Papers of the Applied Geography Conferences (2008) 31: 114-123

SPATIAL ANALYSIS OF URBAN GROWTH AT A LOCAL COMMUNITY SCALE

Hyun Joong Kim

Department of Social Sciences
Pittsburg State University
Pittsburg, Kansas 66762

1. INTRODUCTION

Urban growth as a spatial phenomenon has intrigued many researchers in the field of
geography because understanding its complex structure and dynamic process is essential in
dealing with land development issues. Especially in urban planning and environmental studies,
a better appreciation of the nature of growing urban areas will support activities of future
development and the preparation of better plans with appropriate policies.
One way to achieve a better understanding of urban growth is through more realistic
simulations or modeling of land use changes (Landis and Zhang, 1998; Clark, 2003; Lee, 2003,
Yang and Lo, 2003). However, most current urban models have not paid full attention to
incorporating spatial and temporal aspects of urban growth. These models tend to focus on
sizes, locations, and impacts of urban growth on land use/land cover (LULC). Therefore,
methods for modeling such growth are mostly designed to mechanically simulate and
accommodate the magnitude of future land use changes (EPA, 2000; Klosterman and Pettit,
2005). Moreover, these models focused primarily on urban land developments at regional,
national, or global levels, and may not be able to effectively identify or predict the geographic
characteristics of urban growth phenomena in small urbanized areas. Consequently, we have a
partial understanding of how urbanization progresses in terms of population movements, rural-
to-urban conversions, and decreased inner city areas at the local level.
The shapes of new development patches are another important aspect of urban
growth because new land use developments, especially outlying growth, often show distinctive
shape patterns that are concerned with urban planning issues (Xie et al., 2006). For example,
urban sprawl tends to show low density scattered developed patterns and resource consumptive
developments. Moreover, in major metropolitan areas around the country many strip malls are
being developed in suburban areas in the shape of elongated corridors around major
transportation arteries. New developments often show diverse shapes, such as compact, low
density, elongated, or irregular patterns. For this reason, analysis of shapes of new
developments in newly developed areas can provide a better understanding of urban growth.
The main purpose of this research is to contribute to the field of urban growth
modeling by initiating a new direction of research on the spatial and the temporal forms of
urban land development at a local community scale. This research analyzed urban growth with
a focus on how local communities evolve in space by employing geographic information
systems (GIS), remote sensing, and landscape index analysis.

2. STUDY AREA

In the northeast Ohio region (Figure 1), Cleveland and its neighboring cities and
counties have experienced urbanization, counterurbanization, and suburbanization
simultaneously in the past three descades (Beale, 1977; Beach, 1996). Among them, Medina
Coutny experienced an increase of residents between 1990 and 2000, while other cities and
counties showed little increase during the same period (Figure 2).

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 FIGURE 1
NORTHEAST OHIO REGION AND MEDINA ON 2004 LANDSAT TM

Source: U.S. Census Bureau 2008

FIGURE 2
PERCENT CHANGE IN HOUSEHOLDS, 1980-1990 AND 1990-2000

The city of Medina and adjacent areas within Medina County were chosen for this
study since it is the major city in the county that has shown a significant degree of rapid growth
of the urban/suburban areas (Sierra Club, 2008). Since the 1980s, metropolitan regions across
the country have grown less rapidly and lost their population to non-metropolitan areas. Over
the last 20 years or so, this area has gained a large number of migrants from surrounding areas
into its urban areas and vicinities. These changes in population have been influenced by
migration from Cleveland to the surrounding cities or rural areas. Figure 2 shows changes in
households of Cleveland and urbanized areas in adjacent counties between 1980 and 2000. The
changes during the 1990s and 2000s led to various types of urban growth patterns, such as
urban fringe development, outlying growth, and urban sprawl in the region.
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 3. DATA

In order to examine urban growth phenomena, the availability of useful data is a

major concern because the effectiveness of analysis depends very much on the relevant
information and data used in the analysis. The key data required for two-part analysis are land
use/land cover classification from remotely sensed images of the study areas, and GIS data
layers that are derived from the remotely sensed data.
In many cases, land use/land cover information is not available as proper GIS-related
data. With this limitation of data availability, data derived from remote sensing is often the
best resource for analysis of this kind. Such information can be incorporated into various
studies at a micro as well as a regional level. In modeling urbanization, satellite imagery has
been under-used although it can provide significant and comprehensive information about
spatio-temporal land use/land cover changes (Ward et al., 2000; Longley, 2002; Herold, 2005).
A few studies recently began to examine spatial indicators based on multi-temporal
data, such as remotely sensed images and modeling of urban land use change (Herold, 2005).
For example, Liu and Zhou (2005) examine spatial and temporal changes of land use in cities
in China by using a time series of remotely sensed images. Their research explored temporal
and spatial relationships between distance to existing urban areas or major transportation lines
and land use/cover change. This satellite imagery allows better quantitative description of the
geometry of diffusive urban form for computation and comparison over time. Landsat
Thematic Mapper (TM) satellite imagery from recent years (e.g., late 1990s and 2000s data) are
available to the public, but data from 1980s are limited. For this research, satellite imagery
from 1984, 1994, and 2004 were obtained through Ohioview (2005).
Three land use/land cover data layers for 1984, 1994, and 2004 were created from
classified remotely sensed data and converted to GIS data format by using PCI remote sensing
image processing software (PCI, 2005). First, LULC classes were extracted from Landsat TM
satellite images by using an unsupervised classification method. These data were converted
into the proper format of the BIL (Band Interleaved by Line) file format to be used in the GIS
environment. Then, these converted data layers are changed into the grid format as data layers
for use in GIS. Finally, land use/land cover map layers for analysis were derived from these
grid layers. These LULC layers have 60 m by 60 m resolution in raster format. It should be
noted that the Modifiable Areal Unit Problem (MAUP) often affects LULC data derived from
remotely sensed data. Compared to previous research that utilized much coarser resolutions,
from 100 m to 1 km in urban modeling studies (EPA, 2000; Klosterman and Pettit, 2005), this
higher resolution is better to deal with potential MAUP scale and aggregation problems and
provides more detail information about urban growth patterns.
Data layers of transportation were prepared for proximity analysis because
accessibility to major roads has been an important factor for urban development. For example,
Medina County and the city of Medina contain numerous clustered commercial and residential
land developments surrounding major roads, such as highways and state routes. Data for
transportation were derived from street data layers. Zoning often affects density and location
of development patterns. However, data on zoning were not available due to the lack of zoning
formation of the study area from the 1980s and 1990s. Political boundary layers were utilized
to delineate a current city political boundary and corresponding urban extents of the study area.
Municipal boundaries of growing urbanized areas often change over time. If extensive
annexation has occurred, the change can be significant. For this study, a municipal boundary
was prepared according to most current years of data.
Additional GIS data layers were generated from LULC change data layers and other
data layers with GIS analytical tools. First, 200 m buffers around major transportation lines
such as major highways were generated by using the BUFFER function in GIS. This function
produced layers that allow the extraction of new development patches that satisfy certain
distance criteria from major roads. Finally, all GIS data layers are spatially referenced to match
LandSat satellite image data in Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) projection.

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 4. METHODS

4.1 DETECTING URBAN GROWTH BY USING REMOTELY SENSED DATA

The detection of LULC change was implemented by examining the classified
Landsat TM satellite images of 1984, 1994, and 2004. Major categories defined for this study
were impervious surface (built-up area), vegetation, agricultural land, water, barren soil and
others. Unsupervised classification was employed to obtain information of LULC changes for
the selected geographical extent.
Hierarchical image classification, as shown in Figure 3, describes classification
methods with associated Landsat TM bands and the subsequent analytical processes. In this
classification process, three major categories − water, vegetation, and built-up area − were
chosen to represent distribution of undeveloped and developed areas. In the category of
developed areas, this research was focused on existing built-up areas and new clusters of built-
up areas to identify substantial urban growth patterns.

FIGURE 3
HIERARCHICAL IMAGE CLASSIFICATION SCHEME FOR LULC

4.2 IDENTIFYING SPATIAL FORMS BY USING LANDSCAPE SCHAPE INDEX (SI)

This study further analyzes these LULC changes in terms of the spatial forms they
formulate. For this purpose, landscape Shape Index (SI) was used to calculate the compactness
of each cluster of land pixels where LULC patterns changed:
Pij
SI =
min P ij
where Pij = perimeter of patch ij in terms of cells surfaces
Min Pij = minimum perimeter of patch ij in terms of number of cell surfaces
Although the calculation of SI is the perimeter divided by the total area, SI for raster data, as
used in this research, should be adjusted by a constant for a square standard.
The shape of a development cluster gives hints to how developments occur across the
community and over time. In this study, the landscape shape index is used to calculate the ratio
between the area of a cluster and its perimeter. SI equals 1 when the patch is close to compact,
i.e., square or almost square in shape. It increases without limit as patch shape becomes more
irregular. Higher index values of development sites indicate low density, elongate shape or less
compact development and provide information of potential urban sprawl or suburbanization.
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Figure 4 provides examples of corrected SI values of developed sites for raster format data. In
order to calculate shape index values, the FRAGSTATS software that was developed by
McGarigal and Marks (1995) is utilized along with other GIS functions for this study.

SI = 1 SI = 1.36 SI = 2.27 SI = 3.41

FIGURE 4
EXAMPLES OF SHAPE INDEX VALUES FOR PATCHES IN RASTER FORMAT DATA

After shape index values were calculated, proximity analysis was conducted to
analyze the relationship between spatial distributions of new development patches and their
corresponding shape index values. The distance between major transportation lines and the
centroids of newly developed sites was examined. In previous urban modeling studies,
transportation has been considered as the most influential factor that contributes to urban
expansion, suburbanization, or urban sprawl (EPA, 2000; Brail and Klosterman, 2001; Lee,
2002; Clark, 2003).

5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION: SIZE, LOCATION, AND DISTANCE

The outcomes from the change detection by examining the classified LandSat TM
satellite images revealed differing degrees of land development and shapes at a local scale
within the study area from 1984 to 2004. Figure 5 shows the results of change detection that
correspond to the trend of growing urban built-up areas. The results from the two periods show
that the amounts of newly developed areas (urban built-up or impervious surface areas) decline
as distance to major transportation lines increases. This suggests a strong negative relationship
between urban expansion and accessibility to major transportation networks such as major
roads and highways. In addition, in terms of the amount of newly developed areas, these two
periods show different rates of decrease over increase of distance.
The increases of new developments in 200 m increments are shown as percentages of
total new developments in Table 1 and Figure 6. In the city of Medina, within 200 m of major
roads, 36.7 percent of new developments occurred in the 1984-1994 period and 17.5 percent of
new developments occurred in the 1994-2004 period (Table 1). Similar patterns are also
observed within 1000 m (0.6 mile), showing 85.2 percent in the first period and 75.7 percent in
the second period respectively.

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 FIGURE 5
LAND USE/LAND COVER CHANGES IN MEDINA, 1984-2004

TABLE 1
NEW DEVELOPMENTS TO MAJOR TRANSPORTATION LINES BY DISTANCE
First period: 1984 -1994 Second period: 1994- 2004
% of Total New % of Total New
Distance (m) Area (%) Development Area (%) Development
200 36.7 36.7 17.5 17.5
400 49.8 13.1 34.2 16.7
600 63.6 13.8 52.0 17.8
800 75.2 11.6 63.8 11.8
1000 85.2 10.0 75.7 11.9
1200 90.2 5.0 80.7 5.0
1400 93.3 3.1 91.0 10.3
1600 94.8 1.5 95.0 4.0

It is interesting to note that the city of Medina shows a peak of development around
1400 m, with a considerable 10.3 percent of total development (1994-2004). Compared to the
first period, urban expansion increased spatially in the second period (Figure 6). These
findings suggest that the allocation of new developments is strongly related to certain spatial
attributes of the development sites in relation to major roads. The similar distance factor
possibly will influence locational aspects of future developments in the same area. Although
they were not considered in this study due to lack of information, it should be noted that new
roads or expanded capacity to existing road networks could also affect spatial patterns of new
developments from 1984 to 2004.
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 FIGURE 6
NEW DEVELOPMENTS AND DISTANCE TO MAJOR ROADS

5.2 SHAPE INDEX VALUES OF NEWLY DEVELOPED SITES AND DISTANCE

The results of landscape analysis are shown in Figures 7A and 7B. Using this index,
a value of 1 indicates the most compact form a development cluster can have. Alternatively,
greater index values indicate more deviation of the cluster’s shape from compactness. The city
of Medina, during the 1984-1994 period, has shape index values ranging from 1 to 3.38.
During the 1994-2004 period, SI values show a wider and higher range of values, from 1 to
5.42, that indicates more irregular forms of land development clusters.

FIGURE 7A
SHAPE INDEX (SI) VALUES OF NEW DEVELOPMENTS, 1984-1994
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 FIGURE 7B
SHAPE INDEX (SI) VALUES OF NEW DEVELOPMENTS, 1994-2004

In the analysis of the relationship between Shape Index and proximity to

transportation lines, SI values were calculated and analyzed for development clusters with an
increment of every 200 m of a cluster’s distance to major transportation lines (Table 2, Figure
8). Results show an important relationship between the shape complexity of new developments
and the proximity from new developments to transportation lines in the city of Medina. SI
values calculated by every 200 m show a strong relationship between SI values of the
converted development sites and their distances to transportation lines (Figure 8).
It is very interesting to note that development sites’ SI values tend to increase
gradually until they reach their peaks in the fringe areas of urbanized areas, as they are located
farther away from major transportation lines. The calculated shape index values of the two
study periods reached peaks approximately in the 800 m-1 km buffer zone, and decline over 1
km. The higher shape index values of new development patches represent low density, elongate
shape, or less compact developments. SI values with their corresponding distance provide the
crucial information of potential urban sprawl or suburbanization that draw attention to local
communities.
TABLE 2
SHAPE INDEX OF NEW DEVELOPMENTS TO MAJOR ROADS BY DISTANCE
1984-1994 1994-2004
Distance Mean Min. Max. SD Mean Min. Max. SD
0-200 m 1.32 1 2.93 0.26 1.32 1 3.68 0.28
200-400 m 1.31 1 2.74 0.27 1.40 1 3.48 0.37
400-600 m 1.32 1 2.13 0.22 1.41 1 4.67 0.48
600-800 m 1.40 1 3.27 0.43 1.43 1 4.21 0.57
800 m-1 km 1.40 1 2.39 0.30 1.46 1 3.41 0.50
Over 1 km 1.32 1 3.38 0.31 1.39 1 5.42 0.50

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 FIGURE 8
SHAPE INDEX OF NEW DEVELOPMENTS BY DISTANCE TO MAJOR ROADS

6. CONCLUSIONS

This research has revealed that sizes, locations, and shapes of new developments are
spatio-temporally associated with their landscape variations in small urbanized areas. The
findings indicate that new land developments show irregular or less compact patterns at a
certain distance from major roads over time. The research findings also suggest that spatial and
temporal complexity of urban growth can be effectively observed through monitoring remote
sensing image data and be analyzed by landscape perspectives at a local level or a micro scale.
The results further suggest that urban growth at the local community level showed substantial
variations spatially and temporarily in its process. These variations should not be overlooked,
as they have been in most studies conducted at a macro scale. Finally, the results provide clues
that developments in a growing urban area do not always take place in the same way and that
they tend to progress in a variable pattern of landscape complexity.
The findings from this research provide a better understanding of urban growth and
give hints on how to better model urban growth. However, the research methods and the
outcomes of the research identify study limitations and suggest implications for further research.
First, the selection of data for analysis in this study was constrained by data availability.
Additional auxiliary data such as new roads and zoning will provide more information of the
LULC changes in a fast growing urban area. Second, three observation years of data might not
be enough to trace long term spatial and temporal variations in the changes because the
variations within each time span are generalized to only one change per time span. In addition,
more types of LULC classes can be considered in further studies. For example, commercial,
residential, and industrial uses for land use classes can be specified in order to provide better
information of land developments. Finally, this study mainly focused on descriptive analysis of
urban growth phenomena. Future studies for other urban areas can be expanded to include
examinations on zoning that might affect sizes of developed sites and their diffusion patterns.
For example, the minimum size of a new development could be a more influential factor
affecting spatial patterns of urban growth than distance to major transportation routes.

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