IGCSE Chemistry Chemical Bonds Ionic Compounds

There are three different types of bonding which hold together the atoms in substances which are ionic, covalent and metallic. These occur because of the redistributing of electrons. Ionic bonding occurs in compounds of a metal with a non-metal, as well as ammonium compounds. When dissolved in water, acids also form ions. The atoms become stable from a full outer shell of electrons. The gaining/losing of electrons cause these to become ions. e.g. calcium chloride CaCl2 1. Calcium atoms have 2 electrons in their outer shell. Chlorine atoms have 7 electrons in their outer shells. 2.

Electrons are transferred from the metal, calcium, to the non-metal, chlorine.

3. Draw the final result, placing the ions in square brackets, and remembering to show the charge on each ion. Each ion must have a full outer shell of electrons: Calcium has lost 2 electrons, so has become a 2+ ion. The chlorine atoms have gained one electron each, and have a charge of 1-. These are now attracted to each other, and held together by strong electrostatic attractions between ions with opposite charges. Metals ions always form positive ions. Non-metals form negative ions - except for hydrogen (H+) and ammonium (NH4+) ions. The ions are generally arranged in an ionic lattice a giant structure, placing positive ions next to negative, to maximise the total attraction, such as in the sodium chloride lattice:
1

Na+ ion

Cl- ion

They have high melting and boiling points, because of their giant structure, with strong electrostatic attractions between positive and negative ions throughout the entire structure. They are also brittle. When being bent the similarly charged ions touch and repel, shattering the object. The size of the charge on an ion is equal to its valency. Magnesium is in Group II, so has 2 outer electrons; it will therefore lose these when it reacts, and forms a Mg2+ ion. Oxygen is in Group VI, and has 6 outer electrons; it therefore needs to gain 2 electrons to fill the shell, and will form an O 2- ion. The size of the charge on the ions affects the properties of the ionic compound. For example, the melting point of magnesium oxide, MgO, is much higher than that of sodium chloride, NaCl. MgO consists of ions with two units of charge Mg2+ and O2- - which therefore attract each other much more strongly than the singly charged Na + and Cl- ions in NaCl, so much more heat energy is required to separate them.

Covalent Bonding
A covalent bond is a shared pair of electrons. The outer shells overlap as the atoms share pairs of electrons, so that both atoms can achieve a full outer shell. The bond holds the atoms together, because the positively charged protons in the nuclei of the two atoms are both electrostatically attracted to the negatively charged electron pair in the bond. Covalent bonding can also be represented by a dot-and-cross diagram e.g. oxygen Draw correct number of electrons on outer shell:

Oxygen is in group VI, so there are six electrons in the outer shell of each atom. Draw a diagram of the molecule representing each bond as a line between the atoms. One line represents one covalent bond (a pair of electrons). In the dot-and-cross diagram, this is represented as one dot and one cross:

Hydrogen

Chlorine

Cl

Cl

Nitrogen Hydrogen chloride Carbon dioxide

Cl

N H

Ammonia

Water

H C C H

Ethene
H

Methane

C H

H C H H

Ethane

C H

Most covalently bonded compounds have a simple molecular structure, meaning they have low melting and boiling points due to the weak intermolecular forces which are easily broken. The covalent bonds are not broken when it melts or boils. Some form giant structures, in which each atom is covalently bonded to several others, with this pattern repeating indefinitely to form a single, giant macromolecule, of unlimited size. This type of substance is best illustrated using two allotropes of carbon. Allotropes are different structural forms of the same element. Diamond Graphite

Giant lattice, with each carbon atom forming four strong covalent bonds to four other carbon atoms.

Layer lattice, with each carbon atom forming three covalent bonds to three other carbon atoms, giving hexagonal layers of atoms.

High sublimation temperature strong covalent bonds need to be broken, hence more energy is required. The result is single carbon atoms with no bonds, between them, meaning it is sublimated. Uses: coating saw blades and drill bits its extreme hardness allows it to cut through any substance.

High sublimation temperature strong covalent bonds need to be broken, hence more energy is required. The result is single carbon atoms with no bonds, between them, meaning it is sublimated. Uses: in lubricating oils, and as pencil lead the weak layers allow it to slide and be transferred to items such as paper.

Ionic compounds have higher melting points than covalent compounds as the ions are held together in a giant structure by strong electrostatic forces. Covalent compounds have a simple molecular structure although the covalent bonds holding the hydrogen and oxygen atoms together are very strong, these are not broken on melting, only the weak intermolecular forces are broken.

Metallic Bonding
This is found in metals and alloys. Each metal atom loses its outer shell electrons, becoming a positive ion. These positive metal ions are closely-packed in a lattice. The outer shell electrons are delocalised and they are free to move throughout the entire metal. It is the electrostatic attraction between the positive metal ions in the lattice, and the cloud of delocalised negative electrons which holds the metal together.

eee-

eeeeeeee-

e-

e-

Regular lattice of positive metal ions.

e-

ee-

ee-

e-

eeee-

e-

Delocalised cloud of electrons, free to move between the ions.

Property High melting and boiling point, high tensile strength

Explanation Ionic compounds have a giant structure, with strong electrostatic attraction between positive metal ions and delocalised electrons, requiring large amounts of energy to overcome it. The layers of metal ions can slide easily over each other. This can happen without disrupting the metallic bonding. There is a sea of delocalised electrons, free to carry the current.

Malleable

Electrical conductors

Type Of Substance

Formed From

Structur e

Bonding

Description Lattice of positive metal ions held in a cloud of delocalised electrons. Lattice of alternatingly charged ions, held by electrostatic force. Help together by a shared pair of electrons, with weak intermolecular bonds.

Properties

Metallic

Metals

Giant

Metallic

High melting boiling point electrical conductors

Ionic

Metals and nonmetals.

Giant

Ionic

High melting boiling point

Covalent Molecular

Nonmetals

Simple

Covalent

Low melting boiling point

Giant three-dimensional tetrahedral structure with no free electrons.. Giant Covalent Nonmetals Giant Covalent Layered hexagonal structure with some free electrons.

Sublimes at high temperature hard: electric insulator

Sublimes at high temperature soft; electric conductor