Chapter 9 - Stars and Galaxies

THE SUN CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SUN 1. The Sun is the centre of our solar system. 2. All planets and objects in outer space like comets and asteroids revolve around the Sun. 3. The Suns strong gravitational pull keeps the planets and other objects in orbit around it. 4. The Sun is actually a star of moderate size. 5. The Sun takes 25 1/3 days to rotate on its axis from west to east. Characteristics of the Sun Size (diameter) Mass Density Surface temperature Temperature of Suns core Measurement 1.4 million km 1.989 x 10(30) kg 1.41 g cm-3 (compared with density of water) 6000 C 15 million C Note * The Suns diameter is 109 times the diameter of the Earth. * The Suns mass is 330 thousand times the mass of the Earth. * The density of the material that forms the Sun is time that of the Earths.

STRUCTURE OF THE SUN

1. The Suns atmosphere consists of three parts, i.e.: (a) corona (b) chromosphere (c) photosphere 2. The Suns core forms the centre of the Sun.

Structure of the Sun Corona

Chromospheres Suns Atmosphere Suns core

Photosphere

Characteristics Outermost layer of gas in the Suns atmosphere Corona forms a circle of bluish-white light around the Sun Only visible during eclipse of the Sun Temperature is about 1.5 million C Bright red layer of gas below the corona Only visible during eclipse of the Sun just like the corona. Temperature varies between 10 000 and 50 000C Compact layer of gas seen to be shining with yellow light from Earth. Photospheres surface appears turbulent because gas from the Suns core is released to its surface. Temperature is about 6000 C This layer is responsible for radiating heat and light from the Sun. Consists of hydrogen (74%) and helium gases (25%). Nuclear reaction occurs in the core all the time to generate and release heat and light energy. During this reaction, hydrogen atomsfuse (nuclear fusion) to formhelium atoms. Hydrogen atom + hydrogen atom -> helium atom + energy The cores temperature is extremely high, i.e. about 15 million C.

PHENOMENA THAT OCCUR AT THE SUNS ATMOSPHERE These are a few phenomena that occur at the Suns atmosphere. Among them are : (a) prominences (b) solar flares (c) sunspots PROMINENCE

1. A prominence is an explosion of hot gas that shoots out from the Suns chromospheres with shiny bright light. 2. A prominence can be seen near the edge of the Sun during an eclipse of the Sun. 3. The hot gas shoots out as far as 300 to 400 thousand kilometres and escapes into outer space. However, this hot gas is subsequently pulled back to the chromospheres by the gravitational force of the Sun. 4. A prominence emits charges particles and ultraviolet rays into outer space. 5. This phenomenon can take place for a short while or last for several weeks. 6. Prominences cause a flow of wind called solar wind. Solar wind consists of charged particles. SOLAR FLARES

1. A solar flares is a strong explosion of gases that happens suddenly in the Suns chromosphere. 2. Solar flares occur near sunspots. This phenomenon escalates when the activities of sunspots reach a peak every 11 years. 3. Solar flares release charged particles like protons and electrons into outer space. 4. Solar flares also emit rays like gamma rays and X-rays. 5. This phenomenon occurs for only a few minutes of a few hours but it releases a great deal of energy.

SUNSPOT

1. Sunspots are dark spot on the surface of the Suns photosphere.

2. Sunspots usually exist in groups and have various sizes. 3. This area has a lower temperature (4000 C) than its surroundings (6000 C). 4. This are around a sunspot has a strong magnetic field. 5. This phenomenon occurs for a period of a few hours to several months. 6. The number of sunspots reaches a peak every 11 years.

THE EFFECTS OF THE PHENOMENON ON THE SURFACE OF THE SUN ON EARTH. 1. Apart from releasing heat and light energy, sunspots, prominences and solar flares affect the weather and communications on Earth. 2. As a result of these phenomenon, the Sun radiates electromagnetic rays like ultraviolet rays, X-rays, gamma rays and cosmic rays that are dangerous. 3. Charged particles with high energy are also emitted to Earth. 4. Solar wind caused by prominence also affect the Earth. 5. As a result, the weather and communications on Earth are affected.

EFFECTS UPON THE WEATHER ON EARTH 1. Charged particles as a result of solar flares the North Pole or the South Pole of the Earth and collide with gas molecules in the atmosphere. 2. As a result, colourful lights that consist of green, yellow and red lights are produced. 3. These colourful lights that can be seen at night are called aurora. 4. The atmosphere and the surface of Earth are warmed by heat energy from the Sun. This in turn influences the temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity, cloud formation, wind and ice on Earth. 5. It is believed that the quantity of heat energy received by Earth increases when phenomenons like prominence, solar flares and sunspots occur. 6. The charged particles and radiation from the Sun also influence the weatherand climate on Earth.

EFFECTS UPON COMMUNICATIONS ON EARTH 1. The charged particles and radiation from the Sun like cosmic rays, X-rays and gamma rays will collide with particles in the Earths atmosphere. 2. This causes disturbance to the communication system like television and radio broadcasts, telegraph transmissions and telephone calls.

GENERATION OF ENERGY BY THE SUN 1. The Sun consists of hydrogen and helium gases. 2. The nuclear reaction that takes place in the Suns core generates energy.

3. During a nuclear reaction, two hydrogen atoms fuse to form one helium atom. Heat and light energy are released.
2 hydrogen atoms = 1 helium atom -> heat and light energy released

4. This reaction releases heat that causes the Sun's core to have a temperature as high as 15 million C.
5. The nuclear reaction that occurs in the Sun's core is the same as that which occurs in a

nuclear reactor that produces energy.

STARS AND GALAXIES IN THE UNIVERSE 1. A star is a natural object in outer space that can release heat light energy. 2. A star generates energy through nuclear reaction. 3. Therefore, the Sun is a star that nearest to Earth. 4. The distance of a star from Earth is measured in units of light year, i.e. distance travelled by light in a year. 5. There are bright stars in the sky can be seen by the naked eye at night. Bright star Sirius Rigel Deneb Vega Spica Bright star Arcturus Pollux Antares Capella Castor Colour Bluish Bluish Bluish Bluish Bluish Colour Reddish Reddish Reddish Whitish Whitish

CLASSIFICATION OF STARS 1. Stars need to be classified to facilitate research. 2. Stars are classified according to characteristics such as: (a) temperature (b) brightness (c) size 3. Temperature (a) The colour of a star depends on its temperature. (b) A star with very slow temperature is red in colour. (c) A star that is very hot is blue in colour.

Colour of stars Very blue Bluish Whitish blue White Yellow Orange Red 4. Size

Surface temperature ( C) 40 000 18 000 10 000 7 000 6 000 4 000 3 000

Different stars have different sizes. Star Dwarf star (white dwarf) Giant star Supergiant star 5. Brightness (a) Apparent magnitude is a measurement of the brightness of objects in the sky that can be seen from Earth. (b) The lower the magnitude value, the brighter the object. (c) A negative magnitude value shows that the object in the sky is very bright. (d) The Sun and the full Moon respectively have magnitudes 0f -26.9 and -12.6. Star Sirius Rigel Arcturus Capella Deneb Apparent magnitude -1.46 +0.12 -0.04 +0.08 +1.25 Brief explanation Very small star, i.e., smaller than Earth Star that is tens of times bigger than the Sun Very big star, i.e., 100 times bigger than the Sun

BIRTH OF A STAR 1. A star is born from a nebula. 2. A nebula is a large cloud that consists of dust and gases as hydrogen and helium.

DEATH OF A STAR 1. A star will die when all the hydrogen gas in its core is used up in nuclear reactions.

2. A star will become either a white dwarf, neutron star or black holewhen it dies, depending in its size. 3. For a star of moderate size like the Sun (or a star with a mass that is 1.5 times smaller than the mass of the Sun), that star will undergo the stages of death as the following: 4. For a star that is bigger than the Sun, that star will undergo death in the following stages:

(a) A neutron star is a very small and dense star as it consists mainly of neutron particles.
(b) A neutron star rotates and gives out radio waves.

(c) A black hole is an object that is very dense and has very strong gravitational force that pulls all surrounding materials, including light, that is close by, to it. (d) A black hole is an object that cannot be seen in outer space. CONSTELLATION 1. A constellation is a group of stars that forms a certain pattern in the sky. 2. If an imaginary line is drawn to join a group of bright stars in the sky, certain patterns are produced. 3. Some constellations such as Ursa Major in the North Pole and the Southern Cross in the South Pole are visible throughout the year. 4. In ancient times, knowledge of the constellations was used as a calendarand compass. The Ursa Major and the Southern Cross were used by sailors to navigate (showing directions).

Orion

Ursa Major (Big Dipper)

Southern Cross

Big Dog Constellation

Aries

Cancer

Sagittarius

TYPES OF GALAXY 1. There are millions of galaxies in the universe. 2. Each galaxy consists of millions of stars. 3. Each galaxy has a different size and shape. 4. Galaxies are classified according to shapes, i.e.: (a) Elliptical galaxy (b) Spiral galaxy (c) Irregular galaxy

An elliptical galaxy

A spiral galaxy

An irregular galaxy

5. Our Solar System is in a galaxy called the Milky Way. 6. The Milky Way galaxy is spiral in shape. 7. The Sun is one of the millions of stars in the Milky Way. 8. The Milky Way has a thick centre and flat edges.

THE UNIVERSE 1. The universe is defined as all of outer space and everything in it. 2. The universe is believed to have no end. 3. The universe contains thousands of millions of galaxies. 4. Galaxies are scattered in the universe. 5. Our solar system is in the Milky Way Galaxy.

The Universe and Milky Way

Solar System

THANKFUL FOR THE EXISTENCE OF THE UNIVERSE AS A GIFT FROM GOD 1. The universe is a gift from God that is unique, orderly, beautiful and harmonious. 2. All galaxies move by expanding outwards in the universe. This means that the universe is still expanding and becoming larger. 3. All object contained in the universe will not last forever. For example, all stars in the galaxies will die one day when the hydrogen gas is used up by nuclear reactions. 4. The galaxies too will disappear when all the stars in it die or burn out. 5. When the Sun dies, the Solar System will be destroyed.

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE SUN AND THE MOON TO EARTH 1. The Sun supplies heat and light energy to support life on Earth. 2.The Moon is also important to life on Earth. Moonlight enables certain animals like the owl to come out at night to carry out activities like hunting. THE IMPORTANCE OF THE SUN TO LIFE ON EARTH 1. The Sun supplies light energy to green plats to make food. 2. The Sun supplies light energy that enables humans and animals to see. 3. Heat from the Sun enables evaporation and condensation processes to take place which will lead to the occurrence to rain. 4. The Sun supplies heat energy to warm the Earth and provide a suitable temperature for living things.