DDTM 04

Directional Drilling Training Manual
Section 4 - Surveying
Document Type
UOP Template (Word 6 PC)
Software Source File Other Source File
Microsoft Word 6.0 for Windows NT DDTM_04.DOC TM.DOT
Author Author info
Mike Smith Anadrill Technique 200 Gillingham Lane Sugar Land TX 77478-3136 Tel: + 1 281 285 8859 Fax: + 1 281 285 8290/4155 email: msmith@sugar-land.anadrill.slb.com
Review & approval
Revision History
04 Dec 96 06-Dec-96
2nd Revision Final review and approval MJS
Provisory - 04 Dec 96
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Directional Drilling
Table of Contents
Surveying
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4.1 MAGNETIC & NON-MAGNETIC REQUIREMENTS ................................................................4-1 4.1.1 Magnetic Fields ........................................................................................................4-1 4.1.1.1 Aspects of the transitory field .........................................................................4-2 4.1.2 Magnetic field strength .............................................................................................4-4 4.1.3 Magnetic Dip angle...................................................................................................4-5 4.1.4 Magnetic Declination Angle.....................................................................................4-6 4.1.5 Magnetic Interference ...............................................................................................4-7 4.1.5.1 Drill String Magnetic Interference ..................................................................4-7 4.1.5.2 Minimizing Errors ...........................................................................................4-10 4.1.5.3 External Magnetic Interference.......................................................................4-12 4.1.5.4 D&l Package Spacing......................................................................................4-13 4.1.6 Earths Gravitational Field........................................................................................4-13 4.2 MAGNETIC SINGLE SHOTS & MULTISHOTS........................................................................4-15 4.2.1 Survey Instruments ...................................................................................................4-15 4.2.1.1 Magnetic Surveys............................................................................................4-15 4.2.2 Magnetic Single Shot................................................................................................4-15 4.2.2.1 Power pack ......................................................................................................4-15 4.2.2.2 Timer or Sensor...............................................................................................4-15 4.2.2.3 Camera ............................................................................................................4-16 4.2.2.4 Angle unit, Compass .......................................................................................4-17 4.2.3 Magnetic Multi-shot Survey Instrument...................................................................4-18 4.2.3.1 The multi-shot timer........................................................................................4-18 4.2.3.2 The multi-shot camera.....................................................................................4-18 4.3 GYROSCOPES ......................................................................................................................4-19 4.3.1 Principles of Gyroscopic Surveying .........................................................................4-19 4.3.1.1 Historical Background ....................................................................................4-19 4.3.2 The Gyroscope..........................................................................................................4-19 4.3.2.1 Components.....................................................................................................4-22 4.3.3 Classification of Gyroscopes ....................................................................................4-23 4.3.3.1 Use...................................................................................................................4-23 4.3.3.2 Construction and Function. .............................................................................4-23 4.3.3.3 Restraints on the movement of the spin axis...................................................4-23 4.3.4 Evolution of Gyroscopes used in surveying oil-wells ..............................................4-25 4.3.4.1 The Surface Read out Gyro.............................................................................4-25 4.3.5 Forces acting upon Gyroscopes ................................................................................4-25 4.3.5.1 Precession........................................................................................................4-26 4.3.5.2 Nutation...........................................................................................................4-26 4.3.5.3 Fundamental Precession..................................................................................4-27 4.3.5.4 Origin of Precession ........................................................................................4-28 4.3.5.5 Gimbal Lock....................................................................................................4-28 4.3.5.6 Tumbling .........................................................................................................4-29 4.3.5.7 Caging .............................................................................................................4-29
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4.3.6 Directional Gyro .......................................................................................................4-29 4.3.7 Level Rotor Gyro......................................................................................................4-30 4.3.7.1 Apparent Drift .................................................................................................4-30 4.3.7.2 Temperature Effect..........................................................................................4-30 4.3.7.3 Intercardinal Tilt Error or Gimbal Error .........................................................4-30 4.3.8 Rate Gyroscopes .......................................................................................................4-31 4.3.8.1 Accelerometer Operation ................................................................................4-32 4.3.8.2 Rate-Gyro Operation .......................................................................................4-33 4.3.9 Other Rate Gyro Systems .........................................................................................4-35 4.3.9.1 Rate Gyro ........................................................................................................4-35 4.3.9.2 Torsion Bar Rate Gyro ....................................................................................4-35 4.3.9.3 Rate Integrating Gyro......................................................................................4-35 4.3.9.4 Rate Integrating Gyro Use...............................................................................4-36 4.3.9.5 Strap Down System.........................................................................................4-36 4.3.9.6 Accuracy, quality control and why Rate Gyros?.............................................4-36 4.3.9.7 Errors in Rate Gyros........................................................................................4-37 4.3.10 Gyroscope suspension ............................................................................................4-38 4.3.11 North Seeking Gyros ..............................................................................................4-38 4.3.12 Drift Values ............................................................................................................4-39 4.3.12.1 Nature and Source of Drift ............................................................................4-39 4.3.12.2 Acceleration sensitive drift ...........................................................................4-39
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Table of Contents
List of Figures
Figure 4-1 Figure 4-2 Figure 4-3 Figure 4-4 Figure 4-5 Figure 4-6 Figure 4-7 Figure 4-8 Figure 4-9 Figure 4-10 Figure 4-11 Figure 4-12 Figure 4-13 Figure 4-14 Figure 4-15 Figure 4-16 Figure 4-17 Figure 4-18 Figure 4-19 Figure 4-20 Figure 4-21 Figure 4-22 Figure 4-23 Figure 4-24 Figure 4-25 Figure 4-26 Figure 4-27 Figure 4-28 Figure 4-29 Figure 4-30 Figure 4-31 Figure 4-32
Page
Earths magnetic field - rotation of liquid core ...................................................... 4-2 Earth's magnetic field - dynamo theory.................................................................. 4-2 Earths magnetic field............................................................................................. 4-3 Fluctuation's in the earth's magnetic field .............................................................. 4-3 Magnetic field strength........................................................................................... 4-4 Magnetic dip angle ................................................................................................. 4-5 Magnetic dip angles at poles and equator .............................................................. 4-6 Magnetic declination angle..................................................................................... 4-7 Drill string magnetism............................................................................................ 4-8 Effect of hole angle on drillstring magnetic interference...................................... 4-8 Effect of azimuth on drillstring magnetic interference ........................................ 4-9 Drillstring magnetic interference at different latitudes ...................................... 4-10 Magnetic lines of force in the drillstring ............................................................ 4-11 Effect of magnetic hot spot in MWD collar ....................................................... 4-12 NMDC requirements. ......................................................................................... 4-13 Deviation of Universal Gravitation Constant ..................................................... 4-14 Simplified diagram of a typical gyroscope......................................................... 4-20 Realistic view of the configuration of a typical gyroscope ................................ 4-21 Gyro rotation around outer gimbal axis.............................................................. 4-22 Gyro rotation around inner gimbal axis.............................................................. 4-22 Single degree of freedom gyro ........................................................................... 4-24 Two degree of freedom gyro ............................................................................... 4-24 Representation of nutation.................................................................................. 4-26 Relationship of celestial and ecliptic poles ........................................................ 4-27 Origin of precession ........................................................................................... 4-27 Free gyro............................................................................................................. 4-28 Two degree gyro................................................................................................. 4-29 Rate gyro............................................................................................................. 4-31 Rate gyro accelerometer operation..................................................................... 4-32 Rate gyro accelerometer principle of operation ................................................. 4-32 Three step process to calculate survey from rate gyro ....................................... 4-33 Rate gyro survey axes......................................................................................... 4-34
List of Tables
Table 4-1 Table 4-2
Page
Common relative values of total magnetic field strength ........................................ 4-5 Common relative values for dip angle..................................................................... 4-5
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Directional Drilling 4-iii
Surveying
Surveying
About this chapter
This chapter describes the various survey methods used in the oilfield. Magnetism and non-magnetic requirements are discussed. As a logical progression from this, magnetic survey instruments are covered. Both single shot and multishot instruments are described. While MWD tools are in wide use today, every DD must know how to take magnetic single shot surveys. Maintenance of the survey instrument is a necessary task for the DD. There are various types of survey instruments available. The DD must familiarize himself with each type. Gyroscopic surveys are necessary in certain situations. It is not possible to cover all the gyro procedures in this manual. However, a good introduction to gyros is given in this chapter. There are parts of the world (e.g. W. Africa) where the Anadrill DD is trained to run both single shot and multishot gyro surveys. An introduction to MWD tools is included in this chapter. It is designed to give the DD an appreciation of the various telemetry systems used in different MWD tools. An explanation is given of how the signal is transmitted to surface in each case.
Objectives of this Chapter
On completing this chapter the directional driller should be able to do the following exercises: 1. Explain what influences the amount of non-magnetic material needed in a directional BHA. 2. Explain the principle behind gyro surveys.
4.1
Magnetic & Non-Magnetic Requirements

There are several theories to explain the Earths magnetic field: Theory #1: Rotation of the Earths solid exterior relative to its liquid iron core is believed to induce a slow rotation of the core. A magnetic field results from the electrical currents generated by the relative motion between the liquid core and the mantle. The conclusion that there is a liquid portion of the core is compatible with available data (Figure 4-1). Theory #2: Similar to theory #1. The center portion of the Earth is largely composed of iron and has the mechanical properties of a fluid. These fluids are subjected to internal circulation currents similar to phenomena observed at the periphery of the sun. The internal circulation of these fluids acts as the source of the Earths magnetic field according to the principle of a self excited dynamo (Figure 4-2).
4.1.1 Magnetic Fields
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Surveying
Core
Figure 4-1
Earths magnetic field - rotation of liquid core
Figure 4-2
Earth's magnetic field - dynamo theory
The total magnetic field is the sum of two fields of different origins: The principal field which originates within the fluid nucleus of the Earth. The transitory field generated outside the Earth. This field is caused by the rotation of the Earth relative to the Sun and by the cycles of the Suns activity.
4.1.1.1 Aspects of the transitory field
The transitory field is responsible for the following variations of the magnetic field. Secular variations of approximately 15 gammas per year - a minor effect. Diurnal solar variation on the order of 30 to 40 gammas per day - a minor effect. The cyclical "Eleven Years" variation - a minor effect. Magnetic storms which may reach several hundreds of gammas - a major effect.
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Surveying The Earths own magnetic field extends out to approximately 8 times the radius of the planet. Beyond this prevails the Magneto Pause, a region in space where the Earths magnetic field contacts the Solar Wind. On its sunward side, the Earths magnetosphere is compressed by high energy particles from the solar wind (Figure 4-3).
10
10
Figure 4-3
Earths magnetic field
These particles collide with the Earths magnetic field at a speed of 640 miles per second and are slowed down at the shock front to 400 miles per second. Variations in the solar wind produce changes in the Earths magnetic field. Solar flare particles reach the Earth in approximately two days. The shock wave preceding the cloud of plasma from the solar flare compresses the magnetosphere and rapidly intensifies the geomagnetic field at ground level (Figure 4-4). This compression takes place over a few minutes and is called the Sudden Storm Commencement (SSC). It is followed by the Initial Phase (IP) which lasts from 30 minutes to a few hours. The Main Phase (MP) produces a drop in the magnetic field strength due to an opposing field generated by the energized particles in the magnetosphere. This is normally not a problem for locations in the Gulf of Mexico and at lower latitudes. In Alaska and some parts of the North Sea, however, this has serious effects.
Solar Wind
15
10
10
15
20
25
il Magneto Ta
Solar Wind
Figure 4-4
Fluctuation's in the earth's magnetic field
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4.1.2 Magnetic field strength

The total magnetic field strength may be referred to as the H value, HFH, magnetic field strength or total field. The C.G.S. Electromagnetic Units are used for measuring the strength of the Earths magnetic field and are called Gammas. Some useful conversions: 1 gamma 1 micro tesla 1 tesla 1 gauss 1 gauss 1 gauss = = = = = = 1 nano tesla 1000 gammas 109 gammas 105 gammas 10-4 tesla 1 oersted
The magnetic field intensity recorded at ground level is of a much smaller magnitude than that prevailing around the Earths core. At the periphery of the core (approximately 3500 kilometers outward from the center of the Earth), the field strength reaches 800,000 gammas. Extreme total field values at the surface which you are unlikely to see range from 63,000 gammas close to the North Pole to 27,000 gammas near the equator (on the east coast of Brazil). The total magnetic field intensity is the vector sum of its horizontal component and its vertical component (Figure 4-5). The vertical component of the magnetic field points toward the ground and therefore contributes nothing to the determination of the direction of magnetic north. The horizontal component can be computed from the following equation: Magnetic Field Strength (HFH) x cos (Magnetic Dip Angle) = Horizontal Component Definition of Dip Angle can be found in Figure 4-6.
Horizontal Component of Magnetic Field Strength
Figure 4-5
In Alaska:
Magnetic field strength.
57,510 gammas x cos (80.6) = 9392 gammas

Gulf of Mexico:
50,450 gammas x cos (59.7) = 25,250 gammas
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Surveying MWD instruments measure the three components of the magnetic field vector H. The expected value can be obtained from a previous acceptable survey, from the "Geomag" program or from the Anadrill district office. Differences observed between the measured HFH value and the value derived from Geomag may be due to the following factors: Uncertainties in drill string magnetism. Uncertainties induced by temporal variations in the magnetic field. Uncertainty in the measured value of the magnetic field. Temperature sensitivity of the magnetometers. Errors from the tool electronics.
Table 4-1
Common relative values of total magnetic field strength

East Canada 54,000 gammas Beaufort Sea 58,500 gammas North Sea 50,000 gammas
Gulf of Mexico 50,000 gammas
Acceptance limit is 660 gammas between the expected value and the measured value. This is not to be confused with repeatability or change from one survey to the next. (On the latest M1 specifications, the value has been reduced to 500 gammas).
4.1.3 Magnetic Dip angle

The magnetic dip angle is equal to the angle between the tangent to the Earth's surface and the magnetic field vector (Figure 4-6). This is also the angle formed between the total magnetic field vector (HFH) and the horizontal vector. Extreme values which you are unlikely to see for dip angle range from 90 degrees close to the North Pole to almost zero degrees at the equator (see Figure 4-7). There are also several other points on the Earth's surface where the dip is equal to 90 degrees. These are due to local anomalies and are called "dip holes".
Magnetic North Magnetic Dip Angle
Figure 4-6 Table 4-2

Gulf of Mexico 59 degrees
Magnetic dip angle
Common relative values for dip angle.

East Canada 70 degrees Beaufort Sea 84 degrees North Sea 70 degrees
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NORTH POLE or TOTAL magnetic field vector
DIP = 0
Equator
Tangent at the Equator

Angle formed with magnetic vector is equal to 0
NORTH POLE or TOTAL magnetic field vector

Tangent at the North Pole
DIP = 90
Equator
Figure 4-7
Magnetic dip angles at poles and equator
The acceptance limit is +/- 0.75 degrees between the normal expected value and the measured value. This is not to be confused with repeatability or change from one survey to the next. (On the latest M1 specifications, the value is +/- 0.75 for horizontal holes and +/- 0.50 in other cases.)
4.1.4 Magnetic Declination Angle

The Earth can be thought of as having a magnetic dipole running through its center with north and south poles at either end. This dipole does not correspond with the Earths rotational axis. The angle between magnetic north and geographic north (true north) is defined as the magnetic declination or the angle of declination (Figure 4-8). This is dependent upon the location (both in latitude and longitude) and can vary in areas of high magnetic activity (such as Alaska). All magnetic surveys require a conversion to geographic direction by adding or subtracting this angle (Figure 4-8). If magnetic declination is known, then the direction of the Earths magnetic field relative to true north can be calculated. Angles of declination to the west of geographic north are negative and magnetic declinations to the east of geographic north are positive. For example, 5 west can be written as -5 and 5 east can be written as +5. Magnetic declination can vary and the total magnetic field strength may vary greatly during extreme sun spot activity. Also remember, the closer to the equator: the lower the total field strength. the higher the horizontal component. and the less the dip angle.
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TRUE NORTH
MAGNETIC NORTH
ANGLE OF DECLINATION
Figure 4-8
Magnetic declination angle
4.1.5 Magnetic Interference

There are two types of magnetic interference: Drill string magnetic interference. External magnetic interference, which can include interference from: A fish left in the hole. Nearby casing. A magnetic "hot spot" in the drill collar Fluctuation in the Earths magnetic field. Certain formations (iron pyrite, hematite and possibly hematite mud).
Any deviation from the expected magnetic field value can indicate magnetic interference. External magnetic interference can occur as the drill string moves away from the casing shoe or from the casing window. It can also occur as another cased hole is approached. All surveying instruments using magnetometers will be affected in accuracy by any magnetic interference. In such a case, gyroscopic (gyro) measurements will have to be used. There are certain instances where a gyro survey may need to be used if the well requires steering out of casing or if a possible collision exists with another well. There are also cases where magnetic interference may be corrected or at least taken into account until a different BHA is used.
4.1.5.1 Drill String Magnetic Interference
The drill string can be compared to a long slender magnet with its lower end comprising one of the magnetic poles. Even if the components of a drilling assembly have been demagnetized after inspection, the steel section of the drill string will become magnetized by the presence of the Earths field (Figure 4-9).
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Surveying Note in Figures 4-9 through 4-12 that the Z axis reference is for the Slim 1 tool. This would be the X axis for all other Anadrill tools. The discussion for Drill String Magnetic Interference uses the Slim 1 example throughout.
DRILL STRING MAGNETISM
Magnetic Flux Lines
Magnetic Flux Lines
Y X
Earths Magnetic Flux
MAG
Z Y X
INC
Figure 4-9
Drill string magnetism
Drill string magnetism can be a source of error in calculations made from the supplied magnetometer data. This may happen as the angle builds from vertical (Figure 4-10) or as the azimuth moves away from a north/south axis (Figure 4-11). Also, changing the composition of the BHA between runs may change the effects of the drill string. Correction programs for magnetism of the drill string exist; Anadrill uses the well known Shell correction technique.
Horizontal component of Z axis error smaller with no inclination
Z
Y X
Y M Z Y IN X C AG X
Horizontal component of Z axis error larger with increased angle.
MAG Z Y X INC
Figure 4-10
Effect of hole angle on drillstring magnetic interference
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MAG Z Y X
INC
Horizontal component of Z axis error smallest in the North-South direction.
Y X
MAG Z Y X INC
Horizontal component of Z axis error largest in the East-West direction.
Y X
Figure 4-11
Effect of azimuth on drillstring magnetic interference
It is because of drill string magnetism that non-magnetic drill collars are needed. Non-magnetic drill collars are used to position the compass or D&I package out of the magnetic influence of the drill string. The magnetometers are measuring the resultant vector of the Earths magnetic field and the drill string. Since this is in effect one long dipole magnet with its flux lines parallel to the drill string, only the Z-axis of the magnetometer package (Z-axis is usually the axis of the surveying tool). is affected, normally creating a greater magnetic field effect along this axis. The magnitude of this error is dependent on the pole strength of the magnetized drill string components and their distance from the MWD tool. The error will normally appear in the calculated survey as an increased total HFH value (higher total field strength than the Earth alone). This increase is due to the larger value of the Z-axis magnetometer. The total H value should remain constant regardless of the tool face orientation or depth as long as the hole inclination, azimuth and BHA remain relatively constant. When drill string magnetism is causing an error on the Z-axis magnetometer, only the horizontal component of that error can interfere with the measurement of the Earths magnetic field (see Magnetic Field Strength section). The horizontal component of the Zaxis error is equal to the Z-axis error multiplied by the sine of the hole deviation. This is why experience has shown that the magnetic survey accuracy worsens as the hole angle increases (especially with drill string magnetic interference). Since the horizontal component of the Earths magnetic field is smaller on the Alaskan Slope, the error from a magnetized drill string is relatively greater than that experienced in lower latitudes (Figure 4-12). Thus, a 50 gammas error has a larger effect on a smaller horizontal component, 0.53% error in Alaska compared to only 0.20% in the Gulf of Mexico. The increased value of the Z-axis due to drill string magnetism will normally cause all calculated azimuths to lie closer to north. This error will show up when a gyro is run in the well. All MWD surveys will be positioned (magnetically) north of the gyro survey stations. (Some gyros derive true north from the Earths rotation.)
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DRILL STRING MAGNETISM
Horizontal Component of Drill String Magnetic Field

M Z Y IN X C AG
Z Y X
Horizontal Component of Earth's Magnetic Field in Alaska Horizontal Component of Earth's Magnetic Field in Gulf of Mexico
50 GAMMAS
9.400 GAMMAS
25,200 GAMMAS
Figure 4-12
4.1.5.2 Minimizing Errors
Drillstring magnetic interference at different latitudes
One way to minimize the error caused by the drill string is to eliminate as much of the magnetism as possible. This is done by isolating the magnetometer package with as many non-magnetic drill collars as possible. The length of the non-magnetic collars implies a uniform and non-interrupted non-magnetic environment. This, however, is not true in practice. Each connection in a drill string, whether magnetic or not, is magnetic due to the effects of the mechanical torque of the pin in the box. This mechanical stress causes the local metal around the connection change its magnetic properties and can actually cause a survey azimuth reading error in the tens of degrees in some cases. Therefore, never space within 2 feet of a connection. Additionally, do not space exactly in the center of a nonmagnetic collar. When a collar has been bored from both ends, there is a very slight ridge at the point where the two bores come together. This becomes magnetically hot due to the cyclic rotation stresses to which the collar is subjected during rotary drilling. Usually, this effect can be removed by trepanning the collar bore. As much as 40% of azimuth error has been seen due to this effect. Obviously the presence of a steel stabilizer or steel component between two non-magnetic collars results on a pinching of the lines of force (Figure 4-13). This is detrimental to the accuracy of the survey. A steel stabilizer may be satisfactory on the Equator, but not as far north as Alaska. In Alaska all stabilizers used in the BHA are non-magnetic, since a conventional steel stabilizer located between two non-magnetic collars results in an interfering field which may reach 250 gammas.
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Surveying
Non Magnetic C ollar
Steel Stabilizer
Non Magnetic Collar
Length of Non Magnetic Collars implies a uniform, non-interrupted non-magnetic environment.
Figure 4-13
Magnetic lines of force in the drillstring
Even non-magnetic stabilizers are actually magnetic near the blades. At a minimum, hard metal facing and matrix used on stabilizers can be very magnetic. Never space inside a non-magnetic stabilizer. The following are circumstances where more non-magnetic drill collars are necessary to counter drill string magnetism effects. These are also examples in which the azimuth accuracy will likely decrease. The further away from the Equator (in latitude). The larger the hole inclination. The further away from a north/south hole azimuth.
Note that with 120 feet of non-magnetic material above the magnetometer package the effects of drill string magnetism in places like ALASKA may still be seen. In fact, Anadrill has performed jobs in Alaska with as much as much as 165 feet of non-magnetic material (Motor - 30 feet Monel - 45 feet M1 collar - 90 feet Monel). Remember: If magnetic interference is encountered from the drill string, the total H value should remain constant regardless of tool face orientation or depth as long as the hole inclination, azimuth and BHA remain fairly constant.
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Surveying The horizontal component of the Z-axis error is equal to: [(Z-axis error) x sin(drift)]. This is why magnetic survey accuracy declines as hole angle increases (especially with drill string magnetic interference).
Remember that drill string interference is more pronounced in areas of high dip angle. Best results can be achieved by using a combination of Monel collar and one of the magnetic connection algorithms such as developed by Shell.
4.1.5.3 External Magnetic Interference
When magnetic interference from external sources is encountered (such as from a fish in the hole or from nearby casing), all three axis of the D&I package will be affected. Therefore, the total magnetic field will vary. (The total H value will also vary when the D&I package is close to casing joints.). If a hot spot occurs on a non-magnetic collar, our total H value will change with varying tool face settings, but will be repeatable when the BHA is placed in the same orientation (Figure 4-14). Remember, in places such as Alaska, total field strength can routinely vary by 100 gammas. Do not mistakenly interpret change in total H value as a failed magnetometer sensor. It may be caused by magnetic interference. Do not mistakenly interpret a change in a survey with a failed magnetometer or inclinometer; it may be due to a tool face dependency.
Normal Earth Magnetic Field Hy Y Hx Hz X Z
Hot spot H total
Magnetic Hot Spot Rotating With MWD Collar

On thisdrawing hot spot is perfectly aligned with X axis.
Hot spot
All 3 axis measurements are affected. Fluctuation in total field is observed when MWD tool is rotated. Calculated azimuth will be wrong but will be repeatable with the same tool face.
H Earth H measured
Figure 4-14
Effect of magnetic hot spot in MWD collar
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4.1.5.4 D&l Package Spacing
In order to avoid magnetic interference, non-magnetic drill collars must be used. In the past, empirical charts were used to estimate the length of non-magnetic material needed. These charts were valid at the time because most wells were kicked off to less than 10 degrees of inclination and often without a mud motor (whipstock, jetting). Experiments have shown that mud motors produce a magnetic field from 3 to 10 times greater than components such as steel stabilizers and short drill collars. As a rule of thumb, anytime a mud motor is run, a non-magnetic short drill collar (of 10 to 15 feet) should be placed between the motor and D&I package. It may even be necessary to use a non-magnetic orienting sub in some areas of the world. The empirical charts are still useful to obtain a rough estimate of the non-magnetic material needed in a particular area, but these charts should not be used for reliable answers. The formula in Figure 4-15 can be used to accurately predict errors in azimuth due to magnetic interference from the drilling assembly. Other formulas exist for D&I spacing but this is probably the most accurate.
Figure 4-15
NMDC requirements.
This formula is relatively easy to use and interpret. The absolute value of the predicted azimuth error (AE) should be less than 0.5 degrees. If it is not, continue adding lengths of non-magnetic drill collars both above and below the MWD collar until the AE value is below 0.5 degrees. For horizontal drilling, and especially for well paths with a medium radius of curvature, it may be impractical to achieve a predicted azimuth error of less than 0.5 degree. Some operators may prefer to drill with a predicted error of one degree during the build up phase of the well and then correct for it later. If a mud motor is used to correct the well azimuth (on a slant hole) and a change in the magnetic field is observed, due to magnetic interference from the motor, the change may not be problem as long as the operator and directional driller are aware of the change and take it into account. A simple way would be to resurvey the corrected path with a different spacing or a different BHA.
4.1.6 Earths Gravitational Field

Newtons Law of Gravitation: Every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other particle with a force which is directly proportional to the product of the masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Gravitational force is a function of distance from the center of the bodies in question (Figure 4-16).
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Surveying The gravitational field (G) is primarily a function of: Latitude (main factor). Depth/Altitude: referenced to mean sea level (MSL) Regional fluctuations in the density of the Earths crust.
Some of the changes in the measured value of G over the Earth are attributed to the Earths rotation. The rotation has given the Earth a slightly flattened shape. Therefore, the equatorial radius is larger than the polar radius. The G value changes from 0.997 at 0 degree latitude (Equator) to approximately 1.003 at 90 degree latitude (a 0.006 change ). A decrease in G can also be seen with increasing hole depth. The rate of change is approximately 0.0005 per 10000 feet. You would have to be at 20,000 feet to see 0.001. In other words, if the G value was exactly 1.000 on the surface, it would be 0.999 at 20000 feet. Regional fluctuations in the density of the Earths crust are practically negligible.
Earth's Gravitational Field Mass = m GmM e g= r2 g
G = Universal Gravitational Constant r = radius between centers Mass of Earth = Me
Figure 4-16
Deviation of Universal Gravitation Constant
Other reasons for discrepancies in the measured G value are due to instrumentation errors in the inclinometer. These can be attributed to: Temperature sensitivity. Errors due to bad axis alignment. Errors due to electronic circuitry. Shifts in the sensor operating parameters which occur when the inclinometer is exposed to the shocks and vibrations of the drilling environment. (This can be observed when surveying with time option").
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Surveying
4.2
Magnetic Single Shots & Multishots

Directional surveying permits The determination of bottom hole location relative to the surface location or another reference system. The location of possible dog legs or excessive hole curvatures. The monitoring of the azimuth and inclination during the drilling process. The orientation of deflection tools.
4.2.1 Survey Instruments
The inclination and azimuth of the well bore at specific depths can be determined by one type of survey called the "single shot survey", while multiple shot" surveys are used to record several individual readings at required depth intervals. Wireline steering tools give continuous survey readings while drilling.
4.2.1.1 Magnetic Surveys
Magnetic survey instruments must be run inside non magnetic drill collars or open hole.
4.2.2 Magnetic Single Shot

The magnetic single shot instrument is used to simultaneously record the magnetic direction of the course of an uncased well bore and its inclination from vertical. It is also used to determine the toolface of a deflection device when deviating the well. The instruments consist of four basic units: a power pack or battery tube a timing device or sensor a camera unit a compass - inclinometer unit. These four elements are assembled together and usually inserted into a carefully spaced protective barrel (running gear) before being lowered or dropped, inside the drill-pipe, to bottom. The protective casing can be thermally insulated for wells where the downhole temperature exceeds the tolerance of the photographic film used.
4.2.2.1 Power pack
The size and number of batteries required varies with the instrument as does their polarity. Care should be taken to identify the correct polarity prior to loading batteries into the battery tube. Failure to do so can lead to a "mis-run" survey, causing lost time while the survey is re-run. The battery tube may have a snubber for use with top landing running gear.
4.2.2.2 Timer or Sensor
The timing device is used to operate the camera at a predetermined time. The surveyor must estimate the time it will take for the instrument to fall to bottom whether lowered on wire line or dropped (go deviled).
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Surveying The timers available today are either mechanical, or electronic. In the past, mechanical timers have been considered more robust, although less accurate than the electronic timers. With modem solid state electronics this is no longer true and mechanical timers are now rarely used. Electronic timers allow the operator to preset the time delay on the instrument, often to the nearest second before loading it into the running gear. Problems arise when using either type of timer which are not necessarily due to instrument malfunction. The most common problem results from timer miscalculation. If the time delay expires before the instrument has seated inside the non-magnetic drill collar, the resulting survey will be invalid, affected by motion and magnetic interference from the drill string. Since it is quite difficult to accurately predict the time involved in lowering the instrument to bottom, and anticipate problems with wire-line units or other surface equipment, the usual solution to this problem is for the operator to overestimate the time required, "just to be safe". This then results in time lost waiting for the timer to expire with the instrument in place, as well as unnecessary risk of stuck pipe resulting from not moving the drill string. The benefit of the timer is that it can be used when dropping or "go deviling" the survey; the operator knows exactly when the lights will come on and can minimize the length of time that the pipe is still. For Magnetic single shot surveys taken on wireline, timing devices are being replaced with electronic sensors which detect either the lack of movement as with a motion sensor, or, more commonly, the presence of non magnetic materials, as with a "Monel" sensor. The motion sensor detects when all motion has stopped for a given time (usually about thirty seconds), before activating the camera unit. This system has several drawbacks; if the descent of the survey instrument is interrupted for any reason below surface, a wireline problem for example, the motion sensor will detect the loss of movement and fire the camera resulting in a mis-run. The motion sensor is to some extent mechanical: it employs a movable element to detect motion and this may stick or lose sensitivity again resulting in a mis-run. From a floating rig, the downhole movement of the drill pipe imparted by the heave of the ocean, may affect a motion sensor, particularly at shallow depths. A "Monel", or non-magnetic collar sensor, is not subject to these limitations. It senses the change in the surrounding magnetic field as it enters the non magnetic drill collar. Most Monel sensors must be in a non-magnetic environment for a set time, as a safety factor, usually from thirty seconds to one minute before firing the camera unit. This serves to ensure that the instrument is actually seated in the non-magnetic collar and allows the compass card and inclinometer in the angle unit to settle before the picture is taken. Timers and sensors should always be surface tested before use.
4.2.2.3 Camera
The magnetic single shot camera has three main components: the film disk seat the lens assembly the lamp assembly.
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Surveying Unlike normal cameras, the single shot camera unit has no shutter mechanism, the exposure of the film is controlled instead by the timing of the light illumination. In most instruments, the lens assembly is prefocussed and no field adjustments are necessary.
4.2.2.4 Angle unit, Compass
This is the measurement device. The inclinometer measures the inclination of the well bore, and the compass measures the direction or azimuth of the well. These devices are nominally designed for a specific application and vary in design and principle. They may measure inclination only, high side (for use with mud motors), a combination of inclination and direction, they may use pendulums, weighted floats or air bubbles. We will try to discuss most of the commonly used angle units in this section. A detailed description of the survey output and operating procedure will be discussed in chapter five. Perhaps the simplest inclinometer is one which is used for measuring very low inclinations, the bubble inclinometer. Somewhat like a round carpenters level, it is very sensitive to low inclinations and is often used to survey vertical holes such as those drilled for conductor pipe where absolute verticality can be critical. Just as simple, and using the same principle, is the "low ball" type inclinometer, used not to measure inclination, but to identify the low side" of the hole with a small metal ball enabling the gravity tool-face of a deflection tool, such as a mud motor, to be measured in an environment where magnetic interference precludes the use of conventional angle units. These are the simplest but least used inclinometers as they apply only to special cases. The more commonly used angle units fall into three basic categories: Cross-hair pendulum - compass One of the most common types of angle unit for inclination and direction up to twenty degrees. The compass card is free to rotate inside the housing and maintain a reference to magnetic north. The inclinometer is an independent and free swinging pendulum cross-hair. The compass card is printed in reverse in order for the pendulum, which naturally falls to the low side, to depict the direction as it should be on the high side. The survey disk is read as correct. Care should be taken when interpreting gravity tool face using this type of angle unit. Scale inclinometer - compass Similar in principle to the pendulum cross-hair, this angle unit has an independent weighted inclinometer which appears as a scale superimposed onto the compass card on the survey photo disc. This type of angle unit is normally used for higher inclinations ( above twenty degrees). Depending on the manufacturer, gravity toolface is interpreted either as read" or is reversed. Care should be taken to establish the correct method of determining gravity toolface, before using the single shot for downhole orientation. Floating ball inclinometer- compass This type of angle unit utilizes a compass ball floating in fluid. The ball is inscribed with both azimuth and inclination. The cross hair sight is centered in the instrument and does not move, rather the compass ball tilts and rotates beneath it. Because the inclination and azimuth are not read independently, the angle units must be manufactured Geographically specific for the area or zone in which they will be used. This is normally identified by a stamp on the angle unit itself.
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4.2.3 Magnetic Multi-shot Survey Instrument

The Magnetic Multishot survey tool differs from the single shot tool in that the timer is programmed to take a series of readings separated by a preset time interval, and the camera unit is designed to take a series of recordings instead of just one as in the single shot. The battery tube is often lengthened in order to accommodate a greater number of batteries. The running gear used is normally the same for both types of survey, and the compass units are usually interchangeable.
4.2.3.1 The multi-shot timer
Depending on the manufacturer, some tools allow the operator to specify the interval between shots, while others are fixed. This interval is commonly in the one to three shots per minute range, and in normal applications, is adequate. As the instrument is dropped or "go deviled" inside the drill pipe, and the surveys taken when the pipe is placed in the slips on tripping put of the hole, in most cases, one survey per minute would be acceptable. The capacity of the Multi-shot to store data depends upon the amount of photographic film that can be stored in the camera unit. In the case where the pipe is pulled extremely slowly, or reciprocated for long periods, and where the hole depth dictates a lengthy trip out of the hole, longer periods between shots can extend the running time of the instrument and allow a full survey in one run.
4.2.3.2 The multi-shot camera
These also vary with manufacturer, but do not differ much in principal. Basically the camera consists of a film magazine spool, which is loaded by the operator and installed in the tool, a guide spool which passes the film across the focus of the camera lens, and the take-up spool which stores the exposed film. The photographic film is, of course, light sensitive and must be handled either in a darkroom, or a portable developer bag (often supplied with the tool) prior to development. In some types of tools, the film spools fit into separate cartridge-type magazines which can be preloaded and interchanged outside the darkroom without fear of exposure. The other feature of the multi-shot camera is the drive mechanism which turns the film spools in synchronization with the exposure-timer. The drive mechanisms are usually simple worm-drive devices or solenoid plunger - ratchet type. The film, when developed shows as a series of shots spaced along it. The operator, by carefully recording bit-depth against time, can match individual shots with given depths, and calculate the survey using this data. Because the multi-shot takes continual surveys, some are unreadable due to pipe movement. The valid surveys are found at the points where the pipe was set in the slips for a connection and the compass was still. Because of this, the common interval between surveys is equivalent to the length of a stand of drill pipe (90 ft).
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4.3
Gyroscopes
This section discusses gyroscopic wellbore surveying services available today in the oil industry beginning with basic gyroscopic theory and leading up to Rate Gyro technology. There is no attempt to compare systems or provide expert technical description of any companys technology. The intent is rather to provide a basic understanding of gyro technology, its background, goals, and place among other surveying methods.
4.3.1 Principles of Gyroscopic Surveying
4.3.1.1 Historical Background
The industry began developing what is now most commonly referred to as rate-gyro surveying systems" in the late 1970's, in a few instances with funding from the major oil companies. The goal of the overall development was to adapt modern aerospace guidance techniques for oil industry applications with the following objectives: 1. Provide a significant enhancement in survey accuracy. 2. Provide a means of quality assurance. It had been found that the existing surveying methods, magnetic-based and free-gyro systems, could not provide a reliable means of quality assurance for the level of accuracy wanted by the industry - approximately 1% of hole depth. Wellbore survey technology can be classified into four groups, as follows: 1. Inclination Only Device (Totco) 2. Magnetic-Based (film-based / electronic, single / multi-shot, MWD, steering tools, dip-meter) 3. Free-Gyro Systems (film-based/electronic) 4. Rate-Gyro Systems Other terms used in the industry to describe rate-gyro systems include: inertial navigation, gyrocompassing, north-seeking, north-referencing and continuous guidance. The first system developed applying modem aerospace techniques was the Ferranti FINDS tool, which was adapted from the navigation system in the Harrier Jump Jet. Now five companies offer rate-gyro service in various areas of the world. These are: Gyrodata Schlumberger Baker Hughes Inteq Sperry Sun Scientific Drilling
4.3.2 The Gyroscope

A Gyroscope is basically a balanced, spinning mass, which is free to rotate on one or more axes. The basic operation of a gyroscope can be compared to a spinning top. As long as the top spins fast enough, it attempts to hold its vertical orientation. If the top were propelled by a spin motor at a particular speed designated by its mass, it would stay vertical for as long as the motor ran, that is, if no external forces acted on it.
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Surveying This is the simple basis of all gyroscopes used in navigation, a spinning mass which through its momentum becomes resistant to external forces and attempts to maintain an orientation like the top in space. The term "resistant to external forces" is important, for a perfect gyro cannot be built, that will not be acted upon by external force and react by movement. How a gyro reacts to external force is a major topic in this discussion. The classic example of a natural occurring gyroscope is the planet Earth-a spinning mass attempting to hold a particular orientation in space established long ago. And, like all gyros, nor is the Earth a perfect one. It reacts to external forces with some movement, or drift, off its orientation. Fortunately, the drift is very small. The forces of the spinning Earth-Gyro will also become important to this discussion. The next step in basic gyro understanding is the two-degree-of-freedom gyroscope, the same kind used in the oil industry listed in category 3 above. Free-gyros have been used in wellbore surveying since the 1930s. The frames supporting the gyroscope, and allowing this freedom of rotation are referred to as Gimbals. Because gyroscopes can be extremely complicated, we will look at simplified gyroscopes initially, in order to understand the forces working upon them. Figure 4-17 shows a simplified gyroscope within its housing in a typical well surveying configuration.
Spin Rotor
Gimballing System
Gimbal
Angular Pick-off
Torquer
Gyro Case Resolver
Figure 4-17
Simplified diagram of a typical gyroscope
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Surveying Figure 4-18 shows a more realistic view of the configuration of an actual gyroscope.
INNER GIMBAL
MERCURY SWITCH
INNER GIMBAL ASSEMBLY

OUTER GIMBAL CAM CAGING ROD
BEARING
INNER GIMBAL ASSEMBLY
OUTER GIMBAL TORQUER JOURNAL
OUTER GIMBAL ASSEMBLY
Figure 4-18
Realistic view of the configuration of a typical gyroscope
The gimbals isolate the gyro from the base so, as shown in Figure 4-19, the spinning mass can attempt to maintain its original orientation no matter how the base moves. The gyroscopes shown in Figure 4-19 and Figure 4-21 are two-degree-of-freedom gyros. As the probe moves downhole through different directions and inclinations, the gimballing allows the gyro to attempt to maintain a horizontal orientation in space. In performing a wellbore survey, the gyro is pointed in a known direction prior to running in the well, so throughout the survey the spin axis attempts to hold its surface orientation. Note that a compass card is aligned with the horizontal spin axis of the gyro. Survey data is collected downhole by affixing a plumb-bob assembly over the compass .
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Surveying At each survey station a picture is taken of the plumb-bob direction with respect to the compass card, resulting in readings of wellbore azimuth and inclination. The plumb-bob always, as a pendulum, points down toward the Earths center. When the tool is inclined off vertical, it points out the inclination of the well on the concentric rings and the azimuth by correlation with the known direction of the gyro spin axis established at surface. (Note: There are also electronic, surface read-out free-gyro systems which eliminate the plumb-bob.)
Figure 4-19
Gyro rotation around outer gimbal axis

OUTER GIMBAL AXIS
INNER GIMBAL AXIS
SPIN AXIS
Figure 4-20
Gyro rotation around inner gimbal axis
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4.3.2.1 Components
A gyroscope is a spinning wheel whose spin axis can move relative to some reference mount. For the sake of simplicity, the major components of the gyro are comprised of: The Spin Motor, the main characteristic of which is "angular momentum". The Gyro Case which is the outer enclosure. The Gimballing System which is the structure carrying the spin motor. The gimballing system isolates the spinning rotor from the gyro-case: If the gyro-case turns around the outer gimbal axis (Figure 4-19). If the gyro-case turns around the inner gimbal axis (Figure 4-20). The Gimbal suspension, which includes:
the ball bearings (or gimbal bearings) between the gyro-case and the outer gimbal, and between the outer gimbal and the inner gimbal; the rotor bearings holding the spinning rotor in the inner gimbal. an Angular Pick-off which senses relative angular displacements between the gyro gimbal and the case. a Torquer which enables compensation for certain types of errors and processing the gyro at desired rates.
4.3.3 Classification of Gyroscopes

Gyroscopes are usually classified according to various characteristics, namely:
4.3.3.1 Use
Instrument gyros such as artificial horizons and gyro compass are used for measuring and indicating purposes. Control gyros are used to generate signals. Stabilizing gyros are used to generate torques for stabilizing purposes.
4.3.3.2 Construction and Function.
Two major types: Single degree of freedom gyro which requires only one coordinate axis to locate the SPIN axis with reference to the instrument mount (Figure 4-21) . In a single degree of freedom gyro, the spin axis is stabilized against rotation around the gimbal axis but is disturbed by rotations about the quadrature axis. Two degree of freedom gyro in which the rotor spin axis can move with respect to the case around two axes in an uncontrolled manner (Figure 4-22).
4.3.3.3 Restraints on the movement of the spin axis
In a Single degree of freedom gyro, the spin axis may have: An elastic restraint (rate gyro or gyrometer which measures the input angular velocity).
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Surveying A viscous restraint (rate integrating gyro which measures the input angular displacement). No restraint (integrating gyro). Completely free, except for unavoidable frictional restraints. Supplied with torquers for correction or measurement purposes.
INNER GIMBAL AXIS
In a Two degree of freedom gyro, the spin axis may be:
SPIN AXIS
Base Plate
Figure 4-21
Single degree of freedom gyro

OUTER GIMBAL AXIS
INNER GIMBAL AXIS
SPIN AXIS
Figure 4-22
Two degree of freedom gyro
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4.3.4 Evolution of Gyroscopes used in surveying oil-wells

The First Generation of gyro survey instruments used a conventional two degree of freedom gyro to set a directional reference point. With this type of gyro the inclination is given by a plumb bob located inside an Angle-Unit and a camera records the survey data. Reliable directional date depends on two things: The gyro must be accurately aligned to some known direction before being run down hole. The gyro must maintain this heading throughout the survey.
Downhole a small camera regulated by a timer and powered by a battery pack takes pictures of the plumb bob superimposed on the gyro compass card. These surveys supply accurate readings when carefully operated by an experienced surveyor. The second generation provides progress in the recording of survey data.
4.3.4.1 The Surface Read out Gyro.
A down-hole electronics package replaces camera angle-unit and timer. A wire line supplies power and connects the probe with a surface computer that monitors probe performance and prints survey data as it is gathered. Accelerometers instead of Angle-Units are used to measure hole inclination. However the system still relies on conventional two degrees of freedom gyros for directional data.
Problems with battery powered mechanical cameras are eliminated and survey data is supplied in real time. The surface computer can monitor probe performance, therefore time wasted by mis-runs is reduced. North Seeking Gyroscopes, comprised of a rate integrating gyroscope and an accelerometer. Sensitive axes of the rate integrating gyro and the accelerometer scan components of the earths rotation and earths gravity. Survey data is read by a downhole electronics package and transmitted to the surface computer via a single conductor wireline. The computer calculates azimuth, inclination, tool face and monitors probe temperature. The system requires no surface orientation and is not subject to such problems as gimbal lock and gyro tumbling sometimes encountered with conventional gyros. Continuous guidance tools, comprised of a two degree of freedom gyro and an accelerometer. Spin axis of gyro is secured in the horizontal position after being aligned to NORTH. Four gimbal gyroscopes comprised of a small conventional directional gyro mounted on a pair of gimbals in such a way that the outer case can be moved to any position without disturbing the position of the directional gyro. It is designed to eliminate gimbal error corrections and to survey the true hole direction at any slant angle from one degree to horizontal.
4.3.5 Forces acting upon Gyroscopes

As mentioned earlier, gyroscopes react to external force by movement or drift off their orientation. A particular aspect of all gyros is that they react 90 degrees with respect to the applied torque.
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Surveying In the case of a free-gyro survey system, forces causing the gyro to drift off its surface orientation lead to azimuth error. Typical causes for drift include system shocks, bearing wear and the one inescapable force Earth rotation. During a free-gyro survey, attempts are made to monitor drift and correct for it.
4.3.5.1 Precession
If we exert a torque on the inner gimbal, the gyro will begin to rotate around the outer gimbal axis. The rotation of a gyro spin axis, in response to an applied torque is called the Precession. If the spin vector tries to move into the torque vector, the gyro will rotates (precess) about an axis in quadrature to both the spin vector and the torque vector. Conversely, if torque is applied about the outer gimbal axis, the gyro will rotate about the inner gimbal axis.
4.3.5.2 Nutation
Nutation (Figure 4-23) is a wobbling of the rotor spin axis, in a two degree of freedom gyro. It is a self sustaining oscillation which physically represents a transfer of energy from one degree of freedom to another and back again. In a frictionless system, nutation would persist indefinitely. In reality, gimbal bearing friction serves to damp out nutation.
Figure 4-23
Representation of nutation
In contrast to precessional motion, nutation needs no external torques to sustain it. Nutation is more important at low spin rotor speeds. Therefore, Caging is used to maintain spin rotor axis stationary while speed is increasing from 0 to maximum. Caging locks the rotor to the case so that the spin axis, inner gimbal axis and outer gimbal axis are mutually orthogonal. Caging is achieved by an electromagnet which turns the outer and inner gimbal ring through special guides always to a certain position in relation to the outer case axis. Once gyro reaches maximum speed, nutation is nil.
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4.3.5.3 Fundamental Precession
The precession of the earth in a slow and circular movement of the earths axis of rotation around the poles of the ecliptic due, primarily, to the influence of the moon, and, to a lesser degree, to the influence of the sun on to the swollen periphery of the earth at the equator. With respect to the Ecliptic Pole, the celestial pole of the Earth (Figure 4-24) travels a circle whose radius makes an angle of 2327' with the ecliptic pole. As a result, the plane of the earth's equator is inclined 2327' to the plane of earth's orbit around the sun. (Figure 4-25)
Ecliptic Pole Celestial Pole
23 27'
Ecliptic Equator
Celestial Equator
23 27'
Figure 4-24
Relationship of celestial and ecliptic poles

Moon
Ecliptic Pole
North Pole
23
27'
B
Ecliptic Plane A
Equ
ator
South Pole
Figure 4-25
Origin of precession
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4.3.5.4 Origin of Precession
The moon exerts a slightly greater gravitational attraction on the earths point A than on point B, because the distance between A and the moon is a little shorter than between point B and the moon. Hence, a torque is generated which attempts to pull the earths equator into the plane of the ecliptic, thereby acting to erect the earths axis. Because the earth spins, it reacts to the torque by precessing. This precession is slow requiring a period of 25,800 years to complete a single cycle. A two degree of freedom gyro or Free Gyro (Figure 4-26) is so named because the Spin axis may be set to any desired direction, rather than referenced only to earths gravity or North. By application of the principle of gyroscopic inertia, a free gyro tends to maintain the orientation of the spin axis fixed in space, However, a free gyro is a short term device which functions accurately for less than five minutes because of high drift rates. A typical free gyro drift rate is .5 per minute. As opposed to a single degree of freedom gyro, a free gyro indicates the Amount of Input motion rather than a Rate of motion.
OUTER GIMBAL AXIS
INNER GIMBAL AXIS
SPIN AXIS
Figure 4-26
4.3.5.5 Gimbal Lock
Free gyro
In a two degree of freedom gyro in which the spin rotor axis is supported by gimbals, the spin rotor cannot arrive at a position parallel to the outer gimbal axis. Should outer gimbal axis and spin rotor axis become parallel, the gyro would lose one degree of freedom. To prevent gimbal lock, mechanical stops are utilized to restrict angular motion about the inner gimbal axis.
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4.3.5.6 Tumbling
The use of "stops" to prevent gimbal lock may cause a problem. When the inner gimbal strikes one of the inner gimbal axis stops, the outer gimbal turns through 180, about its gimbal axis. This outer gimbal axis movement, is called tumbling and results in the loss of the orientation reference. Therefore, careful attention must be exercised for selection of the spin axis reference.
4.3.5.7 Caging
The Caging mechanism locks the rotor assembly to the case so that spin, axis, inner gimbal axis and outer gimbal axis are mutually orthogonal. In this caged position, the gyro is then pointed to some reference direction and will be uncaged only after the desired initial orientation is secured. So, when the gyro is uncaged, the O' of the compass card points to the reference direction. Thereafter, any deviation of the compass card from the initial setting is referred to as drift. In a free gyro , the Reference is not reset once the gyro is uncaged.
4.3.6 Directional Gyro

A directional gyro (Figure 4-27) is a two degree of freedom gyro which has its spin axis set in a horizontal plane and which is used to measure angular motions around the Vertical. Directional gyros are used to establish an arbitrary reference in a horizontal plane.
Gyro Card
Outer Gimbal
Inner Gimbal
Torque
Direction of Torque
Precession
Figure 4-27
Two degree gyro
The three most common operating modes of a directional gyro are: Free Directional Gyro Mode A free directional gyro does not have torquers and is not slaved to any sensing device. Its spin axis, accordingly, acts as an inertial reference rather than an earth reference. This mode is used for navigation in polar regions where magnetic headings are likely to be erroneous. Latitude Corrected Mode permits the gyro to be precessed by an amount sufficient to cancel out the effect of earth's rotation, resulting in a gyro whose spin axis is stationary with respect to the earth .
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Surveying Slaved Mode uses an external reference such as: 1. A flux gate transmitter to provide a continuous azimuth torquing signal. This arrangement keeps the gyro spin axis aligned with the magnetic meridian. 2. A gravity sensing device (Erector) to maintain a spin axis horizontal to the earth.
4.3.7 Level Rotor Gyro

The level rotor gyro is a gyro in which the spin axis is maintained level in a plane parallel to a tangent to the earths surface. In this gyro mode, in order to avoid a tilting of the gyro due to unbalance and or the effect of friction, the inner gimbal suspension is equipped with a Mercury Switch (or an Electrolytic level) which is operated at even the slightest deviation of the gyro axis from the horizontal and gives a corresponding impulse to a small motor (torque motor ) mounted on the vertical axis. This motor then turns the outer frame by a very minute amount, either to the right or to the left, depending on which side of the switch is operated. The gyro axis is thereby returned to a horizontal position.
4.3.7.1 Apparent Drift
The apparent drift of a gyro is caused by the influence of the earth rotation. If, for instance, a perfectly balanced gyro were located at the North Pole in a horizontal position, so that its axis of rotation would be at right angles to the earth axis, the rotation of-the earth would indicate an apparent 360 turn of the axis in 24 hours, or an apparent drift of 15 per hour. At the South Pole, the same would be observed but in reversed direction. At the Equator, the gyro axis would be parallel to the earth axis and the gyro would not show any apparent drift. The apparent drift caused by the rotation of the earth is corrected by applying a special force to the inner gimbal ring. An adjustable weight in the form of a screw is attached to the inner gimbal ring and has the effect of a vertical power on the gyro axis. Due to the phenomenon of precession, this force turns the outer gimbal ring. By adjustment of the screw, it can be set to offset the apparent drift at any geographic latitude by an identical counter acting force, to the effect that the gyro turns simultaneously with the rotation of the earth. The screw is set for the particular latitude where the gyro is used.
4.3.7.2 Temperature Effect
Warming of the gyro can cause slight dislocations of the center of gravity due to the varying expansion coefficients of the different materials, such as copper and steel. Possible errors caused by rising temperature are compensated by a piece of bimetal which is mounted on the inner gimbal frame and offsets sufficiently the unbalance caused by temperature through a bending effect.
4.3.7.3 Intercardinal Tilt Error or Gimbal Error
The gimballing error encountered in a directional gyro is also known as intercardinal tilt error. Gimbal errors occur when the angular motions of gimbals do not correspond to the actual motion occurring about their reference axes.
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Surveying When a gimbal axis transducer is used, its output measures relative motion between gimbals, which is not necessarily the actual angular motion of the base. The gimbal error depends upon borehole inclination and the hole direction related to the reference direction. In order to minimize such errors, when the surface orientation is carried out, the spin rotor axis should, eventually, be positioned in a plane parallel to the overall well direction anticipated, so as to result in a difference as little as possible between:
4.3.8 Rate Gyroscopes

When the gyro case moves around the gyro spin axis, there is no angular deflection transmitted to the spin axis. When the gyro case moves around the output axis, again, there is no direct transmission of angular deflection to the gimbal assembly. However, when the gyro case moves around the input axis, the whole angular deflection is transmitted to the spin rotor axis. The rotation of the case around the input axis will then result in a very strong torque applied to the spin axis. As long as the gyro case is caused to rotate, the spin rotor axis will precess around the output axis until the torque vector direction and the spin rotor axis are co-incident. The rate of precession is: directly proportional to the applied torque: inversely proportional to the angular momentum.
Conversely, the gyroscopic torque is proportional to the angular rate of gyro rotation. It is this property which is used to construct a one degree of freedom gyro, such as a Rate Gyro. Although rate-gyros and accelerometers collect survey data in a completely different manner than the free gyro, their operation can be most easily described through comparison. Unlike the free-gyro, the rate-gyro system is one that measures the forces acting on the gyro; and, unlike the plumb-bob, the accelerometer assembly measures the force of gravity making it point toward the Earths center. Figure 4-28 provides a simplistic illustration of one rate-gyro and accelerometer configuration in a survey tool. In this case, the universal joints act as the gimballing mechanism for the gyro, and the pivot-point for the accelerometer pendulum. The combined readings of the accelerometer and rate-gyro at a survey station allow calculation of wellbore azimuth and inclination.
Potentiometer Take-off
Output Axis
Torsion Spring
Gyro Rotor Gimbal Can Insrument Case
Spin Axis
Figure 4-28
Rate gyro
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4.3.8.1 Accelerometer Operation
Figure 4-29 provides a more detailed illustration of accelerometer operation. Although the assembly can be said to have a pendulum like the plumb-bob, in this instance the pendulum is forced to maintain its case orientation. Pick-off coils measure movement of the magnetized mass (M) and send a signal to the torque coils, which apply an equal and opposing force to keep the pendulum aligned.
Universal Joint Pick-off, Torquer Accelerometer Outer Case Spin Motor Spin Axis Bearings Universal Joint Pick-off, Torquer Gyro Rotor
Figure 4-29
Rate gyro accelerometer operation
The amperage signal, or force, measured by the accelerometer when the probe is in a well allows calculation of wellbore inclination. This is illustrated in Figure 4-30. When the pendulum (M) is horizontal, the force component of gravity is 1 g. As shown, the force then varies with inclination until reading zero when the pendulum is vertical. Since the tool-accelerometer axis is aligned with the wellbore axis, the accelerometer calculates wellbore inclination at a survey station.
Accelerometer case
Pivot Pendulum Permanent magnet Torque coils Pick - offs M
Sensitive axis
Figure 4-30
Rate gyro accelerometer principle of operation
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Surveying
4.3.8.2 Rate-Gyro Operation
The rate-gyro, meanwhile, measures the Earth spin-rate vector. When the tool is stopped at a survey station, one of the forces acting on it is the spinning Earth force. In the case of the free-gyro system, the spin force causes the gyro to move or drift (gyro precession) off the surface orientation as mentioned earlier. Since the rate-gyro instead measures the Earth-rate force, for a given latitude the system can also calculate the true-north force component (TN) due the relationship of the vectors. The purpose of the rate-gyro, then, is at each survey station to calculate the true north direction with respect to the wellbore azimuth, which is aligned with the tool axis. Although more complex, the way the rate-gyro accomplishes this can be compared to the accelerometers operation. Once the gyro is set spinning and becomes free in space, as with the accelerometer, pick-off and torque coils measure the forces acting on the gyro and keep it aligned with the case. Prior to a survey, the rate-gyro tool is calibrated in a highly precise test stand at the service companys facility. Just as the force components of gravity vary to resolve wellbore inclination, the values for the Earth rate and true north vectors vary with latitude, inclination and the direction of the tool. When the tool is placed in the test stand, it is turned in a range of directions while its measurements of Earth forces are modeled with respect to a known reference. Similar to the accelerometer, then, when the rate-gyro is pointed in different directions in the stand it measures varying component values for earth spin-rate on its sensitive axes. When the tool is at a survey station in a wellbore, with latitude and inclination known, the rate-gyro reading of the component of earth spin-rate will correspond to a particular true north reference as modeled in the test stand. Calculating a survey point can be seen as a three step process utilizing the combined readings of the rate-gyro and accelerometer, as shown in Figure 4-31. The sensitive axes planes in Figure 4-31 relate to the same ones shown in Figure 4-32, so that the wellbore/tool axis is coming out of the page. As illustrated, once the accelerometer measures gravity to calculate wellbore inclination, tool high-side is also known. Combining the true north reading from the gyro, provides wellbore azimuth as the angle between true north and high-side.
Accelerometer
Gyro
Y
Combined TN
X
Y HS
TN
HS Y AZ
X G
Inclination HS Toolface
True North
Hole Azimuth
Figure 4-31
Three step process to calculate survey from rate gyro
Confidential
Surveying
High Side Hole AZ X1
Horizontal Plane
TN = True North
Y2 AZ
High side Toolface
Horizontal Plane Y1 Y2 I X1 I I Gyro accelerometer Sensitive axis plane Wellbore
Ho Sp le a in/ xis too la x
is
ER TN
Figure 4-32
Systems of the type described require an electric wireline and provide real-time data at surface. Depth is derived from wireline measurement and the system can perform singleor multi-shot surveys. During a multi-shot the tool is stopped at periodic stations and a mathematical formula is applied for the overall survey calculation. A Rate Gyro is a single degree of freedom Gyro in which the precession is limited and controlled by a restraining spring attached between the gyro case and the gimbal suspension (Figure 4-28). Under these conditions, the spin rotor axis will precess until the restraining spring torque is equal to the gyroscopic torque developed as a reaction to the rotation of the gyro case. Since the gyroscopic torque is proportional to the rate at which the gyro case is rotated, the angle through which the gyro axis precesses is directly a measure of the angular rate of gyro case rotation. In a one degree of freedom gyro, the gimbal assembly is afforded to move only a few degrees (2 or 3 degrees) - on either side of a 0 reference point. Single degree of freedom gyros can be classified depending upon the type of restraint (spring) between gyro case and gimbals. There are three basic types, discussed below.
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Gravity
Rate gyro survey axes
Surveying
4.3.9 Other Rate Gyro Systems

As mentioned previously, there are several different types of rate-gyro surveying systems available. They vary in size, configuration, and mode of operation. The Ferranti system is the only full navigation system as it is adapted from aerospace technology. It has a 10 5/8 in. diameter and utilizes three gyros and accelerometers mounted on a stabilized platform. As in aerospace, this system measures its three-dimensional movement through space (or down the well) to calculate a survey. In this case, the system measures the change in direction of the platform and the distance it moves. (Essentially, more force measuring as explained above.). The Ferranti tool is the only tool which does not use wireline measurement for depth. There are other rate-gyro tools available which perform a survey while moving but use the wireline for depth measurement; these systems also calculate the changes in wellbore azimuth and inclination by measuring the forces acting on rate-gyros and accelerometers to determine changes in tool direction.
4.3.9.1 Rate Gyro
A Rate Gyro measures the rate of precession (precession velocity), via the angular displacement. In a Rate gyro, both the inertial torque and the frictional torque are negligible compared with the string torque. The Rate Gyro uses a spring restraint on the output axis. A set of Balancing Nuts is often included in the shaft supporting the rotor can assembly so as to balance the can and rotor after sealing. These balancing nuts must have adequate capacity, adequate sensibility, locking means. Stops located about 3 degrees from the zero position minimize cross coupling errors caused by abnormal input rates about the spin axis when excessive precession occurs.
4.3.9.2 Torsion Bar Rate Gyro
In such a gyro, a torsion bar, namely a necked down section on the main shaft is used to provide elastic (or spring) restraint. One end of the main shaft is anchored to the outer instrument and the other end is supported in a bearing mounted in the outer casing. A precessional angular velocity input around the input axis causes a rotation of the shaft around the output axis. The torsion bar twists and by so doing, provides counter torque to stop rotation. The angle of twist which measures the input velocity is picked up by a pick-off device.
4.3.9.3 Rate Integrating Gyro
In most particulars, the rate integrating gyro is constructed in the same manner as the rate gyro. The only opposition to motion of the gimbal can is that of the fluid viscosity. The rate integrating gyro, almost always, uses the floated rotor construction. The rate integrating gyro is customarily built so that very little angular motion takes place about the precession axis. In the conventional use as a sensor, the precession angle motion rarely exceeds 3 for non-floated rate integrating gyro, nor more than 2 in floated rate integrating gyroscopes.
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Surveying The viscous restraint can be provided by the mechanical action of the flotation liquid, for instance, in reducing the damping gap to a few tenths of millimeters. Basically, the rate integrating gyro responds to an angular input displacement with an angular output displacement. The output displacement is then a measure of the input displacement. The reason for the name Integrating Gyro becomes apparent when one considers that: the Rate Gyro measures Angular velocity via an angular displacement. the Rate Integrating Gyro measures the integral of angular velocity (angular displacement) via an output angular displacement.
4.3.9.4 Rate Integrating Gyro Use
In a rate integrating gyro, since there is no spring, there is also no automatic centering device. Therefore, by simple drifting, the input and spin axis can easily become misaligned. The cross coupling error becomes prohibitive and the instrument can, no longer, be used for angular measurement. For this reason the rate integrating gyro is mostly used as error sensor and nulling device.
4.3.9.5 Strap Down System
With the Strap Down System, the gyro, instead of being stabilized in space by gimbals is mounted directly to the instrument case. The strap down system implies the use of wide angle gyros with an angular freedom of 10 degrees. In the strap down system the coordinate system is not stabilized with respect to inertial space but, instead, is fixed to the instrument case.
4.3.9.6 Accuracy, quality control and why Rate Gyros?
To achieve a high range of accuracy as stated earlier and, furthermore, devise a means of assuring it-is a significant, difficult, and expensive task. For simplicity's sake, let's say the accuracy goal is one foot per 1,000 feet of hole. This means that in a 10,000 foot wellbore survey, the operator is to be assured of bottom-hole location by plus or minus 10 feet. Although other survey technologies (magnetic and free-gyro) may achieve this range of accuracy some percentage of the time, they have no available means of quality control to assure it. In the case of magnetics, although the technology has seen much improvement, error variables such as magnetic interference, declination corrections, northern latitudes, even Sun spot activity pose difficult quality control problems. The free-gyro's major error sources are surface orientation, gyro drift and tool misalignment. In fact, no film-based survey device has an opportunity to achieve this level of accuracy with assurance because the film cannot be read to the accuracy required. To get in the range of one foot/1,000 feet requires azimuth and inclination accuracies in the range of 0.1 and 0.05 degrees, respectively. Very often, the terms accuracy and resolution of readings are confused. A survey system may be able to read survey data to 0.1 degree thats resolution - but providing that level of precision is a completely different matter. Modern aerospace guidance techniques employing rate-gyros and accelerometers provide the only current means of both providing this range of survey accuracy and qualifying the information. These systems can accomplish this through extensive quality control procedures because rate-gyros and accelerometers can be calibrated for a level of performance and monitored and checked for data quality.
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Surveying However, the accuracy of available systems varies. Reviewing a service companys procedures for quality control and data verification is important to assigning a specification to a particular system. Rate-gyro and accelerometer quality also varies in its ability to achieve accuracy, and running procedures can also degrade survey quality. For example, if a survey probe is misaligned in the well, accurate readings degrade in the overall survey calculation. Rate-gyro system accuracies can also vary according to inclination and latitude. Some systems degrade, for example, above 75 degrees of latitude and inclination because the Earth and gravity vectors become smaller and more difficult to resolve.
4.3.9.7 Errors in Rate Gyros
Gyros may be susceptible to various errors. Alignment and hysteresis errors Initial alignment can be mechanically adjusted so that the error in reading is no more than one per cent This residual error can be nulled out by the use of compensating voltages. However, some alignment error results during operation, because of mechanical hysteresis, for instance, when a torsion bar does not return to its O original Transducer and torsion bars are misaligned and an alignment error results. Coupling Errors Derivation of the equation for Rate Gyros depends upon mutual perpendicularity between the three significant axes. When the instrument operates, the spin axis and input axis must become misaligned and some of the spin velocity becomes coupled with the input velocity to affect the output reading. The error can be minimized by making the torsional spring constant large. Anisoelastic Errors Iso-elasticity implies the equal elastic suspension of the rotor in all directions. If a force is applied to a rotor which is isoelastically supported, the displacement of the center of gravity of the rotor will be the same amount and in line with the applied force regardless of the direction of the force. Three possibilities: No acceleration - mass center and output axis are coincident. Horizontal acceleration applied - the mass center moves horizontally Mass center and output axis no longer coincide. Vertical acceleration applied - Anisoelastic coefficients are given as degrees/hour/g2.
To be acceptable, a gyro should have an anisoelastic coefficient in the order of: 0.05/hour/g2. Cylindrical Errors Are due to the rotational motion of the input shaft resulting in a deflection of the gimbal structure. Because of this deflection, the mass center no longer lies along the bearing center line. Conical Errors Anisoelastic and cylindrical errors are due to frictional effects and imperfect mechanical properties. Conical errors are due to the geometry of the instrument and are inherent in the instrument.
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Surveying Drift Errors or drift rates represent the output reading which may be obtained when no input signal is applied. From the previous examples we know that torques can be generated around the output axis because of vibratory effects for instance. These torques will cause an output reading and the equivalent input turning rate is the Drift Error. Some torques may be present even when the instrument is standing still. These are: torques due to thermal convection currents electromagnetic torques stemming from the signal generators torques due to the flexible leads feeding the gyro motor
4.3.10 Gyroscope suspension

Gyros currently use two types of suspension: Ball Bearings Flotation
Ball Bearings used in gyroscopes are about the finest that can be made. Bearings are assembled in an air conditioned room in which the air is lint-free. In spite of elaborate precautions, the level of Coulombs friction and stiction (vibration generated by scraping effects) is high enough so that additional schemes are necessary to reduce the frictional effects further. The most critical bearing appears to be that supporting the gyro. Here, the friction does not cause an operating problem but rather one of longevity. The high speed of the rotor causes a severe wear problem so that after a relatively short period of operation, wear in the bearings causes dynamic unbalance. This unbalance, in turn, causes vibrations, tendency to drift and further wear. Flotation The flotation principle, although designed mostly for accelerometers is also used in gyro instruments. Flotation is realized by simply filling the instrument casing with a fluid so that the Gimbal Can is supported by fluid buoyancy. Ideally, the buoyancy effect is adjusted so that the main shaft bearings are not required to support any axial load. The function of the bearing is thus reduced to alignment and centering. Aside from providing buoyancy, the flotation fluid also serves a cushion for the gimbal and provides a viscous damping medium. As noted previously, a single degree of freedom gyro requires a restraint of some sort. If no damping were present, the instrument would have an extended oscillatory response. The damping fluid is thus necessary to preclude the possibility of sustained oscillations. The instrument must operate with a damping factor of 0.5 to 0.7.
4.3.11 North Seeking Gyros

The North Seeking Gyroscopes are involved with the rotation of the earth. The North Seeking instrument has an input axis which is constrained to sweep out the horizontal plane in order to determine the East/West direction. As stated previously, the earth rotation component is nil in the East/West direction. So, when the input axis is pointing to East or West (reading equal to zero), the output axis indicates the North direction.
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Surveying Prior to starting any measurement, it is prerequisite that the spin rotor axis be secured in Vertical Position. With the spin rotor axis slaved in vertical position, a sweeping motor constrains the input axis to sweep out the horizontal plane. Drift and Drift Correction. Gyroscopes are used because of their property to remain immobile in inertial space. However most common gyroscopes do not maintain absolute immobility but drift from their initial fixed position. The Drift Rate is the best and most important single figure of merit used to describe the performance of a gyroscope. For instance a gyroscope, uncorrected for the rotation of the earth and viewed by an observer on earth, at a latitude of around 45 North appears to be drifting at the rate of about ten degrees per hour.
4.3.12 Drift Values

Drift values may range as follows: 0.5 to 1 per minute for cheap gyros a few degrees per hour for directional gyros 1/100th degree per hour for inertial gyros using gimbal flotation 1/1000th degree per hour for some inertial gyros with spherical spinning rotors, supported by electrical fields
4.3.12.1Nature and Source of Drift
Apparent drift caused by the rotation of the earth. The torque which may cause drift may be separated into two main categories. Error Torque such as gimbal error, for which adjustment or compensation may be applied. Uncertainty Torque the random components of drift which bear no correlation with any inputs. The drift due to error torques is of three types: Non acceleration sensitive drift Generally caused by elastic or magnetic torques. Generally caused by mass unbalance. Acceleration sensitive drift
4.3.12.2Acceleration sensitive drift
Other sources of systematic drift rate errors may be temperature sensitive torques due to differential expansion - torques due to the non orthogonality of the principal axes and wheel speed change. The random drift is due to small uncertainty torques such as caused by bearing noise, friction, temperature gradients, all of which are time variable. Random drift is generally determined by statistical analysis of a large number of drift tests. The manner of measuring and compensating for both drift and gimbal error are discussed elsewhere.
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Directional Drilling 4-i

Directional Drilling 4-ii

Directional Drilling 4-iii

Magnetic & Non-Magnetic Requirements

4.1.1 Magnetic Fields

Directional Drilling 4-1

Earths magnetic field - rotation of liquid core

Earth's magnetic field - dynamo theory

4.1.1.1 Aspects of the transitory field

Directional Drilling 4-2

Earths magnetic field

Fluctuation's in the earth's magnetic field

Directional Drilling 4-3

4.1.2 Magnetic field strength

Horizontal Component of Magnetic Field Strength

Magnetic field strength.

57,510 gammas x cos (80.6) = 9392 gammas

50,450 gammas x cos (59.7) = 25,250 gammas

Directional Drilling 4-4

Common relative values of total magnetic field strength

Gulf of Mexico 50,000 gammas

4.1.3 Magnetic Dip angle

Figure 4-6 Table 4-2

Magnetic dip angle

Common relative values for dip angle.

Directional Drilling 4-5

NORTH POLE or TOTAL magnetic field vector

Tangent at the Equator

NORTH POLE or TOTAL magnetic field vector

Magnetic dip angles at poles and equator

4.1.4 Magnetic Declination Angle

Directional Drilling 4-6

Magnetic declination angle

4.1.5 Magnetic Interference

Directional Drilling 4-7

Magnetic Flux Lines

Magnetic Flux Lines

Earths Magnetic Flux

Drill string magnetism

Horizontal component of Z axis error smaller with no inclination

Horizontal component of Z axis error larger with increased angle.

Effect of hole angle on drillstring magnetic interference

Directional Drilling 4-8

Horizontal component of Z axis error smallest in the North-South direction.

Horizontal component of Z axis error largest in the East-West direction.

Effect of azimuth on drillstring magnetic interference

Directional Drilling 4-9

DRILL STRING MAGNETISM

Horizontal Component of Drill String Magnetic Field

Drillstring magnetic interference at different latitudes

Directional Drilling 4-10

Non Magnetic C ollar

Non Magnetic C ollar

Length of Non Magnetic Collars implies a uniform, non-interrupted non-magnetic environment.

Magnetic lines of force in the drillstring