MEIOSIS A Reduction Division The first thing you need to know about meiosis is that it is a reduction division.

In mitosis, you begin with a cell (assume human with 46 chromosomes) and end up with two cells, each with 46 chromosomes. Meiosis, on the other hand, starts with a cell that divides not once, but twice, to form four cells, each with 23 chromosomes.
23

n n n n

46 46
46

2n 46 2n MEIOSIS

46

23

46

23 23

MITOSIS

Haploid and Diploid The normal compliment of chromosomes in humans is 46 chromosomes for most cells of your body. This is called the diploid number (2n). Half that number is the amount found in sperm and egg cells (collectively called gametes) the haploid number or n. Meiosis Meiosis may be defined as two successive divisions of the nucleus where the chromosomes duplicate themselves only once. Division of the nucleus is referred to as karyokinesis and in mitosis, that was divided into prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. The part about where the chromosomes duplicate themselves only once is called interphase. In essence, a cell goes through interphase one time and then goes through karyokinesis (and cytokinesis) twice. The problem becomes how to separate the first karyokinesis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase) from the second karyokinesis.

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Stages of Meiosis 1. Interphase 2. Meiosis I a. Karyokinesis i. Prophase I ii. Metaphase I iii. Anaphase I iv. Telophase I b. Cytokinesis 3. Meiosis II a. Karyokinesis i. Prophase II ii. Metaphase II iii. Anaphase II iv. Telophase II b. Cytokinesis Interphase Interphase in meiosis is the same as interphase in mitosis. The chromosomes replicate via the semiconservative theory of replication and therefore, the chromosome number doubles. Each doublet is called the chromatid and is joined at one point along their length by the centromere. Prophase I During prophase I of meiosis, the same events of prophase of mitosis take place. The nucleoli disappear, the chromosomes coil and become visibly thickened, the nuclear membrane degenerates, the centrioles divide and move towards opposite poles, and a spindle forms. However, there are two additional events in Prophase I of meiosis that do not take place in prophase of mitosis synapsis and crossing over. Synapsis Synapsis is where homologous chromosomes pair up. Remember, in humans, most cells have 46 chromosomes in the nucleus. Twenty-three of those chromosomes have chromosomes that look similar to them in other words you have 23 pairs of chromosomes.

A karyotype of a human female.

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chromosome 1

chromosome 2

chromosome homolog

Think of it this way. Chromosome #1 of 46 has a twin, chromosome #2 of 46. Chromosome # 2 is called the homolog of chromosome # 1. (You could also call chromosome # 1 the homolog of chromosome # 2.) During synapsis, homologous chromosomes pair up and align side by side. allele
A

gene 1

1
A

2
a

2
a

locus

centromere
On chromosomes are units of heredity called genes. A point on a chromosome is called a locus. Think of homologous chromosomes: chromosome 1 and chromosome 2 (the homolog). Remember, during interphase, chromosomes make exact copies of themselves. The exact copy of chromosome # 1 is called 1 (one prime). The exact copy of chromosome # 2 is called 2 prime. On chromosome 1 is a unit of heredity, a gene. At the same locus on 1 is the same gene. On the homolog (#2) at that locus, is an allele for that gene. On chromosome 2, at that same locus, is the exact copy of that allele. (Caution, it depends which you identify first as the gene as to what the allele is.) If we are talking eye color, the gene on chromosome # 1 could be B for brown eyes. The exact copy of # 1 also has the gene for B, brown. The homolog (#2), however, could have either the gene for B brown, or the gene b for blue. Whatever the homolog has, its exact copy 2 has the same gene.

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Crossing Over After homologous chromosomes pair up, crossing over may take place. This is when one of the arms of the chromosomes crosses over another arm of the homologous chromosome or the arm of an exact copy. The chromosomes may break apart and rejoin. In some cases, no change takes place. However, if one arm of a chromosome has a gene for Z and the homolog has an allele for z, when the arms cross over, break apart and rejoin, the chromosomes gene may now read z and the homologs allele may now read Z. They have traded genes.

1 1 A A

2 2 a a

1 1 2 2 A A a a

Z z

Z z

Z z

When looking at chromosomes under the microscope, you can see these cross over points. The cross over point is called chiasma (chiasmata, plural). The closer genes are on chromosomes, the less likely a cross over will occur. The farther two genes are apart on a chromosome, the greater the chance of cross over.

Chiasma

chiasma

chiasma chiasma chiasma chiasma

Metaphase I The events of metaphase I of meiosis are exactly the same as the events of metaphase of mitosis. The chromosomes align themselves along the equatorial plane of the spindle.

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Anaphase I In anaphase I of meiosis, the centromeres do not divide. Instead, homologous chromosomes push apart.

1 1 A A

2 2 a a

Z z

Z z

Telophase I During telophase I of meiosis, the chromosomes reach the poles, they uncoil, and nuclear membranes form. This is exactly the same as telophase of mitosis. Cytokinesis This is exactly the same as cytokinesis in mitosis. Just remember, homologous chromosomes are now in individual cells. Prophase II Prophase II of meiosis is the same as prophase of mitosis. There is no synapsis and crossing over since homologous chromosomes are now in separate cells. Metaphase II This is the same as metaphase I or meiosis and metaphase of mitosis. Anaphase II Here, the centromeres do divide and individual chromosomes push apart. Its exactly the same as anaphase of mitosis.

A A

a a

Z z

Z z

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Telophase II This is the same as telophase I of meiosis and telophase of mitosis. Cytokinesis This is the same as before. We have just had two successive divisions of the nucleus where the chromosomes duplicate themselves only once!

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Spermatogenesis begins with a spermatogonial cell with 46 chromosomes. That cell divides and undergoes interphase to produce a cell with 92 chromosomes called the primary spermatocyte. The primary spermatocyte undergoes Meiosis I (prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, telophase I and cytokinesis). The resulting two cells are called secondary spermatocytes and they have 46 chromosomes each. The secondary spermatocytes undergo Meiosis II and the result is two cells from each secondary spermatocyte (a total of 4) each with 23 chromosomes. These are called spermatids. The spermatids condense to form sperm cells.

SPERMATOGENESIS 46 Spermatogonial cell (interphase) 92 Primary spermatocyte (Meiosis I)

46

46

Secondary spermatocytes Meiosis II

23

23 23

23

Spermatids Sperm

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Ogenesis Ogenesis is the production of eggs in females. It follows the same basic pattern as spermatogenesis with one significant difference. There is an unequal division of the cytoplasm. Ogenesis begins with an ogonial cell with 46 chromosomes. It divides and undergoes interphase to produce the primary ocyte with 92 chromosomes. The primary ocyte undergoes Meiosis I and cytokinesis to produce two cells each with 46 chromosomes. One cell is the secondary ocyte and is rather large. The other cell is called the first polar body and is quite small (budding off the nucleus to form a cell with virtually no cytoplasm). The first polar body often stays attached to the secondary ocyte. The secondary ocyte undergoes Meiosis II and cytokinesis. This results in the production of the otid with 23 chromosomes and a second polar body with 23. The second polar body also remains attached to the now otid. Sometimes the first polar body also divides and the result is one otid and 3 polar bodies. (Technically, the process is hung up at metaphase I of meiosis until a sperm cell penetrates. When the sperm penetrates the secondary ocyte, it kicks the ocyte into the rest of meiosis and the production of the otid and the three polar bodies. The otid becomes the egg.

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The whole purpose of unequal cell division (or budding of polar bodies) is to ensure at least one egg has enough yolk (nourishment) to be successful in fertilization. If mother nature divided the cytoplasm equally, there would be four very small eggs with little chance of survival because there would not be enough yolk.

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