Clauses and Phrases

To understand punctuation, it is helpful to understand the difference between a phrase and a clause.

I. A phrase is a collection of words that may have nouns or verbals, but it does not have a subject doing a
verb. The following are examples of phrases: leaving behind the dog smashing into a fence before the first test after the devastation between ignorance and intelligence broken into thousands of pieces because of her glittering smile

In these examples above, you will find nouns (dog, fence, test, devastation, ignorance, intelligence, thousands, pieces). You also have some verbals (leaving, smashing), but in no case is the noun functioning as a subject doing a predicate verb. They are all phrases.

II. A clause is a collection of words that has a subject that is actively doing a verb. The following are
examples of clauses: since she laughs at diffident men I despise individuals of low character when the saints go marching in Obediah Simpson is uglier than a rabid raccoon because she smiled at him.

In the examples above, we find either a noun or a pronoun that is a subject (bold-print and red) attached to a predicate verb (underlined and purple) in each case: since she laughs at diffident men I despise individuals of low character when the saints go marching in Obediah Simpson is uglier than a rabid raccoon because she smiled at him

III. If the clause could stand by itself, and form a complete sentence with punctuation, we call the clause
an independent clause. The following are independent clauses: I despise individuals of low character Obediah Simpson is uglier than a rabid racoon

We could easily turn independent clauses into complete sentences by adding appropriate punctuation marks. We might say, "I despise individuals of low character." Or we might write, "Obediah Simpson is uglier than a rabid racoon!" We call them independent because these types of clauses can stand independently by themselves, without any extra words attached, and be complete sentences.

IV. Dependent clauses have a subject doing a verb, but they have a subordinate conjunction placed in front
of the clause. That subordinate conjunction means that the clause can't stand independently by itself and become a complete sentence. Instead, the dependent clause is dependent upon another clause--it can't make a complete sentence by itself, even though it has a subject doing a verb. Here are some examples of dependent clauses: since she laughs at diffident men when the saints go marching in because she smiled at him

These clauses simply do not form complete thoughts or sentences by themselves. Those subordinate conjunctions--since, when, and because--cause the listener to expect some extra material. The thought is incomplete. If you walked up to a friend in the dorms and said, "since she laughs at diffident men," and then walked away without adding an independent clause, the friend would be completely baffled. It's important to understand the difference between phrases, dependent clauses, and independent clauses because many punctuation marks--such as commas, semicolons, and colons, require one or the other. Click here to move to subordinate conjunctions to learn more.

Types of essay most which are most commonly used are: Expository Essay; Persuasive Essay; Informal Essay, Literary Essay; Argumentative Essay; Cause and Effect Essay; Compare and Contrast Essay. This article describes most of them.

Essay Types The ability to write effectively is undoubtedly one of the critical skills that everyone has to acquire during school and later in college years. Typically this is attained via practice: writing skills develop as the result of assigning students dozens, if not hundreds of essays on different topics, with every essay serving its own purpose. It is so easy to get lost in the multitude of different essay types that a closer look at them is a must. The kinds of essays that are most commonly given to students include: expository essay, persuasive essay, informal essay, the review, research essay, literary essay, expository essay, argumentative essay, expository essay, compare and contrast essay. A comparative table with these essay types will be posted at the end of the article to briefly outline similarities and differences in each of them (see Table 1). Before we proceed with analysis, it is important to remember a general rule: essays get their names according to the function they serve.

Table 1. Comparative Table of the Main Essay Types Essay Type

Expository Persuasive Informal Review Research Literary Argumentative

Tone
Objective Objective Subjective Objective/Subjective Objective Objective Objective

Referencing
Required Required Unnecessary Preferable Required Preferable Required

Purpose
Inform Persuade Communicate Analyze and Present Discover Analyze literature Prove a viewpoint

Cause and Effect

Objective

Required

Establish relation

The Expository Essay The main function of the expository essay is to explain, or to acquaint your reader with something; it can be used to describe, explain or present some information. In order to write an expository essay, preparation and background research will be required. This will arm you with facts and information that will be subsequently conveyed to your reader. Expository writing will also require you to show understanding of the chosen topic this is why many professors and tutors choose this essay type to check how well a student has mastered a given topic. In their most common form, expository essays will take about 5 paragraphs; however, classes and instructors may require them to be larger in size. No matter the size, an essay should at all times include an introduction and a conclusion the body length may vary. The Persuasive Essay If you have to persuade your reader about something, your essay becomes a persuasive one. With this type of writing you will need not only to prove your point, but will also have to persuade your opposition that your viewpoint is logical and well founded, and thus better. In this case, you are no longer merely showing what you know; you are convincing the reader that you are correct in your viewpoint. In order to write this kind of essay it is important to prepare in advance by choosing a side, making a case for it, anticipating alternative arguments and finding ways how to refute them. You must be aware of other sides of the argument and be fair to them; dismissing them completely will weaken your own argument. It is always best to take a side that you believe in, preferably with the most supporting evidence. It can often be educational to adopt a different position from what you might normally choose (debating requires this kind of flexibility). The Informal Essay The informal essay is a type of essay written mainly for enjoyment. This is not to say that it cannot be informative or persuasive; however, it is a less formal statement with a more relaxed expression of opinion, observation or humor. A good informal essay has a relaxed style but retains a strong structure, though the structure may be less rigid than a formal paper. The informal essay tends to be more personal than the formal, even though both may express subjective opinions. In a formal essay the writer is in a silent presence behind the words, while in an informal essay the writer is speaking directly to the reader in a conversational manner. If you are writing informally, try to maintain a sense of your own personality. Do not worry about sounding academic, but make sure you avoid sloppiness. The Review A review may be either formal or informal, depending on the context. Its goal is to evaluate a specific piece, perhaps a novel or movie. This implies that the reviewer's personal opinion plays a significant role in the process. Despite a degree of subjectivity, a certain objective standard needs to be maintained and, as in a persuasive essay, your assertions need to be proved. The formality of the review will be determined by how much of the essay is analysis, how much is summary, and how much is your reaction to the work you are reviewing. A more formal review will not only discuss the work or its own merits but will also place it in context. Newspapers and popular magazines tend to review in terms of finance, e.g. is this record or film worth spending money on? Critical journals will attempt to determine whether a new novel or play has achieved something new and significant. A good review will discuss both these qualities and the importance of a given work. The Research Essay

The research essay leads you into the works of others and asks you to compare their thoughts with your own. Writing a research paper involves going to source material and synthesizing what you learned from it with your own ideas. You must find texts on the subject and use them to support the topic you have been given to explore. Since it is easy to become lost in a wilderness of outside material, you must take particular care in narrowing your topic. The greatest inherent danger in the research essay is plagiarism. If your paper consists of a string of quotations or paraphrases with little input of your own, you are not synthesizing but copying, and you should expect a low grade. If any of the borrowings are unacknowledged, you are plagiarizing and the penalties are severe. The Literary Essay In the literary essay, you are exploring the meaning and construction of a piece of literature. This task is more complicated than reviewing, though the two are similarly evaluative. In a review you are discussing the overall effect and validity of a work, while in a literary essay you are paying greater attention to specifics. A literary essay focuses on such elements as structure, character, theme, style, tone, and subtext. You are taking a piece of writing and trying to discover how and why it is put together the way that it is. You must adopt a viewpoint on the work in question and show how the details of the work support your viewpoint. A literary essay may be your own interpretation, based only on your reading of the piece, or it may be a mixture of your opinions and references to the criticism of others, much like a research paper. Again, be wary of plagiarism and of letting the opinions of more experienced writers swamp your own response to the work. If you are going to consult the critics, you should re-read the literary work you are discussing and make some notes on it before looking at any other opinions. The Argumentative Essay The art of argumentation is not an easy skill to acquire. Many people might think that if one simply has an opinion, one can argue it effectively, and these folks are always surprised when others don't agree with them because their logic seems so correct. Additionally, writers of argumentation often forget that their primary purpose in an argument is to "win" it to sway the reader to accept their point of view. It is easy to call names, easy to ignore the point of view or research of others, and extremely easy to accept one's own opinion as gospel, even if the writer has not checked his or her premise in a couple of years, or, as is the case for many young writers, never questioned the beliefs inherited from others. Want to know what you think about something? Then write an argumentative essay. To be fair, however, you'll find that one of the first things you must do is become an expert on the issue. When you pick a topic, you should avoid writing about issues that cannot be won, no matter how strongly you might feel about them. The five hottest topics of our time seem to be gun control, abortion, capital punishment, freedom of speech, and probably the most recent, euthanasia, or the right to die. If possible, avoid writing about these topics because they are either impossible to "win," or because your instructor is probably sick of reading about them and knows all the pros and cons by heart (this could put you at a serious disadvantage). If you have difficulty picking a decent topic for your essay, feel free to check out our list of good argumentative essay topics. Either way, the topics may be some fine reading material, because most people are somewhat aware of the problems and can then concentrate on understanding the method of argument itself. But care should be taken; if you read one side, you also read the other. Far too many individuals only read the side that they already believe in. These issues cannot be won for good reason: each touches on matters of faith and beliefs that for many people are unshakable and deeply private. The Cause and Effect Essay The cause and effect essay includes some elements of writing that might be considered more professional than those a descriptive or narrative essay might include. It is very important, for

instance, that your tone be reasonable, and that your presentation be factual and believable. Sources are often required in a cause/effect paper, and your choice of these sources is important as they reflect on the validity of your paper. Additionally, the first-person point of view does not work; you should sound objective and impartial. Consider the following sentences: I believe that gun control measures should be taken in every hamlet in America. Gun control measures should be taken in every hamlet in America. In the first sentence, the first person is used. This would work in a narrative, but here it actually limits the meaning of the sentence to just the writer, and it makes the writer sound weak as if he were justifying himself or herself. The second sentence is much more forceful. It makes a statement and does not limit itself to just what the writer believes. The purpose of a cause and effect paper is to be as convincing as possible, and to convince readers to accept the cause/effect as fact. The Comparison and Contrast Essays The main purpose and function of compare and contrast essays is obvious to find similarities and dissimilarities between two or more objects or things. This kind of writing requires the writer to be an observer; in most cases it doesnt require scholarly research or any specific referencing. Such essays are mostly subjective in nature, and writers are required to come up with differences or similarities they are able to point out and analyze. There are different compare and contrast patterns for these essays, yet the overall essay structure remains invariable: there should be an introduction, a few body paragraphs and a conclusion. While working on your compare and contrast essay, dont forget to use the so-called cue words. These words help you to tie paragraphs together by means of small logical connectors. For example, you can use words like: on the one hand/on the other hand, this is such/in contrast, however, like, as well, too, unlike, though, but etc. These words will pull your essay together and will make it hold better.

Writing Effective Comparison or Contrast Essays A Comparison or Contrast essay is an essay in which you either compare something or contrast something. A comparison essay is an essay in which you emphasize the similarities, and a contrast essay is an essay in which you emphasize the differences. We use comparison and contrast thinking when deciding which university to attend, which car to buy, or whether to drive a car or take a bus or an airplane to a vacation site. In this section, two classic organizational patterns of a comparison or contrast essay will be discussed. One is called block arrangement of ideas; the other is called point-by-point or alternating arrangement of ideas. Suppose you are interested in showing the differences between vacationing in the mountains and vacationing at the beach. You will then write a contrast composition. One way to arrange your material is to use the block arrangement which is to write about vacationing in the mountains in one paragraph and vacationing at the beach in the next. If you mention a particular point in the mountains paragraph, you must mention the same point in the beach paragraph, and in the same order. Study the following outline, which shows this kind of organization. The introductory paragraph is followed by the mountainsparagraph, the beach paragraph, then the

conclusion; the fully developed essay is just four paragraphs. Block Arrangement (four paragraphs)
I. II. Introduction in which you state your purpose which is to discuss the differences between vacationing in the mountains or at the beach Mountain A. Climate B. Types of Activities C. Location

III. Beach A. Climate B. Types of Activities C. Location IV. Conclusion

A second way to organize this material is to discuss a particular point about vacationing in the mountains and then immediately to discuss the same point about vacationing at the beach. This is called point-bypoint or alternatingarrangement. An outline of this organization follows. Point-by-Point or Alternating Arrangement (five paragraphs)
I. II. Introduction in which you state your purpose which is to discuss differences between vacationing in the mountains or at the beach First difference between mountains and beaches is climate A. Mountains B. Beach

III. Second difference between mountains and beaches are types of activities A. Mountains B. Beach IV. Third difference between mountains and beaches is the location A. Mountains B. Beach V. Conclusion

Application: Block or Point-by-Point Examine the comparison or contrast essays that follow, and decide whether the authors used block arrangement or point-by-point (or alternating) arrangement. Notice how other authors structure their essays. Five paragraphs or four? Blockarrangement or point-by-point arrangement? Noticing these things will help you become a better, more conscious reader and writer. Vacationing at the Beach or in the Mountains
People are always looking forward to their vacation period. There are many options where to choose. I think that the two most common places people choose for taking a vacation are the beaches and the mountains. Both places offer a variety of fun activities. The beach offers activities that the mountain cannot offer and vice versa. The mountain and the beach are totally different. The purpose of this essay

is to contrast the climate, types of activities and locations of beaches and mountains. Im going to discuss mountains first. The three aspects Im going to discuss are climate, types of activities and location. Climate is always important in order to enjoy vacations. If a person dislikes cold weather, he or she might have a hard time in the mountains. The cold climate in the mountains is the first barrier to enjoying them, but the climate and the temperature of these zones also determine the types of activities they offer. Snow boarding, mountain climbing, mountain biking, hiking, and skiing are some activities people can enjoy when going to the mountains. There are many regions that have mountains where people can go and have a great vacation. Canada is a country located in North America and contains many mountain vacation sites where people can go and have fun. Im going to discuss the beach second. The three aspects Im going to discuss are climate, types of activities and location. Warm climate is one of the most important features that the beach has. Sun and fun are two words that describe the beach. The temperature in those places is always hot. The sea and the warm climate determine the activities that are available at the beach. People can swim, play volleyball, play soccer, and ride water bikes. In most coastal sites, there are discos and restaurants where people can dance or party throughout the night. Mexico offers many amazing coastal sites to visit. Acapulco and Cancun are two of the most beautiful and famous beaches in the word. It doesnt matter what place a person decides to choose. The fun is 1 00% guaranteed. People often choose one of these two options to spend their vacations. Depending on what the person likes is what he or she will choose. I like the beach better than the mountains, but sometimes it is better to take a risk and try a different place to enjoy. (399 words)

Is the essay above organized using block or point-by-point arrangement of details? Note first the essay is four paragraphs, (1) an introduction, (2) a paragraph about vacationing in the mountains, (3) a paragraph about vacationing at the beach, and (4) a conclusion. This is the block arrangement, the first block containing information about mountains and the second block containing information about the beach. The following essay contrasts eating fresh foods and canned foods. Is its organization block or point-by-point? How many paragraphs does it contain? How many "differences" between fresh foods and canned foods does the author discuss? Consuming Fresh Foods Instead of Canned Foods
Eating is an activity that we as humans do at least two times a day. We live in a world where the variety of food is immense, and we are responsible for what we eat. We decide what we are about to eat and how it will affect our bodies. The purpose of this essay is to compare and contrast the differences between eating fresh foods instead of canned foods. The three main differences are flavor, health benefits, and cost. The most notable difference between these two kinds of foods is their flavor. Fresh foods have great flavor and taste because they keep all their natural conditions. Canned foods however, lack a lot of its flavor characteristics because there are some other chemical products added to the natural foods. It is logical that the fresh foods will have a greater taste and flavor when consumed just because of the time in which they have been prepared. Comparing both types of foods we notice another difference. There is a health factor that affects both of them. Canned foods lose some of the original fresh food nutrients when stored, and also it has to be tinned with many conservatives and chemical factors that prolong the shelf life and apparent freshness of the food but could also become toxic if consumed too often.

Yet another difference between these two types of foods is the cost. Canned foods are much more expensive than fresh foods. Here the benefit of buying tinned foods is that they are easier to find, for example, in a supermarket instead of the market like the fresh foods, and they require less work to prepare than fresh foods, just open and serve. Here are the main three differences between buying fresh foods and buying canned foods. As we can see it comes down to a personal choice, based on the time each person has, the money and the importance he/she gives to his/her nutrition and health. Therefore it is important that you consider your possibilities and choose the best type of foods for your convenience and lifestyle. (347 words)

The essay above is the "classic" five paragraph essay that all non-native speakers of English should learn to write. This essays also contains the "classic" point-by-point organization, each point stated and developed in a single paragraph. The essay contains five paragraphs that contrast three differences between fresh and canned foods. The essay includes (1) an introduction, (2) the development of the first difference (flavor), (3) the development of the second difference (health benefits), (4) the development of the third difference (cost), and (5) a conclusion. In the true classic tradition, the three main differences in this contrast essay flavor, health benefits, and costare stated both in the introduction and the conclusion as well. My own observation is this: US kids are taught to organize and write five paragraph essays like this from early childhood, but they rarely attain the degree of perfection of the essay above. This ends the first part of this page, the explanation of the differences between the classic organizational styles of comparison and contrast essays, (1) block and (2) point-bypoint or alternating arrangement.

How to Support Your Point of View though Comparison and Contrast It was stated in the first part of this paper that we use comparison or contrast in nearly everything we do. When deciding what to eat, for example, we often choose between fresh foods or canned foods, exactly as the writer above described. However, do you know the preference of the previous author? Did he state it directly? Why or why not? What other ways could this essay have ended? An important point to remember when writing comparison or contrast essays is that many times writers use comparison or contrast to support a personal point of view. Whenever possible and appropriate, writers should support their own views. For example, the following paragraphs are from the book, Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance by Robert Persig. Note that Persig's description of the differences between riding in a car and riding a motorcycle is not neutral. Instead, Persig uses comparison and contrast to serve a persuasive aim: to show the reader why riding a motorcycle is more stimulating than driving a car (Persig, by Heffernan and Lincoln). Which do You Prefer?

You see things vacationing on a motorcycle in a way that is completely different from any other. In a car you're always in a compartment, and because you're used to it, you don't realize that through that car window everything you see is just more TV. You're a passive observer, and it is all moving by you boringly in a frame. On a cycle the frame is gone. You're completely in contact with it all. You're in the scene, not just watching it anymore, and the sense of presence is overwhelming. That concrete whizzing by five inches below your foot is the real thing, the same stuff you walk on. It's right there, so blurred you can't focus on it, yet you can put your foot down and touch it anytime, and the whole thing, the whole experience, is never removed from immediate consciousness.

Persig's choice of travel is obvious. In a car, you are in a compartment seeing just more TV, a passing observer. On a motorcycle, however, you're in contact with it all, the real thing, the whole thing, the whole experience, never removed from immediate consciousness. In writing a comparison or contrast essay, use contrast to show your own preference, to support your own point of view, to persuade the reader which option you prefer. How to Write an Effective Comparison or Contrast Essay: Summary 1. Know what organizational style you are using. Whether you use the block arrangement or point-by-point arrangement, you should be able to identify it. Being able to identify your organization will not only help you in the organization of your own writing, but it will also help your reader follow the points you make. 2. State your organization. Remember the "straight line of development" that was discussed in the introduction requires that you "tell your audience what you are going to tell them; then tell them; then tell them what you told them." An important objective in academic writing is clarity, and stating your organization always contributes to clarity. Err on the side of clarity! 3. Keep your audience in mind. Be sure your reader can relate to your topic. After you finish writing, read your essay from the perspective of your audience. How will they respond to your ideas? Will they understand what you have written? Will they agree with your main point? Will the support appear logical to them? 4. Say what you want to say. Write like Robert Persig did in his book, Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance. In your essay, make your preference clear as Persig did when he contrasted the difference between vacationing by car or motorcycle. Finally, to further clarify how it would be possible to say what you want to say in your writing, consider which of the following options would YOU prefer, and why? To support your point in each essay, what characteristics would you choose to contrast, and what support would you use? Can you think of any other topics that might be fun to contrast?