equations are combined to simulate the behavior of
environmental systems. The number of variables in a model and the nature of the relationships
between them are determined by the complexity of the environmental system being modeled.
Mathematical modeling aims to limit, as much as possible, the number of variables and thus
keep the relationships between variables as simple as possible without compromising the
accuracy of representation of the environmental system.
C
1

=Q
o
* C
o
+Q
e
* C
e

Q
o
+ Q
e
An example of a mathematical model is a simple water quality mixing model which is based
on the simplest of mass balance equations. The water quality model below assumes
continuous discharge of a conservative contaminant into a stream.
where:
C1
is the downstream concentration;
Co
is the upstream concentration;
Ce
is the effluent concentration;
Qo
is the upstream flow; and
Qe
is the effluent flow.
This model may be used to predict changes in downstream effluent concentrations in response
to pollutants loading by changing the values of effluent concentration (Ce) and the effluent flow
(Qe).
Mathematical-Modelling Approaches
Modelling approaches for predicting impacts of organic materials in rivers include consideration
of the changes in dissolved oxygen (DO) resulting from bacterial demand for oxygen in the
decomposition process, and the supply of oxygen from natural reaeration. A classical DO model
addressing liquid-phase demand and natural reaeration was developed by Streeter and Phelps
in 1925; which is as follows:
56
Where Dt = DO deficit at any flow time t or distance x downstream, days
K1 = coefficient of deoxygenation, day
-1
K2 = coefficient of reaeration, day
-1
La = ultimate BOD in stream following mixing, mg/l
Da = DO deficit upstream of or at point of waste discharge, mg/l
This model can be used to calculate the oxygen-sag curve. It should be noted that K1, K2, and
La are influenced by temperature. Specific mathematical relationships describing the
temperature influence are as follows:
K1(T) = K1(20) (1.047)
T-20
K2(T) = K2(20) (1.016)
T-20
La(T) = La(20) (0.02T + 0.6)
Where T = water temperature,
0
C, and K1(20), K2(20), and La(20) = values at 20
0
C.
Other factors that may be important in predicting the DO impact are related to critical conditions
in terms of the location and value of the minimum point on the oxygen-sag curve, and as the
maximum permissible BOD loading that can be introduced without exceeding the dissolved
oxygen standard. Equations for critical time and deficit are as follows:
D
c =
Where tc = critical time (time of flow) to point of occurrence of minimum DO concentration, days,
and Dc = critical (maximum) deficit (mg/l) at time of flow tc.
Simple Phosphorus Balance in a Lake
As phosphorus is one of the most common limiting nutrients for lake eutrophication. A simple
mass balance of phosphorus is given below:
Mass rate in mass rate out mass of P settling in lake + mass generation = rate of
accumulation
QinCpin QoutCp VsAsCp + 0 = dM/dt
In this case, assume that there is no generation of phosphorus within the lake. Also assuming
steady state conditions, dM/dt = 0. The phosphorus concentration leaving the lake is assumed
to be equal to the phosphorus concentration in the lake (well mixed) and the outflow rate is
assumed to be equal to the inflow rate; therefore above equation becomes
Q* CPin =
Q
*C
P
+ VsAsCp
= Cp(Q + VsAs)
Lake P (concentration) C
P
=
Q* CPin
Q + VsAs
Assumption of well-mixed lakes:
Cp = Phosphorus concentration in lake
Vs = Settling velocity
Cp = Cpout

57
Qin
Qout
Cpin Cp CPout
Vs
Mass balance of lake phosphorus
Step 5: Assessment of impact significance
Impact significance assessment refers to the interpretation of the significance of anticipated
changes related to the proposed project. It can be based on specific numerical standards or
criteria which can be used as a basis for impact interpretation (e.g., water quality standards,
wastewater discharge standards etc)
Another example is the application of professional judgment in assessing the impact
significance.
Step 6: Identification and incorporation of mitigation measures
The next activity is that of identifying and evaluating potential impact-mitigation measures.
Mitigation measures may need to be added to the project proposal to make it acceptable.
These mitigation measures might consist of decreasing the magnitude of the surface-water
impacts or including features that will compensate for the surface-water impacts. The specific
mitigation measures will be dependent upon the particular project type and location.
5.3.3 Prediction and Assessment of Impacts on the noise environment
Noise impacts can be of concern during the construction and the operation phases of the
projects. Construction noise can be a significant source of community noise. Of concern are
impacts on people near the construction site performing activities which are totally unrelated to
construction activities (e.g., area residents, office workers, schoolchildren, and hospital
residents and staff). Factors which are important in determining noise levels that will potentially
impact such populations include distance from the noise source; natural or man-made barriers
between the source and the impacted population; weather conditions which could potentially
absorb, reflect, or focus sound (such as wind speed and direction and temperature inversions);
and the scale and intensity of the particular construction phase (e.g., excavation, erection, or
finishing).

a. Basic information on Noise
Noise can be defined as unwanted sound or sound in the wrong place at the wrong time. It can
also be defined as any sound that is undesirable because it interferes with speech and hearing,
is intense enough to damage hearing, or is otherwise annoying (U.S. EPA, 1972). The
definitions of noise as unwanted sound implies that it has an adverse effect on human beings
and their environment, including land, structures, and domestic animals. Noise can also disturb
natural wildlife and ecological systems.
b. Noise levels
As mentioned before, the sound pressures perceived by human range from 20 Pa to 200 Pa.
This range is enormous. As the intensity is proportional to the square of the pressure, its range
of variation is even greater. When a quantity varies over several orders of magnitudes, it is
58
usually more helpful to look at its Logarithm and this is what people working with noise do. A
number of these logarithmic levels are used:
Intensity Level:
LI=Log10(I/I0) (in Bell),
where I0=10
-12
W/m
2
is a reference level which roughly corresponds to the lower threshold of
hearing.
These levels are actually non-dimensional numbers but they are commonly assigned a fictitious
unit, the Bell. Since most intensity levels are fairly small numbers in Bells, one usually counts
them in decibels (dB) i.e. a tenth of a Bell. In decibel, the intensity level is therefore:
LI=10xLog10(I/I0) (dB)
Although intensity is physically the meaningful quantity (as an indicator of the strength of a
sound), pressures are much easier to measure experimentally using a simple microphone.
Fortunately, it turns out that the intensity is proportional to the square of the pressure. So an
alternative to LI is the Sound Pressure Level LP :
Lp=10xLog10(p
2
/p0
2
) = 20 x Log10(p/p0) in dB,
where p0= 20 Pa = 2x10
-5
Pa is the reference pressure so that Lp=0 at the standard threshold
of hearing. The pressure p used here is the root-mean square pressure which is more
representative than the maximum amplitude for complex non-harmonic sounds. Due to the
different reference chosen for both levels, the numerical values of Lp and LI are different but this
difference is very small (0.5 dB) and usually ignored.
Effectively, they both represent the same thing the strength of the sound at a given instant in
time and space. Fig. 5.4 is a diagram showing the level in dB of some common noisy situations.
Both intensity and pressure define what is occurring at a point in space. The more fundamental
quantity is the Sound Power Level of the source, Lw defined by:
Lw= 10 Log (W/W0)
where W is the source power in watts and W0=10
-12
Watts.
Some key definitions related to noise-impact prediction and assessment are as follows.
1. Day-Night Average Sound Level (DNL, Ldn):
Day-Night average sound level is the 24 hour average sound level, in decibels, for the period
from midnight to midnight, obtained after addition of 10 decibels to sound levels in the night
from midnight to 7 a.m. and from 10 p.m. to midnight. It is a measurable quantity and can be
measured directly at a specific location.
2. Equivalent sound level (Leq):
Leq is the energy equivalent sound level, in decibels, for any time period under consideration. It
is the equivalent steady noise level that, in a stated period of time, would contain the same
noise energy as the time-varying noise during the same time period.
3. L10:
It is defined as the sound level that is exceeded 10 percent of the time for the period under
consideration. DNL, under typical conditions approximately equals L10 3 decibels.
59
Figure 5.4 Common noise shown on a dB scale
60
(a) Conceptual Approach for addressing Noise environment impacts
Step 1: Identification of noise impacts of proposed project
First step is to determine the potential impacts of the proposed project (or activity) on the noise
environment. This requires the identification of the noise levels associated with the project.
Step 2: Description of environmental setting in terms of existing noise levels and noise
sources, along with land-use information and unique receptors in the project area
It involves describing existing (background) conditions of the surface-water resources
potentially impacted by the project. Relevant activities include assembling information on water
quantity and quality, identifying unique pollution problems, highlighting key climatological
information, conducting baseline monitoring, and summarizing information on point- and
nonpoint pollution sources and on water users and uses.
Step 3: Procurement of relevant noise standards and/or guidelines
To determine the severity of the impacts from a project, it is necessary to make use of
institutional measures for assessing impact significance. Noise standards, regulations, or
policies are examples of these measures. The standards include National Guidelines on noise
levels for different receptors and WHO guidelines.
Documentation of this information will allow the determination of the significance of noise
impacts incurred during projects implementation and will aid in deciding between alternative
actions or in assessing the need for mitigation measures for a given alternative.
Step 4: Impact prediction
Impact prediction involves predicting the propagation of noise from a source and determining
the type of affected land uses.
Simple Noise-Attenuation Models:
Sound travels through air in waves with the characteristics of frequency and wavelength. If a
sound is created at a point, a system of spherical waves propagates from that point outward
through the air at a speed of 1100 ft/second, with the first wave making an ever-increasing
sphere with time. As the wave spreads, the height of the wave or the intensity of sound at any
given point diminishes as the fixed amount of energy is spread over an increasing surface area
of the sphere. This phenomenon is known as geometrical attenuation of sound.
Point-source propagation can be defined as follows:
Sound level1 Sound level2 = 20 log (r2/r1)
Thus, the sound level at station 1 minus the sound level at station 2 is equal to 20 times the log
of the ratio of the radii r2, r1. This means that for every doubling of distance, the sound level
decreases by 6 dBA. This point-source relationship is called the inverse square law and is
applicable for noise propagation from construction equipment.
Line-source propagation occurs when there is a continuous stream of noise sources.
Line-source propagation can be defined as follows:
Sound level1 Sound level2 = 10 log (r2/r1)
The decrease in sound level for each doubling of distance from a line source is 3 dBA. Noise
levels from a busy highway are an example of line-source propagation.
61
Step 5: Assessment of impact significance
Impact significance assessment refers to the interpretation of the significance of anticipated
changes related to the proposed project. It can be based on specific numerical standards or
criteria which can be used as a basis for impact interpretation (e.g., noise level standards)
Another example is the application of professional judgment in assessing the impact
significance.
Step 6: Identification and incorporation of mitigation measures
The next activity is that of identifying potential impact-mitigation measures. Mitigation measures
may need to be added to the project proposal to make it acceptable. The key approach to
mitigation is to reduce or control the noise expected to be emitted from the project (or activity).
It can be implemented in three ways, either by changing (1) the source of noise, (2) the path of
noise from the source to the receiver, or (3) the receiver of noise.
5.3 Numerical on impact prediction and evaluation
1. A cement manufacturing plant burns coal at the rate of 8 tonnes per hour and
discharges the flue gases through a chimney having effective height of 90 m. The coal
has a sulphur content of 4.5%. The wind velocity at the top of the stack is 7.5 m/s. The
atmospheric conditions are slightly unstable. Determine the maximum ground level
concentration of SO2 and the distance from the stack at which this occurs.
Solution:
1. Rate of emission of SO2
Coal burnt per hour = 8 t = 8000 kg
Therefore, sulphur produced per hour = 8000x = 360 kg
Now, S + O2 = SO2
Since the molecular mass of both S and O2 is 32, they combine on a one to one mass basis to
produce SO2.
Therefore, SO2 produced per hour = 360 kg S + 360 kg of O2 = 720 kg/hour.
Rate of emission of SO2 =
= 200 gm/sec.
2. Location of point where maximum ground level concentration occurs
Maximum ground level concentration of pollutant occurs at a point where
z is equal to H/ ,
provided
z/

y
is constant with x
.

z = 90/
= 63.64 m.
For slightly unstable condition, we have stability class C.
From the graph, we observe that the value of
z =
63.64 m is obtained at x = 900 m for class C
stability. From the
y
and
z
graphs, we observe that
z/

y
remains constant upto a distance
of 1000 m. Hence, xmax = 900 m, for which
y
= 100 m for class C stability.
62
3. Maximum ground level concentration
g/m
3
= 4.9x10
-4
g/m
3
= 490 g/m
3
For the data given in above problem, determine the G.L. concentration at a distance of 2000 m
downwind at (a) centre line of plume, and (b) at a crosswind distance of 400 m on either side of
the centre line.
Solution:
(b) For this case, we have x = 2000 m and y = 0. From the graph, we get y = 210 and z = 130 for x =
2000 m.
Using the equation
g/m
3
= 2.45x10
-4
g/m
3
= 245 g/m
3
(c) For this case, x = 2000 m and y = 400 m
Hence, using the equation,
= 0.4x10
-4
g/m
3
= 40 g/m
3
2. It is proposed that an industry is to be located near a relatively clean river flowing
through an urban city. The characteristics of river and industrial wastewater are as
given below.
River characteristics:
Flow rate = 7 m
3
/s; BOD5 at 20
0
C = 2 mg/l; DO = 8 mg/l; Temperature = 22
0
C
Wastewater characteristics:
Flow rate = 4 m
3
/s; BOD5 at 20
0
C = 500 mg/l; DO = 2 mg/l; Temperature = 32
0
C
Minimum DO required in the river is 5 mg/l. Given: K1-20 = 0.10 day
-1
, K2-20 = 0.30 day
-1
, 1 = 1.05
and 2 = 1.02. Estimate the maximum BOD5 of the wastewater that should be allowed to be
discharged in the river. Saturation DO at 25
0
C & 30
0
C is 8.38 and 7.60 mg/l respectively.
63
Solution:
For mixed condition,
Qm = QR + Qw = 7 + 4 = 11 cumec
T
m

= Q
R* T R
+Q
W* T W
= 25.64
0
C
Q
m

(DO)
m

= Q
R*( DO) R
+Q
W*( DO) W
= 5.82 mg/l
Q
m

Saturation DO at 25.64
0
C = 8.284 mg/l (from interpolation)
Therefore, initial DO deficit = 8.284 5.82 = 2.464 mg/l
Maximum allowable DO deficit (critical), Dallow = Dc = 8.284 5 = 3.284 mg/l
K1-25.64 = 0.10*(1.05)
25.64-20
= 0.132 day
-1
K2-25.64 = 0.30*(1.02)
25.64-20
= 0.335 day
-1
Now,
Substituting the known values, we get
tc = 4.926 * log[2.538(1 3.79/La)] ------------------ (1)
Dc =
= 0.394 * La * 10
-0.132tc
------------------ (2)
Using trial and error method to find the value of La yielding a critical DO deficit of 3.284 mg/l,
Trial No. La (mg/l) tc (days) Dc (mg/l)
1. 20 1.543 4.93
2. 15 1.369 3.897
3. 10 0.973 2.931
64
4. 12 1.180 3.302
5. 11.90 1.172 3.284
So, La = 11.90 mg/l.
BOD5 of mix (required value) = La*(1 - 10
-5K
1)
= 11.90 * (1 10
-5*0.132
) = 9.30 mg/l
Allowable BOD5 of wastewater,
BOD5,m * Qm = BOD5,R * QR + BOD5,W * QW
BOD5,W = BOD5,m * Qm
Q
R* BOD 5,R
= 22.075 mg/l
Q
W
BOD
5 of wastewater = 500 mg/l > 22.075 mg/l
So, some treatment is required to make it suitable for disposal in the river.
Degree of treatment required is
= 500
22.075
* 100 = 95.60%
500
65
Chapter 6
Environmental Protection Measures (EPMs)
VI.1 Introduction
Mitigation is the stage of the EIA process when measures are identified to avoid, minimize or
remedy impacts. These measures are implemented as part of the process of impact
management, together with any necessary adjustments to respond to unforeseen impacts. Both
elements are integral to ensuring that the EIA process leads to practical action to offset the
adverse environmental impacts of proposed developments. Mitigation is a critical component of
the EIA process.
The purpose of mitigation is to identify measures that safeguard the environment and the
community affected by the proposal. Mitigation is both a creative and practical phase of the EIA
process. It seeks to find the best ways and means of avoiding, minimizing and remedying
impacts.
Mitigation measures must be translated into action in the correct way and at the right time if
they are to be successful. This process is referred to as impact management and takes place
during project implementation. A written plan (Environmental Management Plan) should be
prepared for this purpose, and includes a schedule of agreed actions.
Environmental Protection Measures or Mitigation measures are recommended actions to
reduce, avoid or offset the potential adverse environmental consequences of development
activities.
The objective of mitigation measures is to maximize project benefits and minimize undesirable
impacts.It aims to prevent adverse impacts from happening and to keep those that do occur
within an acceptable level. Opportunities for impact mitigation will occur throughout the project
cycle.
The objectives of mitigation are to:
find better alternatives and ways of doing things;
enhance the environmental and social benefits of a proposal;
avoid, minimize or remedy adverse impacts; and
ensure that residual adverse impacts are kept within acceptable levels.
Early links should be established between the EIA and project design teams to identify
mitigation opportunities and incorporate them into consideration of alternatives and design
options. In practice, mitigation is emphasized in the EIA process once the extent of the potential
impact of a proposal is reasonably well understood. This typically takes place following impact
identification and prediction, and recommended measures for mitigation will be an important
part of the EIA report. Usually, these measures will be incorporated into the terms and
66
conditions of project approval and implemented during the impact management stage of the
EIA process.
VI.2 Main Elements of Mitigation
In figure 6-1 below, the elements of mitigation are organized into a hierarchy of actions:
first, avoid adverse impacts as far as possible by use of preventative measures;
second, minimize or reduce adverse impacts to as low as practicable levels; and
third, remedy or compensate for adverse residual impacts, which are unavoidable and
cannot be reduced further.
Key principles for the application of mitigation consistent with the above framework include the
following:
give preference to avoid and prevent measures;
consider feasible alternatives to the proposal and identify the best practicable
environmental option;
identify customised measures to minimise each of the main impacts predicted;
ensure they are appropriate, environmentally sound and cost-effective; and
use compensation or remedial measures as a last resort.
Figure 6.1 Mitigation Measures Hierarchy
Mitigation can be carried out by:
67
structural measures, such as design or location changes, engineering modifications and
landscape or site treatment; and
non-structural measures, such as economic incentives, legal, institutional and policy
instruments, provision of community services and training and capacity building.
Structural measures are well established for certain types of projects, such as dams, roads, and
oil and gas exploration and development. In some cases, industry codes of good practice will
be available. However, these need to be applied with regard to the nature and severity of
environmental impacts; for example taking account of nearby protected areas, patterns of
wildlife mitigation or constraints imposed by natural hazards. Other projects involving new
technology may require non-standardised or even untried measures to mitigate the adverse
impacts. These need to be given special attention during impact management.
Non-structural measures are used increasingly. They can be applied to reinforce or supplement
structural measures or to address specific impacts. For example, many types of social,
community and health impacts are addressed by non-structural measures and their use is
becoming broader.
A three-step process of mitigation can be applied to relate the hierarchy of elements in Figure
6.1 to the stages of the EIA process when they are typically applied. Generally, as project
design becomes more detailed, the opportunities for impact avoidance narrow and the concern
are to minimise and compensate for unavoidable impacts. However, these distinctions are not
rigid and opportunities for creative mitigation should be sought at all stages of EIA and project
planning.
Step One: Impact avoidance. This step is most effective when applied at an early stage of
project planning. It can be achieved by:
not undertaking certain projects or elements that could result in adverse impacts;
avoiding areas that are environmentally sensitive; and
putting in place preventative measures to stop adverse impacts from occurring, for
example, release of water from a reservoir to maintain a fisheries regime.
Step Two: Impact minimisation. This step is usually taken during impact identification and
prediction to limit or reduce the degree, extent, magnitude, or duration of adverse impacts. It
can be achieved by:
scaling down or relocating the proposal;
redesigning elements of the project; and
taking supplementary measures to manage the impacts
Step Three: Impact compensation. This step is usually applied to remedy unavoidable residual
adverse impacts. It can be achieved by:
rehabilitation of the affected site or environment, for example, by habitat enhancement
and restocking fish;
restoration of the affected site or environment to its previous state or better, as typically
required for mine sites, forestry roads and seismic lines; and
replacement of the same resource values at another location, for example, by wetland
engineering to provide an equivalent area to that lost to drainage or infill.
VI.3 Types of mitigation measures
A wide range of mitigation measures may be proposed, the most relevant to development
projects are as mentioned below.
68
(a) Consideration of Alternatives
Selection of alternatives is also a form of mitigation in terms of impact, cost and technology. It
involves an examination of alternative ways of achieving the objectives of a proposed project.
The aim is to arrive at a developmental option which maximizes the benefits while minimizing
unwanted or adverse impacts. Important aspects of developmental proposals, for which
alternatives are needed to be considered, include:
Scale of project
Technology used
Location
Fuel to be used
Raw materials
Design
Time schedule
Economic factors
(b) Preventive Measures
Some potential adverse impacts may be reduced or eliminated before occurrence by
introducing preventive measures. Examples of preventive measures include:
Implementation of a health education programmme; and
Initiation of a public awareness programme.
(c) Corrective Measures
Corrective measures may be adopted to reduce the adverse impacts to the acceptable levels.
Such measures are considered during EIA and are built into the project design. The following
are the examples of the types of corrective measures that can be used:
Installation of pollution-controlling devices; and
Construction of a fish ladder (in dams, weirs)
(d) Compensatory Measures
Compensatory measures are actions that address impacts which are unavoidable. Possible
compensatory measures include:
Restoration of damaged resources elsewhere;
Creation of similar resources or habitats elsewhere to replace a loss; and
Compensation to the affected persons.
VI.4 Implementation of EPMs
Implementation of mitigation measures requires funding, which should be estimated and
included in the EIA report. All the proposed mitigation measures should be integrated in the
project design, so that these measures may automatically form a part of the construction
and operational phases of the project.
Implementation of Mitigation measures:
should be cost effective and locally applicable and can be proposed during
different stages of project implementation.
Preconstruction (such as compensation for land acquisition),
Construction (such as planning and designing activities),
Operational stages (such as maintenance activities).
The cost is usually about 10 % of the total cost of the project (although it depends on the
nature, size, location etc. of the project).
69
The responsibility of proponents to internalise the full environmental costs of development
proposals is now widely accepted. In addition, many proponents have found that good design
and impact management can result in significant savings.
Chapter 7
Management of EIA process
7.1 Environmental Management Plan
The EMP is a document to be prepared as a part of the EIA report. An EMP
includes project monitoring, auditing, and project management. Environmental
monitoring includes summarizing any institutional arrangements made between
different agencies, a description of the implementation schedule and reporting
procedures, as well as cost estimates and sources of funds. Other aspects often
associated with environmental monitoring, such as a summary of impacts and
description of mitigation measures, are to be included in separate chapters. The
requirement of a chapter on EMP within the EIA report in Nepal has been clearly
mentioned in EPR.
7.1.1 Aims of EMP
The key objectives of EMP are:
Prepare a Mitigation Implementation Strategy (MIS);
Formulate Environmental Monitoring Plan (EMoP);
Formulate Environmental Auditing Plan to be implemented after project
construction; and
Establish the roles and responsibilities of all parties involved in project
environmental management.
7.1.2 Principles and Procedures of an EMP
As per the aims of EMP, an EMP has three basic components, they are:
a) Mitigation Implementation Strategy;
b) Environmental Monitoring Plan; and
c) Environmental Auditing Plan.
An environmental management plan (EMP), also referred to as an impact management plan, is
usually prepared as part of EIA reporting. It translates recommended mitigation and monitoring
measures into specific actions that will be carried out by the proponent. Depending upon
particular requirements, the plan may be included in, or appended to, the EIA report or may be a
separate document. The EMP will need to be adjusted to the terms and conditions specified in
70
any project approval. It will then form the basis for impact management during project construction
and operation.
The main components of an EMP are described in Box 1, which reflects practice at the World
Bank. Although there is no standard format, the EMP should contain the following:
summary of the potential impacts of the proposal;
description of the recommended mitigation measures;
statement of their compliance with relevant standards;
allocation of resources and responsibilities for plan implementation;
schedule of the actions to be taken;
programme for surveillance, monitoring and auditing; and
contingency plan when impacts are greater than expected.
The EMP should contain commitments that are binding on the proponent. It can be
translated into project documentation and provide the basis for a legal contract that sets
out the responsibilities of the proponent. In turn, the proponent can use the EMP to
establish environmental performance standards and requirements for those carrying out
the works or providing supplies. An EMP can also be used to prepare an environmental
management system for the operational phase of the project.
Box 1: Components of an environmental management plan (EMP)
7.1.3 Mitigation Implementation Strategy (MIS)
EMP provides a detail strategy of implementation of mitigation measures, which will
ensure effective implementation of mitigation measures during construction and operation
phase of the project. The strategy must consider following aspects for effective
implementation of mitigation measures.
Details of mitigation measures proposed;
Responsible person/institution for implementation;
Cost estimation;
Implementation schedule; and
71
The following aspects should typically be addressed within an EMP:
Summary of impacts: The predicted adverse environmental and social impacts for which
mitigation is required should be identified and briefly summarised. Cross referencing to the EA
report or other documentation is recommended.
Description of mitigation measures: Each mitigation measure should be briefly described with
reference to the impact to which it relates and the conditions under which it is required (for
example, continuously or in the event of contingencies).
These should be accompanied by, or referenced to, project design and operating procedures
which elaborate on the technical aspects of implementing the various measures.
Description of monitoring programme: The monitoring program should clearly indicate the
linkages between impacts identified in the EIA report, measurement indicators, detection limits
(where appropriate), and definition of thresholds that will signal the need for corrective actions.
Institutional arrangements: Responsibilities for mitigation and monitoring should be clearly
defined, including arrangements for co-ordination between the various actors responsible for
mitigation.
Implementation schedule and reporting procedures: The timing, frequency and duration of
mitigation measure should be specified in an implementation schedule, showing links with overall
project implementation. Procedures to provide information on the progress and results of
mitigation and monitoring measures should also be clearly specified.
Cost estimates and sources of funds: These should be specified for both the initial investment
and recurring expenses for implementing all measures contained in the EMP, integrated into the
total project costs, and factored into loan negotiations.
Source: World Bank, 1999
Required human resource.
7.1.4 Appropriate Time for the Implementation of an EMP
The initial formulation of an EMP should be carried out in the process of EIA preparation
during the feasibility stage of the project cycle. The subsequent implementation of an EMP
should be carried out during project construction and operation.
In the process of EIA preparation, the major areas of significant impacts of a development
project are identified. The EIA prescribes mitigation measures in order to minimize adverse
impacts and to enhance beneficial impacts. The mitigation measures are implemented
before, during and after project construction.
7.1.5 Responsibility for EMP Formulation and Implementation
As per EPR, 54 the proponent should prepare the EMP implementation provisions as a
part of the EIA Report. The approving agency should examine the EMP given in the EIA
report with regard to cost effectiveness and practicability upon its application. If found
practical and cost effective, the approving agency should recommend the implementation
of the EMP parameters to the project proponent.
7.2 Environmental Monitoring
Environmental monitoring is defined as an activity undertaken to provide specific information on
the characteristics and functions of environmental and social variables in space and time.
A serious shortcoming of most environmental impact assessment process is the absence of
baseline data and impact monitoring during the construction, and operation of large
development projects. Without such data, it is impossible to test impact predictions and the
success of mitigative measures. Furthermore, the lack of appropriate ecological monitoring,
impedes the scientific progress, in impact prediction and assessment, makes it difficult to learn
from experiences.
Environmental monitoring is therefore one of the most important components of an EIA which is
essential for:
ensuring that impacts do not exceed the legal standards,
checking the implementation of mitigation measures in the manner described in
the EIA report, and
providing early warning of potential environmental damages.
7.2.1 Principles of monitoring
Certain principles of EIA monitoring should not be overlooked. If the EIA monitoring process is
to generate meaningful information and improve implementation of mitigation measures, it must
accomplish the following:
Determine the indicators to be used in monitoring activities,
Collection of meaningful and relevant information,
Application of measurable criteria in relation to chosen indicators,
Reviewing objective judgments on the information collected,
Draw tangible conclusions based on the processing of information,
Making rational decision based on the conclusion drawn, and
Recommendation of improved mitigation measures to be undertaken.
7.2.2 Types of Monitoring
Various types of monitoring activity are currently in practice, and each has some degree of
relevance to an EIA study. The main types are briefly described below:
In relation to mitigation measures suggested in the EIA report, there are two types of
monitoring:
a. Enforcement Monitoring: This is the monitoring done to ensure that mitigation
measures are being performed as described in environmental management plan
(EMP).
72
b. Effectiveness Monitoring: It is the monitoring carried out to measure the success of
the mitigation measures.
Following are the types of monitoring associated with the life cycle of a project:
a. Baseline Monitoring
In this type of monitoring a survey should be conducted on basic environmental parameters in
the area surrounding the proposed project before construction begins (pre-audit study).
Subsequent monitoring can assess the changes in those parameters over time against the
baseline.
b. Impact Monitoring
In this type of monitoring the biophysical and socio-economical (including public health)
parameters within the project area, must be measured during the project construction and
operational phases in order to detect environmental changes, which may have occurred as a
result of project implementation.
c. Compliance Monitoring
This form of monitoring employs a periodic sampling method, or continuous recording of
specific environmental quality indicators or pollution levels to ensure project compliance with
recommended environmental protection standards.
Monitoring should be regular and performed over a long period of duration. Interruptions in
monitoring may result in generating insufficient data to draw accurate conclusion concerning
project impact.
The main aim of EIA monitoring is to provide the information required to ensure that project
implementation has the least possible negative environmental impacts on the people and
ecology.
Nepal: Environmental Monitoring Plan (Example from Hydropower Project from Nepal)
The following examples taken from EIA of hydropower project implemented in Nepal would
illustrate the formulation of monitoring plan and schedules which can be expanded and
elaborated based upon the types and scales of the projects to be considered.
Type Parameters Method Schedule
Baseline
Monitoring
Flow rate of River and its
tributaries
Gauging station Continuous
Glacier lakes in the basin: lake
geometry and volume; possibility
of GLOF; and possibility of
mitigation measures such as
artificial draining
Glaciological
hazard mapping in
aerial photographs,
satellite imagery,
ground
photographs, and
site observation
During the design
stage
Stability of slopes Site observation At least three times a
year: before, during
and after the monsoon
season.
Forest management Discussions with
user groups, local
people and the
District Forest
Office
At least twice a year
Fish population, spawning and
migration
Fish sampling and
discussions with
local fishermen
Twice a year during
the wet and dry
seasons
Growth of settlements in the discussions with Once a year
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project area local people, and
checking records of
local government
Compliance
monitoring
Incorporating of EIA
recommendations into project
documents
Review of detailed
design, project
specification and
tender documents
Following completion
of tender documents
Incorporation of environmental
considerations mentioned in the
tender documents in the
contractors' proposed work plans
Review of proposed
work plans,
submitted by
contractor
During contract
negotiations
Contractors' arrangements
regarding labour camps materials
storage and construction activities
Site observation Beginning of the
construction period
Land/property acquisition
procedures
Discussions with
the local people and
the project
management
At the time of land
acquisition
Implementation of all
environmental conditions
mentioned in the tender
documents, including
arrangements for slope
protection; pollution prevention;
protection of vegetation, fish and
wildlife; use of local labours; safe
construction; public health and
public relations
Site observation
and discussion with
project
management and
local people using a
checklist
Continuous during the
construction period
Clean-up and reinstatement of the
project area
Site observation At the end of the
construction period
Impact
Monitoring
Disturbance of slopes Site observation Continuously during
construction
Levels of air, water and land
pollution
Site observation
and water and air
sampling
Continuous
observation and
sampling during
construction
Fish population, spawning and
migration
Fish sampling and
discussion with
local fishermen
Twice a year during
the wet and dry
seasons
Conditions of local forests Site observation
and discussions
with forest user
groups and local
people
Twice a year during
construction
Water supply and sanitation in the
project area
Site observation
and water testing
Continuously during
construction
Crime and socially undesirable
activities
Discussions with
the local people and
the local police
Monthly during
construction
Social and economic conditions of
the displaced people
Discussions with
the displaced
people
Regularly for at least
three years following
land acquisition
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7.3 Environmental Auditing
The term Audit is usually associated with the professions of finance and accounting. Auditing
refers to the examination and assessment of a certain type of performance. In the case of an
EIA, an audit assess the actual environmental impact, the accuracy of prediction, the
effectiveness of environmental impact mitigation and enhancement measures, and the
functioning of monitoring mechanisms. The audit should be undertaken upon a project run in
operation, for some time, and is usually performed once in the entire project cycle.
The following types of audit that are recommended to be implemented in different phases of the
EIA process:
7.3.1 Types of Audit
The following types of audit are recommended for different aspects of the EIA process:
a. Decision Point Audit: It examines the effectiveness of EIA as a decision making
tool.
b. Implementation Audit: It ensures that consent conditions have been met.
c. Performance Audit: It examines the effectiveness of project implementation and
management.
d. Project Impact Audit: It examines environmental changes arising from Project
Implementation.
e. Predictive Technique Audit: It examines the accuracy and utility of predictive
techniques by comprising actual against predicted environmental effects.
f. EIA Procedures Audit: It critically examines the methods and approach adopted
during the EIA Study.
Not all the audit types mentioned above are required to be implemented in EIA process.
However, at the project approval stage, both project proponent and authorizing agency should
considered whether an application of a particular audit technique is likely to result in new
information or an improvement in management practices. Particular attention should be given to
the project cost-effectiveness of any proposed audit and to technical difficulties likely to be
encountered.
Since the EIA concept is a relatively recent, the use of environmental audits will play a
significant role in evolving a systematic approach of the application of EIA.
Environmental auditing should compare monitoring results with information generated during
the pre-project period. Comparisons can be made with similar projects or against standard
norms. Relating actual impacts with predicted impacts, helps in evaluating the accuracy and
adequacy of EIA predictions.
7.3.2 Environmental Auditing Plan
Environmental Audit should be carried out upon the completion of project construction and after
2 years of project operation in order to obtain information on:
the condition of natural/social/economical resources prior to project implementation
after the project construction is completed,
whether or not, all the mitigation measures implemented are effective to control adverse
impact, or enhance beneficial impacts,
whether or not mitigation measures implemented are effective to control adverse
impact, or enhance beneficial impact,
whether or not all degraded landscape due to project implementation have been
restored into original condition,
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what are the impacts of boom-bust scenario among the workforce involved in project
implementation and the local economy, and
the effect on the local economy of project implementation.
Information from monitoring output should also be utilized for carrying out environmental audit:
(An example of Environmental Audit applied in Hydropower project in Nepal)
I. Physical Aspects
Air Quality
Parameters Location Methods Sources Indicators
Total
Suspended
solid particulate
Weir and
powerhouse
sites and
access road
Low-volume
Sampler
Analysis data The amount and types of
SSP;
pre-project
during construction
after construction, and their
comparison with ambient
standards
Dust from
construction
activities
Access Road.
Head works,
and Power
house sites
Visual
Inspection
Information
from local
people
Dust accumulation in house
plants leaves surroundings
Water Quality
Parameters Location Methods Sources Indicators
Temperature,
pH, Turbidity
TSS, DSS,
hardness,
chloride
Sodium, oil and
grease
Coliform, DO,
BOD, COD.
Headworks and
Power house
sites
Water samples
collected from
different source
Analytical data Comparison with ambient
water quality; pre-project
during construction after
construction
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Disposal of Spoils and Construction Wastes
Parameters Location Methods Sources Indicators
Disposal of
construction
spoils
Designated
sites
Observation/
interview of
local people
Local
information and
observation
initiated erosion affected the
aesthetic value affected
forest and agriculture
Side casting of
excavated soils
and wastes
Intake, audits
and
Powerhouse
sites
Observation/
interview
Local
information
initiated land erosion local
drainage project
II. Biological Aspects
Forest and Vegetation
III. Socio-Economic Aspects
Employment Opportunity
Parameters Location Methods Sources Indicators
Number of local
labors
employed in the
project
Project Site Analysis of
records
interview
Records from
Contractors and
Local people
Percentage of local labours
were higher / lower
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Parameters Location Methods Sources Indicators
Number of
wooden house
Constructed in
the project site
Roadside
Project and at
the vicinity of
project area
Counting, visual
Observation
Local People No of wooden house
increased in project area
Number of tea
stalls and
restaurants
established
during
construction
Project site Observation
and records
Local People Number of tea stalls and
restaurants increased
Fuel wood trade
location of
timber depots
and fire wood
sale in the
project
construction
Project site Records Local People
available
information
Volume of wood sold
increased
Number of
stumps of cut
trees in nearby
forest
Forest area
nearby
Examination of
forest
Local people Number of cut tree stumps
increases
Alternative
Energy for
cooking for
labour force
Project sites Records from
the contractors
Local people Kerosene was provided
Harvesting and
trade of
medicinal plants
Project sites
and the market
Information
from local
people and
market
Local people Sales of medicinal herbs
increased
General
condition of
forest nearby
Forest near
project site
Observation Information and
Local people
Forest condition deteriorated
construction
Number of
Women
Workforce
Project Sites Records Local people Percentage of women
workers were higher than
30%
Compensation
Parameters Location Methods Sources Indicators
Use of
compensation
received
Local area / Out
of the area
Questionnaire
survey and
interview
Local people beneficial use unnecessary
use migrated
Socio-Culturally Undesirable Activities
Parameters Location Methods Sources Indicators
Prostitution Project site and
at the vicinity
Sample
interview
Local people Were there any indication of
prostitution?
Liquor
production and
consumption
Project site Interview Local people Liquor consumption high
moderate
Disputes and
crimes
Project Sites Records from
local police and
project
Management
Local people Cases of dispute/ crime
Use of child
labour
Project site Records Records from
contractor and
local people
Records of child labour
Complaints from the Local People
Parameters Location Methods Sources Indicators
Types of damages
made on personal
properties
Project site and its
vicinities
Records Local people Cases of damages or no
cases
Compensation for
maintenance and
rehabilitation of
Irrigation Project
Project area Interview Concerned
agencies and
project
management
Comparison for damage
7.4 Stakeholder Consultation and Public Participation
7.4.1 Introduction
Public participation is a vital component in successful EIA systems and specific EIA
studies. It is a process that encourages, enables and engages the stakeholders and
affected communities. It offers them an opportunity to express their interests and concerns
about the project and environmental aspects. It helps to ensure quality,
comprehensiveness, and effectiveness of EIA report.
Different terms have been used to describe this aspect of EIA, for example, consultation,
participation, and public hearing as per EPR 1997.
Individuals, groups or organizations representing various interest groups should be involved in
EIA. Often, EIAs provide opportunities for other experts to become involved, such as research
scientists, who may be knowledgeable on aspects of the concerned locality. In total, they are
often referred to as "stakeholders".
There are three main types of public involvement during preparation of EIA report.
First, there is an information dissemination, wherein the proponent provides information in a
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proposal to the stakeholders. The flow of information is one-way.
Secondly, there are consultations, with information exchanged between the proponent
and stakeholders in a two-way process. During consultation, there are
opportunities for the stakeholders to express their views on issues related to the proposal.
However, the proponent and/or authorizing agency is not bound to take such views into
account in decision making, though they may do so if they consider it appropriate.
Finally, there is participation. As the term indicates, this requires shared involvement and
responsibilities. Basically, it implies an element of joint analyses and control over decision. In
participatory decision-making, there is no single source of ultimate control or authority. The
participating parties must discuss and reach a decision by means of an agreed-upon process,
for example, by meditation and consensus building.
Upon completion of the draft EIA report, the project proponent should organize a
meeting to discuss it, and invite concerned stakeholders at both district and local levels to
attend. Such a meeting is called a public hearing. In the public hearing, the proponent
discloses all the information contained in the draft EIA report and collects relevant comments
and suggestions from local people and stakeholders, which will be incorporated into the final
EIA.
The purpose of public involvement is to:
inform the stakeholders about the proposal and its likely effects;
canvass their inputs, views and concerns; and
take account of the information and views of the public in the EIA and decision making.
The key objectives of public involvement are to:
obtain local and traditional knowledge that may be useful for decision - making;
facilitate consideration of alternatives, mitigation measures and trade- offs;
ensure that important impacts are not overlooked and benefits are maximised;
reduce conflict through the early identification of contentious issues;
provide an opportunity for the public to influence project design in a positive
manner (thereby creating a sense of ownership of the proposal);
improve transparency and accountability of decision -making; and
increase public confidence in the EIA process.
7.4.2 Need for stakeholder involvement
The involvement of the "public", or often referred to as "stakeholders", is a vital component in
successful EIA.
Who are the stakeholders?
The range of stakeholders involved in an EIA typically includes:
the people individuals, groups and communities who are affected by the
proposal;
the proponent and other project beneficiaries;
government agencies;
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NGOs and interest groups; and
others, such as donors, the private sector, academics etc.
(i) Local people
It includes individuals, communities/villages and traditional authorities e.g. village leaders.
Individuals or groups in the affected community will want to know what is proposed; what the
likely impacts are; and how their concerns will be understood and taken into account. They
will want assurances that their views will be carefully listened to and considered on their
merits. They will want proponents to address their concerns. They will also have knowledge
of the local environment and community that can be tapped and incorporated into baseline
data.
(ii) Proponents
Understandably, proponents will wish to shape the proposal to give it the best chance of
success. Often, this involves trying to create public understanding and acceptance of the
proposal through the provision of basic information. More creatively, project design can be
improved through using public inputs on alternatives and mitigation and understanding local
knowledge and values.
(iii) Government agencies
It includes national/local governments with the responsibilities for management of natural
resources along with welfare of people and likely to be affected by the development project.
The government agencies involved in the EIA process will want to have their policy and
regulatory responsibilities addressed in impact analysis and mitigation consideration. For the
competent authority, an effective public involvement programme can mean the proposal may
be less likely to become controversial in the later stages of the process. For the responsible
EIA agency, the concern will be whether or not the public involvement process conforms to
requirements and procedures.
(iv) NGOs/Interest groups
NGOs include those which are active in local area or have interest on natural resources/social
welfare and interested parties in the country of any external financing agency. Comments from
NGOs can provide a useful policy perspective on a proposal; for example, the relationship of
the proposal to sustainability objectives and strategy. Their views may also be helpful when
there are difficulties with involving local people. However, this surrogate approach should be
considered as exceptional; it cannot substitute for or replace views which should be solicited
directly.
(v) Other interested groups
Other interested groups include those who are experts in particular fields and can make a
significant contribution to the EIA study. The advice and knowledge of government agencies
and the industry sector most directly concerned with the proposal should always be sought.
However, in many cases, substantive information about the environmental setting and effects
will come from outside sources.
7.4.3 Methods for stakeholder involvement
80
In participatory decision making, there is no single source of ultimate control or authority. The
participating parties must discuss and reach a decision by means of an agreed process. There
are numerous methods which can be utilized to involve stakeholders, especially the public, in
EIA process
There are numerous techniques used to enable stakeholders to participate in EIA, which
include:
Public Hearings these are required as per EPR.
Advisory Panels a group of individuals chosen to represent stakeholder
groups, which meets periodically to assess work done/results obtained and to
give advice on future works.
Open House a manned facility, in a locally accessible location, which contains
an information display on the project and the study. Members of the public can
go to obtain information and make their concerns/views known.
Interviews a structured series of open-ended interviews with selected
community representatives to obtain information/concerns/views.
Questionnaires a written, structured series of questions issued to a
sample of local people to identify concerns/views/opinions. No interviewing
may be involved.
Participatory Appraisal Techniques A systematic approach to appraisal based on
group inquiry and analysis and, therefore, multiple and varied inputs. It may be
assisted, but not controlled or directed, by external specialists.
7.4.4 Approaches to Stakeholder Involvement
It is very important that a plan for stakeholder involvement is prepared before EIA work begins.
It is essential to have such a plan, because there is a tendency of EIA practitioners to focus
their attention on the technical aspects of the EIA work only. It is preferable if the basic features
of a stakeholder involvement programme are the integral component of the TOR. In this way,
EIA can benefit from involvement at specific times, and those involved can be kept informed of
the EIA progress and the ways in which their concerns and views have been considered and
dealt with in EIA.
A systematic approach to planning a public involvement programme typically involves
addressing the following key issues:
Who should be involved? identify the interested and affected public
(stakeholders), noting any major constraints on their involvement.
What type and scope of public involvement is appropriate? ensure this is
commensurate with the issues and objectives of EIA.
How should the public be involved? identify the techniques which are appropriate for
this purpose.
When and where should opportunities for public involvement be provided establish
a plan and s chedule in relation to the EIA process and the number, type and distribution
of stakeholders.
How will the results of public involvement be used in the EIA and decision- making
processes? describe the mechanisms for analysing and taking account of public
inputs and providing feeding back to stakeholders.
What resources are necessary or available to implement the public involvement
programme? relate the above considerations to budgetary, time and staff
requirements.
7.4.5 Stages of Stakeholder Involvement
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The stages at which involvement may occur are during:
scoping and in the preparation of TOR for an EIA,
project appraisal (while conducting EIA/feasibility studies) either at release of the
preliminary/interim EIA report or the draft or final EIA report,
project implementation (application of EIA recommendations), and
project evaluation (extent to which a project has achieved its objectives).
7.4.6 Cost Involvement
Stakeholders involvement takes more time and money resource allocation. For a project in
remote locality and in multi-cultural context, the costs and other difficulties must be tackled and
such provisions should be made in EIA planning and budgeting stages. Cost consideration
should include the following:
hiring of social scientists with local knowledge and experience to be involved in the
process,
preparation of information sheets and report summaries in local languages,
media publicity (newspapers, radios),
travel costs to enable representatives of stakeholders to attend meetings, and
accommodation and travel costs for EIA team to 'service' the involvement process.
7.5 EIA Report Review and Decision Making
7.5.1 Review and Approval Process
Environmental documents are kept in the public domain. Environmental assessment is carried
out for all development initiatives that will likely impact on the environment, except of the
proposals related to national security. Such reports should be reviewed at different levels and
stakeholders should be involved in review process.
7.5.2 EA Review Process
The main objective of review is to critically examine the EA report and ensure that the following
criteria are met:
1. EA report is in concurrence with approved TOR and EPR, 1997;
2. The study has identified all significant adverse environmental impacts likely to arise
during project implementation with mitigation measures for each impact;
3. Methodology adopted, techniques applied, assumptions made and limitations mentioned
are adequately described;
4. Reasonable alternatives have been evaluated on the environmental ground and
suggested to the proposed actions;
5. Report results are scientifically and technically sound and coherently organized so as to
ensure that it is understood by decision-makers and general public; and
6. Sources of information cited in the report are relevant and accurate.
7.5.3 Review Parameters
Some parameters should be carefully checked while reviewing the EA report to examine
whether they have been adequately addressed. The reviewers should evaluate the report
thoroughly. They should also consider the following indicative review outline:
(i) Impacts
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a. Does the project have an impact on any environmentally sensitive area?
b. Is there a clear statement of significant beneficial and adverse impacts?
c. Have the risks been evaluated?
d. Has attention been paid to off-site impacts, including transboundary impacts, and to the
possible time lag before effects are manifested?
(ii) Mitigation Measures
a. What mitigation measures are proposed and what alternative sites have been
considered?
b. What lessons from previous similar projects have been incorporated into the EA report?
c. Have concerned people and groups been effectively involved?
d. Is adequate consideration given to provision of compensation for loss or damage of land
and
property, or for involuntary resettlement?
(iii) Procedures
a. Does the EA procedure comply with national policies, laws, standards and guidelines?
b. How have the beneficial and adverse effects of the project been integrated into the
economic analysis of the project?
(v) Implementation
a. Are institutional arrangements adequate to implement environment protection
measures?
b. Does EA report specify responsibility for environmental monitoring and auditing?
c. Have budget been included for the implementation of environmental protection
measures
and do they have adequate funds and technical capacity to implement them?
7.5.4 Review Criteria
An EIA report should satisfy three criteria:
1. completeness and conformance with the TOR for the EIA;
2. accuracy and veracity as defined by general acceptable scientific criteria (for
example, quality assurance and quality control procedures for analys is of
sampling data) and use of acceptable methods for the assessment of
environmental impacts; and
3. clear description of environmental impacts, recommended mitigation measures,
environmental monitoring plan, and environmental management plan.
The purpose of the review process is to establish if the information in an EIA report is
sufficient for decision-making.
Key objectives are to:
review the quality of the EIA report
take account of public comment
determine if the information is sufficient
identify any deficiencies to be corrected.
7.5.5 EIA review aspects for consideration
compliance with terms of reference
information is correct and technically sound
account taken of public comments
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complete and satisfactory statement of key findings
information is clear and understandable
information is sufficient for decision-making
7.4.6 Review Responsibility
In general, EA reports are reviewed officially by the approving agency. However, the following
agencies and organizations are also involved in review of EA report:
Project proponent, in case the report is prepared through consulting services;
Concerned department and ministry; (see Chapter on Institutional Roles and
Responsibilities)
NGOs, CBOs, affected people and stakeholders; and
Subject experts.
The project proponent shall receive comments and suggestions from reviewers and refine the
report and submit for necessary approval. The Concerned Body shall review and approve the
IEE report and MoSTE is responsible to review and approve the EIA report as per EPA, 1996
and EPR, 1997.
Section 6 of EPA, 1996 empowers MoSTE to form a committee comprising also of experts to
render opinions and suggestions on EIA report. MoSTE forms such committee on case-by-case
basis, i.e., for each proposal. The composition of the EIA Report Suggestion Committee is as
follows:
Joint-Secretary and Chief, Environment Division, MoSTE - Chairman
Representative (Class II Officer) of the Concerned
Body related to proposal - Member
Expert of representative of the association related
to proposal (not exceeding 3) - Member
Representative of the government or NGO (not exceeding 3) - Member
Under-Secretary (Law), MoSTE - Member
Under-Secretary, Environment Assessment Section, MoSTE - Member-Secretary
In general, MoSTE organizes the meeting of such committee, as and when necessary, to
collect suggestions, and publish the EIA report for 30-days to seek suggestions of the
stakeholders before the approval of any EIA report. MoSTE might also collect opinions and
suggestions of individuals and other institutions, if necessary.
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Basic Terminology
Some basic terminology has been adopted to aid in the presentation and comparison of
methods:
An activity is the basic element of a project or plan that has potential to affect any aspect of the
environment. Projects are composed of activities. Activities are often called actions.
An environmental component is a basic element of the physical, biological, social, or
economic environment. Environmental components receive environmental impacts from
activities. Environmental components can be aggregated into super-components or
desegregated into sub-components. Most methods define a hierarchy of components (e.g.,
physical may be split into atmosphere, water, soils, etc. and atmosphere might be split into air
quality, meteorology, climate, etc.).
An environmental change is the measurable change in physical and biological systems and
environmental quality resulting from a development activity.
An environmental impact is an estimate or judgement of the significance and value of
environmental effects on physical, biological, social or economic environment. Here we present
definitions of some of the main terms commonly used in the field of environmental impact
assessment.
abiotic Non-living eg. rocks or minerals.
alternative A possible course of action, in pace of another that would meet the same purpose
and need of the proposal.
baseline studies Work done to collect and interpret information on the condition/trends of the
existing environment.
benefit-cost-analysis A method of comparing alternative actions according to the relative
costs incurred (technical, environmental and economic) and the relative benefits gained. The
analysis can incorporate discounting calculations to take into account the time of value and
money.
biodiversity See biological diversity.
biological diversity the variety of life forms, the different plants, animals and micro-
organisms, the genes they contain and the ecosystems they form. It is usually considered at
three levels: genetic diversity, species diversity and ecosystem diversity.
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biophysical that part of the environment that does not originate with human activities (e.g.
biological, physical and chemical processes).
biota all the organisms, including animals, plants, fungi and micor-organisms in a given area.
carrying capacity the rate of resource consumption and waste discharge that can be
sustained indefinitely in a defined impact region without progressively impairing bioproductivity
and ecological integrity.
coherence in EIA Aiming to achieve the co-ordination of EIA procedures, guidelines,
standards and criteria by those involved in funding or approving proposals.
compensation Trade-offs between different parties affected by proposals to the mutual
satisfaction of all concerned.
cost-benefit-analysis See benefit-cost-analysis.
cumulative effects assessment - the assessment of the impact on the environment which
results from the incremental impact of an action when added to other past, present or
reasonably foreseeable actions regardless of what agency or person undertakes such actions.
cumulative impact can result from individually minor but collectively significant actions taking
place over a period of time.
decision-maker the person(s) entrusted with the responsibility for allocating resources or
granting approval to a proposal.
development proposals Consist of a wide range of human activities which provide (a)
favourable conditions for an increase in the transformation of the neutral biophysical
environment to provide the goods and services available to society (e.g. Structural adjustment
programs, rolling development plans) and (b) actions which directly produce the goods and
services.
Discretionary process/decision A process or decision which the decision-maker is able to
base on personal preference.
Ecological processes Processes which play an essential in maintaining ecosystem
integrity. four fundamental ecological processes are the cycling of water, the cycling of
nutrients, the flow of energy and biological diversity (as an expression of evolution).
Ecosystem A dynamic complex of plant, animal, fungal and microorganism communities and
associated non-living environment interacting as an ecological unit.
Endemic Restricted to a specified region or locality.
Environment There is no generally agreed definition of environment in EIA. Increasingly, it
means the complex web of inter-relationships between abiotic and biotic components which
sustain all life on earth, including the social/health aspects of human group existence.
Environmental audit Process focusing on an existing installation, facility, or activity which
involves a systematic, periodic evaluation of environmental management to objectively review
the performance of an organisation, management and equipment with the aim of safeguarding
the environment.
Environmental assessment See environmental impact assessment.
Environmental impact assessment (EIA) The systematic, reproducible and interdisciplinary
identification, prediction and evaluation, mitigation and management of impacts from a
proposed development and its reasonable alternatives. sometimes known as environmental
assessment.
Environmental impact report/statement Document in which the results of an EIA are
presented to decision-makers and, usually, the public.
Environmental management Managing the productive use of natural resources without
reducing their productivity and quality.
Environmental management plan See impact management plan.
Environmental management system A system approach for determining, implementing and
reviewing environmental policy through the use of a system which includes organisational
structure, responsibilities, practices, procedures, processes and resources. Often formally
carried out to meet the requirements of the ISO14000 series.
Fauna All of the animals found in a given area.
Flora All of the plants found in a given area.
Health impact assessment Component of EIA which focuses on health impacts of
development actions. Most attention is concentrated on morbidity and mortality, but
increasingly, the World Health Organisation (WHO) definition of health as being a state of
social, physical and psychological well-being and not just the absence of disease is being used
to guide this type of assessment work.
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Impact management plan A structured management plan that outlines the mitigation,
monitoring and management requirements arising from an environmental impact assessment.
Impact monitoring Monitoring of environmental/social/health variables, which are expected
to change after a project has been constructed and is operational, to test whether any observed
changes are due to the project alone and not to any other external influences.
Initial environmental evaluation/examination A report containing brief, preliminary
evaluation of the types of impacts that would result from an action. Often used as a screening
process to assess whether or not proposals should undergo full scale EIA.
Interdisciplinary team A group of people, from a range of disciplinary backgrounds, working
together to ensure the integrated use of natural and social sciences and the environmental
design arts in planning and in decision-making which may have an impact on mans
environment.
Mitigation The purposeful implementation of decisions or activities that are designed to
reduce the undesirable impacts of a proposed action on the affected environment.
Monitoring Activity involving repeated observation, according to a pre-determined schedule,
of one or more elements of the environment to detect their characteristics (status and trends).
Moving baseline Existing state of the environment projected into the future assuming no
development proceeds. The projected baseline situation, rather than that existing at the time of
EIA work, is theoretically the one to be compared with the state of the environment predicted in
the event of a development action proceeding.
Natural resources Features that have ecological, economic, recreational, educational or
aesthetic value.
NEPA National environmental Policy Act 1969 of the United States of America. This Act,
which applied to Federal US agencies, was the first policy to require the preparation of a
statement of the predicted environmental impact of a proposal. This statement has since
become known as the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS).
Precautionary principle A principle of sustainability that where are threats of serious or
irreversible damage, the lack of full scientific certainty should be used as a reason for
postponing measures to prevent environmental degradation.
Proponent Organisation (private or public sector) or individual intending to implement a
development proposal.
Proposal Any project, policy, program, plan or other activity.
Public consultation See public involvement.
Public involvement A range of techniques that can be used to inform, consult or interact with
stakeholders affected by a proposal.
Resource Anything that is used directly by people. A renewable resource can renew itself or
be renewed at a constant level. A non-renewable resource is one whose consumption
necessarily involves its depletion.
Secondary impact Indirect or induced changes in the environment, population, economic
growth and land use and other environmental effects resulting from these changes in land use,
population and economic growth. the potential effects of additional changes that are likely to
occur later in time or at a different place as a result of the implementation of a particular action.
Scoping an early and open activity to identify the impacts that are most likely to be significant
and require investigation during the EIA work. Can, also, be used to:
identify alternative project designs/sites to be assessed;
obtain local knowledge of site and surroundings; and
prepare a plan for public involvement.
The results of scoping are frequently used to prepare a Terms of Reference for the EIA.
Screening Preliminary activity undertaken to classify proposals according to the level of
assessment that should occur.
Social impact assessment the component of EIA concerned with changes in the structure
and functioning of social orderings. In particular the changes that a development would create
in: social relationships; community (population, structure, stability etc); peoples quality and way
of life; language; ritual; political/economic processes; attitudes/value. Can sometimes include
health impacts.
Stakeholders those who may be potentially affected by a proposal (e.g. local people, the
proponent, government agencies, NGOs, donors and others.
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State of the Environment reports Reports that provide an assessment of the conditions of
the environment, pressures on the environment and the responses of the environment to those
pressures.
Strategic environmental assessment - A formal process of systematic analysis of the
environmental effects of the development policies, plans, programmes and other proposed
strategic actions. This process extends the aims and principles of EIA beyond the project level
and when major alternatives are still open.
Synergistic By acting together, separate elements produce a greater effect than would be
produced if they acted separately.
Terms of Reference (ToR) Written requirements governing EIA implementation,
consultations to be held, data to be produced and form/contents of the EIA report. Often
produced as an output from scoping.
Transboundary impacts Any impact, not exclusively of a global nature, within an area under
the jurisdiction of a Party caused by a proposed activity the physical origin of which is situated
wholly or in part within the area under the jurisdiction of another Party.
Value judgement - The use of opinion or belief in analysis or decision-making.
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Annex - 1
Government of Nepal has replaced the existing Schedule -1 and 2 of Environment Protection
Rule, 1997, with the following Schedule-1 and 2 using right given as per Rule 54.
Schedule-1
(Pertaining to Rule 3)
Proposals (for) requiring (preliminary) Initial Environmental Examination
a. Forest Sector
1. Plantation of indigenous plants of a single species on a single block of 50 to 500 hectares
in the Tarai and 25 to 100 hectares in the hills.
2. Plantation of such imported species of plants as are deemed suitable for that purpose
following their test in the concerned place, on a single block of 10 to 1000 hectares in the
Tarai and 10 to 50 hectares in the hills.
3. Handover of forests with an area ranging between 50 to 200 hectares in the Tarai and 10
to 50 hectares in the hills as leasehold forests.
4. Clear felling of forests with an area ranging between 15 to 30 hectares for the (purpose
of) forest research by government.
5. Establishment or expansion of national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and conservation areas,
or environmental conservation zones.
6. Annual collection of 5 to 50 metric tons of forest products of each species for removal of
roots from a single area or more area at a time or (from)time to time from a district in
case the quantity is not mentioned in the forest or(and) conservation areas management
plans.
7. Formulation of watershed management plans.
8. Construction of new botanical gardens or zoos with area more than 10 hectares.
9. Resettlement of imported wild animals of different species.
10. Preparation of management plans of (for) national parks, wild life sanctuaries,
conservation areas, and their buffer zones,(including the wetlands) and preparation of all
kinds of district level forest management plans managed by the government.
11. Establishment of medicinal herbs centers for the commercial production of medicinal
herbs and aromatic plants in common (public) shrub land area.
12. Annual collection of 5-50 metric tons of forest products of each species from a (single)
forest area or more than one forest area or in a season or more than one season from a
district (as permitted by the established law) for import after the extraction of necessary
materials.
13. Construction of forest paths up to 10 kilometer long, and of fire protection lines up to 10
kilometer long.
14. Collection of sand, stone, gravel and soil from the rivers and streams flowing (within or)
through the forest area.
15. Mining of coal or other minerals from the forest area.
16. Hand over of forest more than 50 hectares managed by user groups below poverty line as
leasehold forest.
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17. Clear felling or removal of vegetation up to 5 hectares within the forest area (for the
implementation of proposals) by any authority except the government authority related to
forest.
18. Handover of forest areas ranging between 200 to 500 hectares to a single community for
management.
19. Annual collection of 10 to 100 metric tons of forest products of each species for bark
removal from a single area or more area at a time or (from) time to time from a district in
case the quantity is not mentioned in the forest or (and) conservation areas management
plans.
20. Collection of 5-100 metric tons of forest products like Sal seed, Rittha (Sapindus
mukurossi) and Amala (phyllanthus emblica),Tendupat(Diospyros tomentosa),
Bhorlapat, Tejpat including other forest products mentioned above in serial number 6 and
19 except wood from a forest area or more forest areas or in a season or in a more
seasons not banned for collection from a district at a time or time to time as per existing
rules and regulations.
21. Construction of resorts of capacity 10 to 50 beds, hotel and safari; and small scale
educational institution, hospital or any construction activity (in the forest area, national
park, conservation area, buffer zone, wetlands and environment conservation areas) and
by any authority other than the forest related authority of government of Nepal.
22. Removal of roots and shoots of the felled trees from more than 5 hectares according to
the approved operational plan.
23. Establishment, propagation and research activities on species affected by genetically
modified organisms and living modified organisms including the introduction of alien
and invasive wildlife and plants.
24. Annual collection of more than 5 metric tons of resin from a district.
b. Industrial sector
i)
1. Production of alcohol from blending process or establishment of distillery with facility of
boiling and fermentation and of capacity not more than 5 lakh litre per day.
2. Establishment of acid, base or primary chemical industry with the daily production
capacity of 100 metric tons.
3. Processing of leather up to 10000 square feet daily.
4. Establishment of cooking, natural gas refilling, filling, production and distribution
industry
5. Establishment of stone crusher(ing) industry.
6. Establishment of paint industry except cosmetic industry.
7. Establishment of milk processing industry with daily capacity of more than 10000 litre.
8. Production of lubricants from blending, reprocessing and reclamation process.
9. Establishment of foam industry.
10. Establishment of dry or wet cell production industry.
11. Establishment of sugar industry with daily production capacity of 3000 metric tons.
12. Establishment of thread cloth colouring, printing or washing industry except traditional
household industry.
13. Establishment of paper or pulp industry having daily capacity not more than 100 metric
tons except traditional household industry.
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14. Establishment of industry having annual capacity of 2 crore pieces of brick, tile, etc.
15. Establishment of cement industry based on limestone and clinker with production
capacity of 50 metric tons per hour.
16. Establishment of lime industry with daily production capacity of 500 metric tons.
17. Establishment of drugs production industry and formulation of bulk drugs up to 50 metric
tons daily.
18. Establishment of plastic industry (based on the waste of crude materials) with daily
production capacity of 5 metric tons.
19. Establishment of water processing industry except pipeline, for commercial purpose of
capacity more than 10 litre per second.
ii) Establishment of industry with investments more than Rs 10 lakhs in machine, tools
and equipment in the following cases:
1. Processing and production of tyre, tubes and rubber
2. Foundry
3. Bitumen and bitumen emulsion
4. Chemical processing of bone, horn and hoof with daily capacity up to 50
metric tons
5. Ayurvedic medicines
6. Establishment of industry with investment up to 50 crore fixed
(capital)investment (civil works and machinery) based on mine
7. Production of metal by primary smelting of ferrous and non-ferrous (except
re-rolling, remolting, fabrication)
8. Establishment of sawmill of annual capacity 5000 to 50000 cubic feet timber.
c. Mining Sector
1 Excavation of mines through relocation and resettlement of permanent residence of 25 to
100 people.
2 Daily extraction of metal except radioactive metal, up to 400 metric tons (deep mining)
and up to 200 metric tons (surface mining)
3 Daily extraction of non-metallic minerals except asbestos, up to 200 metric tons (deep
mining) and 400 metric tons (surface mining).
4 Collection and production of decorative stones such as marble, granite,
amphibolite/polished stone.
5 Excavation of construction oriented stone, sand, gravel, industrial soil and ordinary soil
up to 300 cubic feet per day.
6 Excavation for the production of coal up to 200 metric tons (deep mining) and 400 metric
tons ( surface mining)
7 Daily production of 1 lakh cubic metre of biogenic natural gas.
d. Road Sector
1. For the construction of following roads
a. District roads.
b. Urban roads.
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2. Construction of 1 to 5 kilometers long ropeways.
3. Construction of 1 to 5 kilometers long cable car.
4. Construction of major bridges.
5. Construction of tunnel for road purpose.
6. Improvement of the standard, rehabilitation and reconstruction of national highways and
feeder roads.
e. Residential, building and urban development sector
1. Construction of residential, commercial and their combination (building) with built up
area or floor area 5000 to 10000 square meter.
2. Construction of cinema hall, theatre, community hall, stadium, concert hall, spot complex
with the mobility capacity of 1000- to 2000 persons at a time.
3. Development of residence for 50 families or in an area ranging between1 to 4 hectare.
4. Launching of land development project in an area ranging between 10 to 100 hectares.
5. Construction of hard surface pavement in an area more than 10 hecatres.
6. Filling of soil above 20000 cubic metre or development of site after cut operation of soil.
7. Construction of buildings of 10 storeys or more than 25 metre or 16 storeys or more than
(within) 50 metres.
f. Water Resources and Energy Sector
1. Construction of electric lines
a.
b.
c. Construction of transmission lines not more than 3 kilometers of capacity n 132 kV
or more.
d. Construction of new outdoor trapping sub-station from the existing 220 kV
transmission line or more.
2. Production of electricity
a) Operation of electricity generation project of capacity 1 to 6 MW.
b) Operation of electricity generation project of capacity 1 to 5 MW from
mineral oil or gas.
3. Under the new system of irrigation
a) Irrigation of area ranging between 200 to 2000 hectares in Tarai and
inner Tarai.
b) Irrigation of area ranging between 25 to 500 hectares in hills valleys and
tars.
c) Irrigation of area ranging between 25 to 200 hectares in hills with steep
gradient and mountain areas.
4. Under the rehabilitation system of irrigation
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a) Construction of new headworks under the existing system in irrigation
projects or any project rehabilitation activity to change the major irrigation canal
b) Any water resources development activity which displaces not more
than from 25 persons to 100 persons with permanent residence.
Deleted by the notification published in Nepal Gazette on March 09, 2009
c) Control of river more than 10 km by the construction dam.
g. Tourism Sector
1. Establishment and operation of hotels with 50 to 100 beds.
2. Extension of the areas of the existing airports.
3. Operation of rafting activities equipped with machine or by burning fuel on any river
with fish or other aquatic life.
4. Operation of house boat (floating boat) to be established in lake.
h. Drinking water sector
1. Collection of rain-water in an area of not more than 200 hectares, and use of water
sources (springs and wet-lands) located within the same area.
2. Surface water sources with not more than 1 cubic ft. safe yield, and supply of not more
than 50 percent of the water during the dry season.
3. Processing (treatment) of water at the rate of 10 to 25 liters per second.
4. Recharging up to 50 percent of the total aquifer for the development of underground
water sources.
5. Construction of tunnels for operation of drinking water project.
6. Displacement of not more than (upto) 25-100 persons for operating a water supply
scheme.
7. Settlement of not more than (upto) 500 persons on the upper reaches of water sources.
8. Supply of drinking water to a population ranging between 5,000 and 50,000.
9. Supply of drinking water to a population ranging between 10,000 and 100,000, and
connection of new sources.
10. River training and diversion activities over an area of more than one kilometer.
11. Operation of drinking water project with drainage system along with treatment.
i. Waste Management Sector
1. For the wastes produced from the houses and residential areas,
2. Filling of land with 1000 to 5000 tons of waste a year.
3. Activities relating to transfer stations and resource recovery areas spread over not more
than 5-10 hectares.
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4. Selecting, picking, disposing, and recycling waste through chemical, mechanical or
biological techniques in an area of not more than 5-10 hectares.
5. Activities relating to compost plants in an area ranging between 5 and 10 hectares.
6. Operation of drainage development project exceeding the investment more than Rs 50
lakhs.
j. Agricultural sector
1. Clearing of national forests covering not more than 1 hectare in the hills and 5 hectares in
the Tarai, and using them for agricultural purposes.
2. Following activities relating to construction :
i) Construction activities for farming more than 30,000 domestic fowls.
ii) Construction activities for farming more than 1000 big cattle.
iii) Construction activities for farming more than 5,000 small cattle
(sheep and goats).
iv) Establishment of agricultural wholesale markets in area more than
one hectare in the metropolitan and sub-metropolitan area of Tarai region and
more than 0.5 hectare in other region.
v) Establishment of license holder slaughter house.
3. Storage and disposal of expired toxic substances (only those which are listed).
4. Production, formulation, repackaging, storage and disposal of chemical fertilizer
(inorganic fertilizer) and chemical pesticides (inorganic pesticides).
5. Establishment for industry for the production of chemical fertilizer (blending) and
chemical pesticides (blending).
k. Health Sector
1. Operation of hospital, nursing home or medical profession with
capacity 25 to 100 beds (including study and teaching).
l. Operation of any planning, project or programme of any
development work, physical activities or change in land use except the proposals
mentioned in Clause (a) to Clause (k) and those below the standards of such proposals as
well as the proposals below the standards of those mentioned in Schedule-2 with a cost of
Rs. 50 millions to 250 millions.
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Schedule - 2
(Pertaining to Rule 3)
Proposals Requiring Environmental Impact Assessment
a. Forest Sector
1. Plantation of indigenous plants of a single species on a single block covering an
area of more than 500 hectares in the Terai and 100 hectares in the hills.
2. Plantation of such imported species of plants as are deemed suitable for the
purpose following their test in the concerned place, in an area of more than 100
hectares in the Terai and 50 hectares in the hills.
3. Handover of forests with an area of more than 200 hectares in the Terai and 50
hectares in the hills as leasehold forests.
4. Clear Felling of National forests for research purpose with an area of more than 30
hectares per year by the government.
5. Rosin and turpentine, rubber, plywood and veneer, brick and tile, Tobacco Kattha
and timber-based matches, pulp and paper industries to be established within one
kilometer inside the forest area that rely on forests for their raw materials and use
processing techniques, and cardamom as well as medium and large tea industries
together with Lauth saalla and incense industry establishment that use bulky
quantities of firewood.
6. Commercial as well as industrial processing of medicinal herbs and aromatic plants
which emit garbage and pollution.
7. Establishment of resorts, hotels with more than 50 beds, safaris, medium and large
educational institutions, hospitals and industries or other construction activities
inside forest area, national parks, reserves, conservation areas, buffer zone area,
wetland area and environment conservation zones.
8. In case Forest and Conservation Area's Management Plan does not mention output
of forest products to be collected then per species for root extraction of annually
more than 50 metric tons from one district from one forest area or from many
forest areas once or more than once needs to be included.
9. In case Forest and Conservation Area's Management Plan does not mention output
of forest products to be collected then per species for bark extraction of annually
more than 100 metric tons from one district from one forest area or from many
forest areas once or more than once needs to be included.
10. According to contemporary law that does not ban collection of roots and bark
species, Shorea robusta (sal) seed, Reetha and Emblica offiicinalis (Amala),
Tendupaat, Bhoorla paat, Cinamomom tamala (Tej Paat) together with non timber
forest product from one forest area or several areas in one or many season at one
or several collection amounting annually to more than 100 tons per species from
one district.
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11. With respect to contemporary law which does not ban export of species that are
processed and sartatwa extracted from one or several forest area or in one or many
season annually more than 100 tons per species per district.
12. Implement felling of more than 5 hectares of forest land with the proposal of
government faculties other than forest.
13. Handing over of more than 500 hectares of forest land to one (a single)
community for management.
b. Industrial Sector
1. Establishment of breweries and wineries equipped with fermentation facilities
with a production capacity of more than 500,000 liters per day.
2. Production of primary chemicals such as corrosive acid and alkali etc. (except
citric, tartaric, acetic acid etc.) with a production capacity of more than 100 metric
tons per day.
3. Processing of hides more than 10,000 sq.ft. per day.
4. Establishment of mineral based industries with a fixed investment (civil &
machinery purpose) of more than Rs. 500 millions.
5. Production of petro chemicals and processing (diesel, kerosene, lubricants,
plastics, synthetics rubbers etc.).
6. Daily production of more than 50 tons of ferrous and non ferrous metals (except
rerolling, remelting and febrication) by the process of primary smelting.
7. Establishment of industry producing more than 3000 metric tons of kahdsari or
sugar per day.
8. Establishment of cement industries based on lime stone or clinker with a
production capacity of more than 50 metric tons per hour.
9. Establishment of lime industries with a production capacity of more than 500
metric tons per day.
10. Production of asbestos.
11. Establishment of radio active emission (nuclear or atomic processing) industries.
12. Daily formulation of more than 50 metric tons of primary compounds (Bulk
drugs) for medicines.
13. Production of extremely hazardous substances such as Isocayanite, mercury
compound etc.
14. Production or establishment of ammunitions and explosives including gunpowder
other than by Nepali Army and Nepali Police.
15. Establishment of pulp or paper industries of with a production capacity of more
than 100 metric tons per day.
16. Establishment of brick and tiles industries with a production capacity of more
than 20 million pieces per year.
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17. Chemical processing of bones, horns, and hoof of more than 50 metric tons per
day.
18. Establishment of saw mill with an annual consumption of more than 50 thousand
cubic feet (of timber).
c. Mining Sector
1. Relocation or resettlement of permanent residence of a population of more than
100 for the purpose of mine excavation.
2. Mine Excavation Process For :
a. Excavating (for production of)all kinds of radioactive metals for production
b. Production of other metals of more than 200 tons by underground excavation
and more than 400 tons for(by) surface mining on daily basis.
c. Production of non metallic minerals by underground excavation exceeding
200 tons per day and by surface excavation beyond 400 tons per day.
d. Extraction of common construction stone, decorative stone, sand, gravel and
industrial soil at a rate of more than 300 cubic meters per day.
e. Production of coal and matti coal at the rate of more than 200 tons per day by
underground excavation and more than 400 tons per day by surface
excavation.
f. Production process of more than 100 thousand meter cube per day of natural
gas.
g. Process requiring excavation and processing of petroleum products.
h. Daily extraction of more than 250 meter cube of sand, gravel (girkha) soil
from the surface of river and rivulets.
d. Road Sector
1. Construction of the following roads:
a. National highways.
b. Main feeder roads.
2. Construction of more than 50 kilometers long ropeways (ranju marg).
3. Construction of more than 5 kilometers long cable car routes.
e. Residence, Building (Bhavan) and Urban Development Area
1. Residential, Commercial and their combination buildings (Bhavan) with a built-
up or floor area of more than 10,000 meter square.
2. Construction of Cinema Hall, Theater, Community Hall, Stadium, Concert Hall,
Spot Complex with an entry and exit (capacity) of more than 2,000 at a time.
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3. Development of Residence with a capacity of 50 members or in an area of more
than 4 hectares.
4. Operation of more than 100 hectares of land development program
5. Construction of more than 16 floors or 50 meters of buildings.
f. Water Resources and Energy Sector
1. Construction and Supply through the installation of transmission lines with more
than 3 km length and 66 kV capacity.
2. Operation of Hydro Electric Production Program with the capacity of more than
10 MW.
3. Under the Electricity Production:
a. Operation of Coal or Nuclear Electric production (project with capacity) of
more than 1 MW.
b. Operation of Oil or Gas Electric production (project with capacity) of more
than 5 MW.
4. Under the new systems of irrigation:
a. Those irrigating more than 2000 hectares in the Terai or Inner Terai.
b. Those irrigating more than 500 hectares in hills, valleys and tar.
c. Those irrigation more the 200 hectares in the hilly bhiralo, pakha and
mountain areas with a steep gradient.
d. Any water resources development activity which displaces (population of )
more than 100 people with permanent residence.
e. Construction of multipurpose reservoirs.
f. Inter-basin water transfer and use.
g. Tourism Sector
1. Construction, establishment and operation of hotels with more than 100 beds.
2. Establishment and development of new airports.
h. Drinking Water
1. Collection of rain-water in an area of more than 200 hectares and use of water
sources located within the same area.
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2. (supply of) Surface water sources with more than 1 cusec. safe yield and the use
of its entire part during the dry season.
3. Recharging of more than 50 percent of the total aquifer for the development of
underground water sources.
4. Displacement of more than 100 persons for the operation of water supply
schemes.
5. Settlement of more than 500 persons on the upper reaches of water sources.
6. Supply of drinking water to a population of more than 50,000.
7. Supply of drinking water to a population of more than 100,000, and connection of
new sources.
8. Over mining of biologically or chemically polluted point and non-point sources or
underground water sources that may be affected by them.
9. Operation of multi-purpose projects relating to sources of drinking water using
water sources at the rate of more than 25 liters per second.
i. Waste Management
1. Waste management activities to the undertaken with the objective of providing
services to a population of more than 10,000.
2. Following activities relating to waste emitted from houses and residential areas :
a. Filling of land with more than 5000(1000 previously) tons of waste per
year.
b. Activities relating to transfer stations and resource recovery areas
spread over an area of more than 10(3 previously) hectares.
c. Selecting, picking, disposing and recycling waste through chemical,
mechanical or biological techniques in an area spread over more than
(2 hecs. previously) 10 hectares.
d. Activities relating to compost plants spread over an area of more than
10 hectares.
e. Burying of waste emitted from an urban area with a population of at
least 10,000.
3. Following construction activities relating to hazardous waste of the following
nature in any scale :
a. Construction of a waste plant.
b. Construction of a waste recovery plant.
c. Construction of a site for filling, accumulating or burying waste.
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d. Construction of a site for storing waste.
e. Construction of a waste treatment facility.
4. Following activities relating to lethal waste
a. Emission and management of any radio-active substance with a half
age exceeding 25 years.
b. Emission and management of any radio active materials with 30 lethal
dose.
c. Final disposal management of biological lethal substances emitted
from health centers, hospitals or nursing homes with at least 25 beds.
d. Any active relating to one hectare or more of land and energy for the
purpose of incinerating or recycling any lethal substance.
j. Agricultural Sector
1. Clearing of Government Forests covering more than 1 hectare in the hills and 5
hectares in the Tarai and using them for agricultural purposes.
2. Urbanization plan in cultivable lands.
3. Following activities relating to toxic substances (only those that are listed).
k. Health
1. Operation of hospitals or nursing homes with more than 100 beds, or medical
profession (study and teaching also).
l. If any proposal is to be implemented in the following areas
1. Historical, cultural and archeological sites.
2. National parks, wild life reserve, wetland and conservation areas.
3. Areas with main sources of public water supply.
m. Operation of any planning, project or program relating to any developmental work,
physical activities or change in land use except the proposals mentioned in Clause (A) to
Clause (K) and those below the standards of such proposals as well as the proposals
below the standards of those mentioned in Schedule-1 with a cost of more than 250
millions.
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Annex 2: Public Notice
101
References
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2. Bhatt, Ramesh Prasad, Khanal, Sanjay Nath: Environmental Impact Assessment System in Nepal
An overview of policy, legal instruments and process, Kathmandu University Journal of Science,
Engineering and Technology Vol. 5, no. ii, September, 2009, pp 160- 170.
3. Canter, L. W., 1996. Environmental Impact Assessment, Second Edition, McGraw Hill, New York.
4. IUCN, 1996, EIA Training Manual for Professionals and Engineers, Asian Regional Environmental
Assessment Program, IUCN, Nepal.
5. National Planning Commission, GoN/IUCN, 1993. National Environmental Impact Assessment
Guidelines, NPC/IUCN, NCS Implementation Project, Kathmandu.
6. Upreti, B. K. (2003): Environmental Impact Assessment: process and practice. Published by Uttara
Uprety, Koteshwor, Kathmandu.
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8. http://www.eia.unu.edu
9. http://www.unep.org
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