Greywater reuse systems for toilet ushing in multi-storey buildings over ten years experience in Berlin

Abstract Water reuse in Germany has gained in signicance in the last 10 years. Several greywater systems, built according to guidelines introduced in 1995, operate today with no public health risk. Two greywater treatment systems are described in this paper: a rotary biological contactor (RBC) built in 1989 for 70 persons, and a uidized-bed reactor for a one-family household built in 1995 as the biological stage for the treatment of household greywater for use in toilet ushing. Both systems were optimized in the following years with consideration of a minimal energy and maintenance demand. As numerous investigations have shown, biological treatment of the greywater is indispensable in order to guarantee a risk-free service water for reuse applications other than potable water. 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Greywater; Water reuse; Toilet ushing; Service water; Water quality; Biological treatment; Bacterial contamination

1. Introduction 1.1. Background The exploitation of surface water followed by advanced treatment for drinking water supply oers no guarantee for continuous microbiologically and chemically indisputable drinking water quality (Weller, 1993). A long list of household chemicals and drugs which are usually only partly biodegradable nd their way back to the consumer in drinking water after passing the municipal wastewater treatment plant (Stan & Lingkerh agner, 1995; Seiler, Zuagg, Thomas, & Howcroft, 1999). The substitution of drinking water with service water (dened as water with characteristics dierent than drinking water) used for purposes other than potable water, e.g., toilet ushing and garden irrigation, helps support the sustainability of valuable water resources. Furthermore, considerable amounts of added chemicals, in addition to sludge which arises during drinking water treatment, can be minimized. Service water made

available from stormwater or greywater systems can be cost eective and with proper operation presents no cke, hygienic risk or comfort loss for the consumer (Lu 1998). On the other hand, the treatment and distribution of service water should not demand more energy and chemicals than that needed for conventional systems. Water from recycling systems should fulll four criteria: hygienic safety, aesthetics, environmental tolerance and technical and economical feasibility (Nolde & Dott, 1991). In Germany, the classication of household wastewater into blackwater and greywater is almost unknown and both terms are not yet dened. Here ``Greywater'' means if not otherwise dened the low polluted wastewater from bathtubs, showers, handwashing basins and washing machines excluding wastewater from the kitchen and the toilet ushing system. Some manufacturers of greywater systems assume a mechanical treatment of the greywater to be satisfactory (Hildebrand, 1999), whereas others claim a more advanced treatment technology to be necessary (Zwerenz, 1999; Zeisel, 1999). Some experts from the German Ministry of Environment (formerly German Federal Health Department) even prophesied plague and cholera when water with non-drinking quality was provided for toilet ushing or other non-potable uses (Moll, 1991). However, this attitude has changed (fbr, 1998)

276

and the rst greywater recycling plants have proved their eciency and applicability in practice for almost 10 years. In the meantime, about 76% of the questioned international experts within a Delphi study ``Water Technology in Year 2010'' consider it technically feasible to use greywater in households by the year 2010 with no public health risks (Delphi, 1999). In the last 10 years several greywater plants with dierent technologies have been developed in Germany although only a few have been widely investigated and assessed. During an assessment of dierent plants, the use pattern as well as the reuse objective should be considered. A greywater plant at dierent sites may deliver dierent results. 1.2. Greywater reuse guidelines Hygienic/microbiological quality standards, such as those dened in the German ``Trinkwasserverordnung'' do not exist for service water. Reuse criteria directed at health and environmental protection have been set at the beginning of these investigations on the rst greywater pilot plants in Berlin, Germany in 1988. These criteria followed the EU-Guidelines for recreational waters (EU-Guidelines, 1975), complemented with additional microbiological parameters for the detection of P. aeruginosa, Salmonella sp., Legionella sp., Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans. Following successful operation of these systems and achievement of the set criteria, guidelines for service water reuse were then rst introduced in Germany in 1995 on a local level by the Berlin Senate Department for Building and Housing (SenBauWohn, 1995). Parameters were dened among total coliforms others for BOD7 ` 5 mg l1 , 1 ` 100 ml , faecal coliforms ` 10 ml1 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa ` 1 ml1 . In other countries, guidelines and standards for water reuse in buildings either do not exist or are being revised or expanded. The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) published in 1992 ``Guidelines for Water Reuse'' which describe the treatment stages, water quality requirements and monitoring tools (EPA, 1992). According to the EPA, reclaimed water used for toilet ushing should undergo eventual ltration and disinfection. The euent should have no detectable faecal coliforms in 100 ml of the treated water, a BOD5 of T 10 mg l1 and a residual Cl2 of P 1 mg l1 , whereby Cl2 should be continuously monitored. In Tokyo, Japan, the reuse of treated wastewater has been highly promoted. A typical use of the reclaimed water is for toilet ushing with about 970 000 m3 year1 . Reclaimed water criteria for use in toilet ushing were dened in the ``Report on reuse of treated wastewater'' among others for total coliforms T 1000 ml1 and

BOD T 20 mg l1 (Maeda, Nakada, Kawamoto, & Ikeda, 1995). 1.3. Problems with greywater treatment systems The most technical problems were encountered in systems in which greywater was not suciently treated. These systems were merely aerated and mainly built for single-family dwellings for which a high maintenance was required. Advanced physical methods for water reuse, such as ultraltration and reverse osmosis, are very high energy demanding. On the other hand, using membrane ltration 0X2 lm which is less energy demanding, eliminates microorganisms but hardly reduces the BOD. This will eventually result in slime formation in the distribution net and in the development of anaerobic conditions with smell emissions (unpublished data). Not all biological treatment systems which are already well established to treat household sewage are suitable for greywater recycling since the regulatory requirements for these systems (COD: 150 mg l1 ; BOD5 : 40 mg l1 ) which lack hygiene requirements, are less strict than those required for greywater recycling systems. As an example, a horizontal-ow planted soil lter (650 m2 for 200 persons) treating the greywater from kitchen and bathtub delivered unsatisfactory results with euent BOD5 concentrations of 1040 mg l1 (Hegemann, 1993). In comparison, an intermittent, vertical-ow soil lter (20 m2 for 15 persons) working without the wastewater from the kitchen showed excellent results BOD7 ` 3 mg l1 , even following doubling the number of connected persons to the system with a daily greywater ow in the soil lter of 7501500 l (Nolde & Dott, 1992). However, if a polishing pond, an integral part of a municipal wastewater treatment plant, is connected to the soil lter from which the service water is withdrawn, the pond will exhibit extensive algal growth during the summer months rendering the water unt for use (Dott, Nolde, & Christen, 1993). Similar to stormwater systems, light has also a negative eect on greywater systems and therefore, service water tanks should be protected against daylight. 2. System concept and methodology 2.1. Greywater system concept The following concept for greywater treatment has proved its eectiveness and suitability for over 10 years. Treatment follows a sedimentation stage, biological treatment, a clearing stage and eventual UV disinfection as shown in Fig. 1 (Nolde, 1996a). Funnel-shaped sedimentation tanks with automated sludge-removing devices proved most eective. Biological treatment can follow in a plant-covered, vertical-ow

277

a total volume of 165 l (stage 1: 105 l; stage 2: 60 l) and placed above the toilet in the bathroom (Fig. 3). Cubeshaped polyurethane material was used as biolm carrier in both stages. 2.3. Sampling For all physicochemical parameters, samples were taken as 24-h quantity proportional mixed samples (GW 1) or as random samples (GW 2), immediately stored without preservation at 4C and processed within 24 h. Inuent samples were taken from the sedimentation tank (or bathtub in GW 2), and the euent samples from the service water reservoir. For all microbiological parameters, random samples were taken, stored at 4C and processed immediately. Decimal dilution series were prepared in physiological saline (0.9%). Testing for faecal and total coliforms followed in triplicate serial dilutions and were quantied using the Most Probable Number (MPN) method (APHA, 1980). Settled samples were taken for all parameters. 2.4. Physicochemical parameters 2.2. Case study The results from two dierent plants are presented in this paper. The rst greywater treatment plant (GW 1) is found in a 15 m2 basement (BerlinKreuzberg, Manteuelstrae 41) treating the greywater from showers, bathtubs and hand-washing basins from 70 persons. At the beginning of these investigations in 1989, the pilot plant was not yet optimized and the biological stage consisted of a two-stage RBC which was replaced in 1997 with a four-stage RBC (Fig. 2) (Zeisel, 1999). The second greywater treatment plant (GW 2) is a two-stage uidized-bed reactor (BerlinWedding, Bornemannstrae 4) treating the greywater from shower and bathtub of a two-person household. The system has UV transmission. UV transmission was determined in the settled samples according to DIN 38404-C3. The sample was measured in a Shimadzu UV-1201 photometer (Kyoto, Japan) at a wavelength of 254 nm in 1 cm cuvettes against Millipore water. Spectral absorption coecient (SAC 254 nm). The spectral absorption coecient was detected continuously with a UV-probe Type LXG 139 operating at 254 nm and sseldorf). device unit Type LXG 144 (Fa. Dr. Lange, Du Instead of ltration, the turbidity was compensated through a reference measurement at 550 nm. As several investigations have shown, the SAC 254 nm correlates very well r b 0X9 with the TOC measurements. Total organic carbon (TOC). The determination of TOC followed DIN 38409-H3. Measurements were made in TOCOR 100 (Fa. Maihak, Hamburg) run in the range between 2 and 30 ppm (thermal decomposition). Injection quantities varied between 40 and 140 ll dependent on sample concentration. The inorganic carbon portion of the sedimented samples was stripped o with synthetic air following acidication to a pH below 2. All measurements were given as the arithmetic mean from a minimum of ve consecutive measurements of a sample. Chemical oxygen demand (COD). COD measurements of settled samples were carried out photometrically using a LASA Plus photometer and quick test cuvettes (LCK 414, 560 mg l1 ; LCK 314, 15150 mg l1 ; LCK 114, 1501000 mg l1 ; Fa. Dr. Lange, sseldorf). The coecients of variation were 1.99% Du (LCK 414), 1% (LCK 314) and 0.56% (LCK 114). Biological oxygen demand (BOD). BOD7 was determined in the fresh settled sample following DIN 38409-

Fig. 1. Recommended concept for greywater treatment.

soil lter or a multiple-stage rotary biological contactor (RBC) (alternatively a trickling lter), coupled to a clearing tank to remove the biomass. The treated water is eventually disinfected by UV before it is stored in the service water tank. Distribution of service water is achieved with a booster pump.

Fig. 2. The four-stage greywater treatment system GW 1 in Berlin Kreuzberg (Foto: K. Zeisel).

278

Fig. 3. The two-stage greywater treatment system GW 2 in a bathroom in BerlinWedding.

H51 based on dilution with allylthiourea (nal concentration in the sample was 1 mg l1 ). The oxygen concentration was measured with a WTW Oximeter OXI 96 and an oxygen probe EOT 196 (Fa. WTW, Weilheim). Due to technical reasons, BOD measurements were determined following seven days incubation instead of the usual ve days. It is expected that the BOD7 value is either larger than or equal to the BOD5 for the same sample. For inoculated domestic polluted water in a moderate motion, a conversion factor of 1.17 is used 1 mg l1 BOD5 1X17 mg l1 BOD7 (Imho & Imho, 1990). At rst approximation, this factor can also be used for greywater. 2.5. Microbiological parameters Colony forming units (CFU). The determination of the number of the CFU followed in duplicate serial dilutions using Kochs pour plate method. The DEV-nutri-

ent agar plates were incubated for 44 4 h at 20C and 37C. Plates which showed between 30 and 300 colonies under an 8 magnication were evaluated and the arithmetic means determined. Faecal and total coliforms. Detection and enumeration of total coliforms followed in Fluorocult-Lauryl-sulfate broth using the MPN method. Tubes were incubated at 37C for 48 h and those showing turbidity and gas formation were recorded as positive. For the detection of faecal coliforms, the medium was made alkaline followed by irradiation with a long-wave UV light to examine uorescence. In the presence of a light-blue uorescence, an additional test was made to check for the formation of indole from tryptophan using Kovac's reagent. All tubes with turbidity, gas formation, uorescence and indole formation were considered positive for faecal coliforms. Contamination studies. Several investigations were made to study the survival of health relevant bacteria in

279 Table 1 Dierent untreated greywater qualities measured in Berlin plants Parameter Unit GW 1 Mainly bath and shower TOD COD BOD7 Ntotal Ptotal Faecal coliforms Total coliforms Total counts (CFU) mg l1 mg l1 mg l1 mg l1 mg l1 ml1 ml1 ml1 100200 50100 510 0.20.6 101 101 102 103 105 106 Bath, shower and washing machine with baby diapers 250430 150250 104 106 104 106 106 107 GW 2 Mainly shower (9 l min1 ) 2695 113633 70300 101 101 101 103 105 106

greywater systems. Greywater was articially contaminated with faeces from baby diapers and concentrations of faecal bacteria were measured in the greywater system.

3. Results 3.1. Greywater qualities The exact composition of greywater is primarily inuenced by the user's behaviour, the implementation of water-saving measures and is dependent on which greywater sources have been used. Untreated greywater usually contains low nutrient concentrations (Table 1) which are below the regulatory requirements for euents of modern large sewage treatment plants in Germany Ntotal 18 mg l1 Y Ptotal 1 mg l1 . Although no toilet wastes were introduced into the above greywater systems, surprisingly high loads of total

and faecal coliforms were measured over some periods (unpublished data). This has been related to the introduction of faecal bacteria into the system during baby washing and diaper changing as tenant questionnaires have shown. Service water used for toilet ushing can be won from the usually low-polluted greywater from showers, bathtubs and hand-washing basins. In GW 1, daily average values of 3035 l/person were recorded for greywater while in GW 2 only 1520 l/person were available daily (water-saving ttings and habits; ow: 9 l min1 ). 3.2. Biodegradability of household chemicals in the greywater system Fig. 4 shows the degradation of Fa soap, Birkin shampoo and oliveoil and spice soaps in GW 2. The organic load in the form of TOC and spectral absorption coecient (SAC) was biodegradable within a few

Fig. 4. Biodegradation of personal hygiene preparations in the rst stage of the uidized-bed reactor GW 2.

280

hours. The TOC as well as SAC (254 nm) of the service water were slightly higher than those of drinking water (TOC of Berlin drinking water lies between 3 and 4 mg l1 ; SAC between 8 and 10 m1 ). Fig. 5 shows that the greywater from washing machines using Awalan washing liquid, which was introduced in GW 2 for experimental reasons, was almost ve times more polluted than the bath and shower water, and more time was needed for biodegradation (Fig. 4). The almost horizontal curve course at the end of the biodegradation experiments indicates the rest of the TOC to be only slowly or non-biodegradable. 3.3. Investigations in a RBC (GW 1) As a result of the primary investigations on GW 1 which ended in 1993 and in order to establish a modular greywater system with minimal maintenance, GW 1 was

extensively automated in 1997 and replaced with a fourstage RBC keeping the same system volume while achieving a higher system stability especially during load uctuations. At least two hours per week were necessary for maintenance of the old two-stage GW 1, but this has been reduced to below 0.2 h. BOD7 concentrations of 50250 mg l1 have been measured in GW 1 inuent (Table 1) while euent concentrations were always below the 5 mg l1 control limit. Fig. 6 shows that the treated greywater had a higher UV transmission in all samples measured compared to the euent of the municipal wastewater treatment plant of BerlinRuhleben. A UV transmission close to that of the drinking water in Berlin was also measured. On the other hand, many service water samples did not fulll the drinking water microbiological standards of 100 CFU ml1 (37C) and 1000 CFU ml1 (20C) for bacterial total counts as can be seen in Fig. 7.

Fig. 5. Biodegradation of washing-machine liquid in the rst stage of the uidized-bed reactor GW 2.

Fig. 6. UV transmission of service water from GW 1 compared to Berlins drinking water and treated municipal wastewater of BerlinRuhleben.

281

Fig. 8 shows that the measured bacterial concentrations in treated water were usually below the control values. Most values, mainly those of faecal coliforms and faecal streptococci, were even below the detection limit of 0.03 bacteria ml1 . Only two out of 46 samples exceeded the limits for P. aeruginosa with 4.3 bacteria ml1 (Nolde, 1996a). 3.4. Investigations in a uidized-bed reactor (GW 2) The investigations have shown that, a good service water quality can be achieved with a smaller greywater system (TOC: 48 mg l1 ; BOD7 ` 5 mg l1 ), even when the organic load is high as shown in Table 1. A number of the random samples from stage 1 has fullled the microbiological requirements for faecal coliforms in service water without further treatment (Fig. 9), whereas other samples lay above the limit value, especially when faecal material is introduced into the system from baby washing. In addition, the hygienic/microbiological parameters of the Berlin service water quality requirements were realized following UV disinfection of the treated water. Signicantly lower coliform bacterial concentrations in GW 2 were rst attained following reduction of the ow rate in the UV unit (after October 98) as shown in Fig. 10. A calculated UV dose of 250400 J m2 was held constant. The requirements were even achieved following contamination of the system with faeces from baby diapers in December 1998. 3.5. Behaviour of pathogenic microorganisms in greywater In addition to the behaviour of household chemicals in greywater systems, the presence as well as the survival of potentially pathogenic microorganisms is of much signicance for the assessment of greywater treatment plants and the exclusion of any health hazard connected with greywater reuse.

Fig. 7. CFU of samples taken from the service water tank in GW 1 at 20C and 37C, compared to the German ``Trinkwasserverordnung''.

Fig. 8. Concentrations of total and faecal coliforms in service water tank GW 1 compared to the control values of the quality guidelines.

Fig. 9. Concentrations of total and faecal coliforms in GW 2 (samples from the rst biological stage).

282

Fig. 10. Concentrations of total and faecal coliforms in GW 2 following UV disinfection compared to the control values of the quality guidelines.

Since Salmonella (in 100 ml samples), Legionella (in 10 ml samples), Staphylococcus aureus (in 1 ml samples) and Candida albicans (in 0.1 ml samples) were not detected in the treated greywater (GW 1), the water was articially contaminated with relevant pathogenic microorganisms in order to investigate their behaviour. The concentrations of faecal coliforms in the greywater inuent (GW 1) that has been contaminated on a daily basis is shown in Fig. 11. After day 7, contamination was stopped and a reduction of the faecal coliforms was observed afterwards. However, samples taken from the toilet ushing system always showed values below the control limit for faecal coliforms and no regrowth of the bacteria was detectable in the system. Further contamination experiments in batch cultures showed no increase in the number of pathogenic microorganisms in greywater. Instead, a continuous death rate was observed with all tested microorganisms. Fig. 12

Fig. 12. Survival of Salmonella sp. in articially contaminated greywater in batch cultures.

shows the survival of Salmonella sp. in articially contaminated greywater in batch experiments. Very high start concentrations of 107 were reduced below the limit of detection within three weeks of incubation at room temperature in the dark. 4. Discussion On the basis of the collected experience on dierent greywater systems over the past 10 years, it is clear that an extensive biological treatment of the greywater is indispensable in order to avoid technical problems and public health risk as well as promotion of public acceptance. Dierent quality requirements for non-potable water uses should be scientically justied and a risk assessment analysis is desirable in every case. With regard to sustainable water concepts, a lower energy and chemical demand than that needed for conventional systems should be achieved in service water systems. For large greywater systems working with a multistage RBC, the

Fig. 11. Survival of faecal coliforms following continuous contamination of the greywater with faecal material over a period of 7 days. The vertical line shows the end of the contamination in GW 1.

283

energy demand for greywater treatment, UV disinfection and service water distribution was determined to be less than 1.5 kWh m3 (Nolde, 1996b). Low energy and maintenance costs can thus be a challenge especially for smaller greywater plants. The use of chemical disinfectants (e.g., chlorine compounds) in greywater systems should be avoided since treated greywater can be satisfactorily disinfected with a UV dose ranging between 250 and 400 J m2 . Several investigations have also shown that common personal hygiene preparations and household-cleaning chemicals as well as the occasional use of medicinal baths, or even a contamination of the greywater with faeces and pathogenic bacteria, cause no problems in properly functioning greywater systems working with dierent carrier material (e.g., sand, polyethylene, and polyurethane) for biolm xation, followed by an eventual UV disinfection (Nolde & Dott, 1992; Mehlhart, 1999). From the author's point of view it is today indispensable, that every greywater system be tested once under several dierent conditions (e.g., faecal contamination, application of household chemicals) before operation. Following installation, a qualied inspection should be made in which a full compliance to DIN or other standard-installation regulations takes place. In order to avoid cross connections with the drinking water network, it is recommended that the service water is dyed once prior to operation. The operation of non-registered and untested greywater systems is connected to a potential hygienic risk to the user and the drinking water network. At this point in time, it is dicult to give general recommendations regarding planning and design of a greywater plant, since the user behaviour, volume and concentration of greywater can vary widely as for example in a one-family household and in a hotel. The greywater systems that have been realized until now with extensive treatment of the greywater were mainly prototypes or special productions, whereby the total costs were decisively dependent on site conditions. As such it is still dicult to give precise details on the investment costs of such systems, to which a second pipe system and additional space are also needed. Dependent on system size, the specic investment costs beginning with water treatment and ending with the service water pump would at a rst approximation be between 300 for large systems and up to 1000 for small ones per connected person. With drinking water and wastewater prices in Germany of 5 m3 , it can be ensured that such an investment will pay for itself taking into consideration the operation and maintenance costs. 5. Conclusions Greywater processing has proved to be technically feasible. There are enough positive examples which

verify that the total water for toilet ushing (about 15 to 55 l/person/day) can be substituted with service water without a hygienic risk or comfort loss. The Berlin quality requirements for service water have proved to be eective for the reuse of treated greywater for toilet ushing. Regulatory requirements for other reuse purposes, such as in washing machines, are still desirable. These requirements should be in every case use-oriented and based on a risk assessment. It should be possible in the future to have a dual water system in households with two water qualities. The rst a high quality drinking water originating primarily from natural water resources, and a second water quality for all other uses. This should bring with it an environmental relief on both the water and energy sectors.

Acknowledgements This research was mainly supported by the Berlin Senate Department for Building and Housing. Dipl. Ing. Jochen Zeisel from Sanit arsystemtechnik, Berlin, ttner from Fa. Lokus, Berlin, for and Dipl.Ing. Rudi Bu greywater system planning and design. Hans Grohe for supporting investigations on the uidized-bed reactor.

References
American Public Health Association. (1980). Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater (15th ed.). New York: American Public Health Association. Delphi (1999). Delphi-Study Watertechnology in the year 2010.  Ministry of the Environment, Hessen, Referat Oentlichkeitsarbeit, Postfach 3109, 65021 Wiesbaden. Dott, W., Nolde, E., & Christen, S. (1993). Teilprojekt D Hygiene. In W. Hegemann et al. (Eds.), Integriertes Wasserkonzept in BerlinKreuzberg, Block 6. Projektdokumentation und Ergebnisse der Forschungsphase II (19901993). Erstellt im Auftrag der Senats r Bau- und Wohnungswesen, Berlin (Unpublished verwaltung fu data). EU-Guidelines (1975). Richtlinie des Rates der Europ aischen Gemeinschaft vom 8.12.1975  uber die Qualit at der Badegew asser (76/160/ EWG-Amtsblatt der EG vom 5.02.1976-L31/1). fbr (1998). Hygienische Aspekte der Regenwassernutzung Dokumentation des fbr-Fachsymposiums in Fulda. Fachvereinigung Betriebs- und Regenwassernutzung e.V. (fbr), Darmstadt. Hegemann, W. (1993). Teilprojekt C2-Abwasserreinigung. In W. Hegemann et al. (Eds.), Integriertes Wasserkonzept in BerlinKreuzberg, Block 6. Projektdokumentation und Ergebnisse der Forschungsphase II (19901993). Erstellt im Auftrag der Senats r Bau- und Wohnungswesen, Berlin (Unpublished verwaltung fu data). Hildebrand, R. (1999). Sedimentationsanlage Hildebrand. In Grauwasser Recycling, Schriftenreihe fbr 5 (1999), (pp. 5160). Fachtagung der fbr 1999, Fachvereinigung Betriebs- und Regenwassernutzung e.V. (Hrsg.), Darmstadt. Imho, K. R., & Imho, K. (1990). Taschenbuch der Stadtentw asse nchen. rung. Wien: R Oldenbourg Verlag Mu

284 t. In  cke, F. -K. (1998). Betriebswasser in Trinkwasserqualita Lu Innovation Betriebs- und Regenwassernutzung, Schriftenreihe fbr 3 (1998), (pp. 3164). Fachtagung der fbr 1998, Fachvereinigung Betriebs- und Regenwassernutzung e.V. (Hrsg.), Darmstadt. Maeda, M., Nakada, K., Kawamoto, K., & Ikeda, M. (1995). Areawide Use of Reclaimed Water in Tokyo, Japan. In A. Angelakis, T. Asano, E. Diamadopoulos, & G. Tschobanoglous (Eds.), Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse (pp. 5562). October 1720, 1995, Iraklio, Crete, Greece (Symposium Reprint Book 1). Mehlhart, G. (1999). Internationale Entwicklungen zum GrauwasserRecycling. In Grauwasser Recycling, Schriftenreihe fbr 5 (1999), (pp. 155172). Fachtagung der fbr 1999, Fachvereinigung Betriebsund Regenwassernutzung e.V. (Hrsg.), Darmstadt. Moll, H. -G. (1991). Zu treen: Vorkehrungen gegen Typhus und Cholera Dach- und (Regen-) wassernutzung im Haushalt? Sanit ar und Heizungstechnik, 6, 461466. Nolde, E., & Dott, W. (1991). Verhalten von hygienisch relevanten Bakterien und Pilzen im Grauwasser-Einuss der UV-Desinfektion und Wiederverkeimung. gwf Wasser Abwasser, 132(3), 108114. Nolde, E., & Dott, W. (1992). Experimenteller Wohnungs- und St adtebau Forschungskonzept Block 103 Grauwasserprojekte in r Berlin-Kreuzberg. Erstellt im Auftrag der Senatsverwaltung fu Bau- und Wohnungswesen, Berlin (Unpublished data). Nolde, E. (1996a). Greywater Reuse in Households-Experience from nborn, & C. Etnier (Eds.), Germany. In J. Staudenmann, A. Scho Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Ecological Engineering for Wastewater Treatment. Environmental Research Forum Volumes 56 (1996). In Recycling the ResourceEcological Engineering for Wastewater Treatment (pp. 5564), September 18 rich, Switzerland. 22, 1995, W adenswil, Zu Nolde, E. (1996b). Wasserrecycling in einem 4-Sterne-Hotel. wwt, 6, 3941. Seiler, R. L., Zaugg, S. D., Thomas, J. M., & Howcroft, D. L. (1999). Caeine and Pharmaceuticals as Indicators of Wastewater Contamination in Wells. Ground Water, 37(3), 405410. Stan, H. -J, & Linkerh agner, M. (1995). Identizierung von 2-(4chlorphenoxy)-2-methylpropins aure im Grundwasser mittels Kapillar-Gaschromatographie mit Atomemissionsdetektion und Massenspektrometrie. Vom Wasser, 79, 8588. SenBauWohn. (1995). Merkblatt Betriebswassernutzung in Geb auden, r Bau- und Wohungswesen, Wu  rttembergische Senatsverwaltung fu Strae 610, 10707 Berlin. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1992). Guidelines for Water Reuse. EPA/625/R-92/004, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Center for Environmental Research Information, Cincinnati, Ohio. ssen auch weiterhin Trinkwasser Weller, U. (1993). Aachener mu abkochen, TAZ Nr. 4133, 32, 9 October 1993.  rperanlagen im Grauwasser-Recycling, Zeisel, J. (1999). Tauchtropfko Fa. Lokus GmbH. In Grauwasser Recycling, Schriftenreihe fbr 5 (pp. 97130). Fachtagung der fbr 1999, Fachvereinigung Betriebsund Regenwassernutzung e.V. (Hrsg.), Darmstadt. Zwerenz, A. (1999). Investition in die Zukunft-die DuschwasserRecycling-Anlage von Hansgrohe. In Grauwasser Recycling, Schriftenreihe fbr 5 (pp. 6783). Fachtagung der fbr 1999, Fachvereinigung Betriebs- und Regenwassernutzung e.V. (Hrsg.), Darmstadt.