BLOQUE 2

Dra. D a. Moiss o ss A Almela me a Snche Snchez

Grupo B
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Morphology: the structure of words

Bibliography

z Plag, I.; Braun, M.; Lappe, S.; Schramm, M. 2009 (2007). (2007) I Introduction d i to English E li h Linguistics. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter

a) Defining morphology

Food for thought thought

z What are the components of unfaithfulness? z Why is *unloyal impossible? Why does it have to be disloyal? z What mechanisms, mechanisms if any, an do we e use se to create new ne words? Do we follow any pattern? MORPHOLOGY
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What is morphology?
z It is a subdiscipline of linguistics which studies the internal structure of words, the rules that govern it, and the ways of creating new words z Curious origin of the term: initially used to designate the e s study udy o of the e st structure uctu e o of living g o organisms ga s s (biology) z Morphology deals with the analysis of words into meaningful units
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b) Morphemes

Defining the concept of morpheme morpheme

z The morpheme has been usually defined as g unit ( (no further the smallest meaningful subdivision is possible). * Phonemes are smaller than morphemes, but they are not considered to be carriers of meaning.

Problems in defining the concept of morpheme

z However, the definition of morphemes as the smallest meaningful units has become a matter of controversy in linguistics. z Cognitive phonology argues that phonemes, too, may have a symbolic value (apart from onomatopoeic expressions). This phenomenon is known as phonesthesia phonesthesia .

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Problems in defining the concept of morpheme

z Phonestheme = a sound with a symbolic value, i.e. associated with a meaning. z Phonesthemes recur in lexemes of a particular semantic type. Normally, they are found in onsets and codas.

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Problems in defining the concept of morpheme

z Examples of English phonesthemes in onsets: gl- = light/vision (glitter, glisten, glow, glare, gleam, glint, etc.) sl- sl = frictionless motion (slide, slide slick slick, sled sled, sledge)

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Problems in defining the concept of morpheme

z Examples of English phonesthemes in codas: -sh = destructive contact (smash, crash, bash, thrash, crush, trash, etc.) ck = abrupt contact (smack, -ck smack crack crack, whack)

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Morphemes and words

z All words contain at least one morpheme (NO
morphemeless words) z Need to identify which part in a word is meaningful, and what sort of meaning g it has, , e.g. g dreamless:
{What is the meaning of dream? And of less?
z Homeless, jobless, hopeless, aimless > less has a privative meaning (= without X).

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Morphemes and words

z Classifying words:
{ Monomorphemic p or simplex p words: those with one morpheme (e.g. dream, do) { Polymorphemic or complex words: those with two or more morphemes p (e.g. ( g dreamless, , undo)

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Morphemes and words

z Difficulties to establish morphemes:
{ e.g. cranberry: z cran does not exist on its own and only occurs in this word, but berry does appear alone and can be combined cran adds dd meaning (red ( d sour). ) It is a morpheme h ( (a UNIQUE MORPHEME).
A unique morpheme is a morpheme which occurs only in one word of a language, e.g. cran.

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Morphemes and words

z Compare: berry = a small round fruit on particular plants and trees ( trees (= Sp. baya) blackberry = black/purple + berry (Sp. mora) bl eb err = blue bluebuerry bl e + berry berr (Sp. (Sp arndano azul a l) cranberry = red sour + berry (Sp. arndano rojo y agrio)
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Morphemes: form and meaning

{ e.g. attain, sustain, pertain, contain, obtain: is tain an English morpheme?
z Etymology: Eng. tain < Lat. Tenere (= hold) z However, H etymology t l i not is t evident id t for f all ll speakers k of f a language. The meaning hold hold is not readily traceable y Therefore, tain is NOT a morpheme. ADVICE: do not mix etymology and morphology REMEMBER: synchronic diachronic perspective (F. de Saussure)

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Morphemes: form and meaning

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Morphemes: form and meaning

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Morphemes: form and meaning

z Irregular plural forms: e.g. tooth teeth / man men / mouse mice y The plural meaning (more than one X) is not expressed by adding some form, form but by a change in the vowel. y This morphological operation is termed vowel change or vowel alternation. e.g. sheep sheep / deer deer y Here, Here the form of the plural morpheme is not marked overtly. y This is termed a zero form or zero morph (= the morpheme is neither visible nor audible.

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Morphemes: types and distribution

z Ability or inability to stand alone:
{ Free: they can stand alone (CHRISTIANism, FREEdom) { Bound: they cannot stand alone (christianISM, free DOM)

z Bases (or stems) vs. derivatives:

{ Bases: morphemes to which other morphemes are attached. { Derivative: the word derived from the base. base Thus, mother is the base for the derivative motherhood.
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Morphemes: types and distribution

z Types of bases:
{ Simplex or roots: core elements of words and essential for words to exist; no further constituent morphemes are found f d (un ( FAITHful) f l) { Complex: bases that are composed of several constituent morphemes (unFAITHFUL)

z Types T of f bound b d morphemes h ( affixes (or ffi ): )

{ Prefixes: they appear before the base (UNfaithful) { Suffixes: ffi they h appear after f the h base b ( faith (un f i hFUL) { Infixes: they are inserted into the base:
z Not N used d in i English E li h as a major j WF operation i
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Morphemes: types and distribution

prefix suffix

UN + FAITH + FUL
base/root derivative

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Morphemes: types and distribution

prefix suffix

UN + FAITH + FUL

base derivative

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Morphemes
z Please, analyse these words and classify the p they y are made up p of into types: yp morphemes
Dishonest Cooker Brotherhood Mispronounce Amoral Settlement Helplessness Stardom Transnational

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c) Morphological analysis

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Morphological analysis (I)

z The morphological p g analysis y of a word ( (i.e. a description of its structure) can be represented with a tree diagram g
Mispronounce Mis pronounce

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Morphological analysis (II)

{ Lets see more complex words: Helplessness Helpless Help
Root DERIVATIVE

less

ness

Base for bound morpheme ness

Base for bound morpheme less

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Morphological analysis (III)

(1)

{ Lets have a look at even more complex words: Unfearful Unfearful (3) fear Unfearful ful Un fear fearful ful

Un
(2)

*Unfear Un fear ful

Compare the trees (1), (2) and (3) What Wh t li linguistic i ti arguments t can we use to support one particular analysis?
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Morphological analysis (IV)

z FIRST ARGUMENT: SEMANTICS (meaningrelated issues)
The meaning of the derivative is not full of fear, and not full of not fear. Therefore, the third analysis is plausible. The order of attachment matters!!

z SECOND ARGUMENT: ARGUMENT FORMAL PROPERTIES

Affixes get attached to certain types of bases (nouns, verbs ) verbs) Is un attached to nouns or to adjectives? Compare: *unfear, *unrespect, but unusual, unhappy, unclear, etc.

zThe formal and the semantic arguments g speak p for the THIRD ANALYSIS. 32

d) Allomorphs

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Allomorphs (I)
z Starting point: there is no onetoone relation between form and meaning. z Allomorphs are different morphs (or forms) representing the same morpheme:
{ Relationship phoneme allophone is analogous to morpheme allomorph
z The morpheme and the phoneme are abstract, mental categories whose concrete, physical realisations are the allomorph ll h and d the h allophone ll h z PHONOLOGICAL CATEGORIES (phoneme and allophone) vs. MORPHOLOGICAL CATEGORIES (morpheme and allomorph)
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Allomorphs (II)
z Types/conditioning:
{ Phonological conditioning: distribution governed by the sound structure

z Morpheme: {INDEFINITE ARTICLE} p and their distribution: z Allomorphs

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Allomorphs (III)
{ Phonological vs. lexical conditioning: distribution governed by particular words, e.g. {PLURAL}

There are regular and irregular realizations of the morpheme {PLURAL}.

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Allomorphs (IV)
z Regular

realisations conditioning:

(adding

(e)s)

and

phonological

Th The {PLURAL} morpheme h h three has th allomorphs, ll h which hi h depend d d on the preceding sound (vs. {INDEFINITE ARTICLE}) or environment: [s] |C[voice] ___ # lips
ribs

{PLURAL} { }

[z] | C [+voice] ___ # OR V___# [z] | C [sibilant] ___# cases

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Allomorphs (V)

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Allomorphs (VI)
{ Morphological M h l i l conditioning: di i i a particular i l mopheme h (e.g. a suffix) is responsible for the alternation, e.g. {CONCLUDE}

z Allomorphs of the morpheme {CONCLUDE} differ in realization of final consonant depending on affix following them (the base adopts different forms d depending di on which hi h derivative d i i is i attached h d to it). i) z Common mechanism in English (changes of stress pattern are possible: photograph photography)
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e) Morphological processes

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Inflection and derivation

z What is the purpose of combining morphemes into words? Compare: (1) She Sh bakes b k sweet-scented t t d cakes k on Sundays. S d (2) She baked sweet-scented cakes last Sunday. (3) She Sh knows k a good d baker b k . (4) She knows a good bakery. z Does D the h meaning i of f the h verb b bake b k change h f from (1) to (2)? z What Wh t is i the th semantic ti difference diff b t between b k (verb), bake ( b) baker, and bakery?

Inflection and derivation

z What is the purpose of combining morphemes into words? Compare: (1) Sh She bakes b k sweet-scented t t d cakes k on Sundays. S d (2) She baked sweet-scented cakes last Sunday. (3) She Sh k knows a good d baker b k . (4) She knows a good bakery. z Does D the h meaning i of f the h verb b bake b k change h f from (1) to (2)? N Th No. The lexical l i l meaning i is i cook k in i an oven in i both b th cases.

Inflection and derivation

z What is the semantic difference between bake, baker, and bakery? - Bake B k (n.) ( ) = cook ki in an oven - Baker = person who bakes and sells bread, pastries and cakes cakes - Bakery = establishment where bread, pastries and cakes are baked or sold sold z What is the purpose of adding s to the verb bake? - indicate present tense - subject-verb agreement

Inflection and derivation

z Baked and bakes are different forms of a single lexeme (the verb bake). They are different word-forms or grammatical words, but not different lexemes. lexemes z Lexeme = word as an abstract unit in the vocabulary of a language language . I. Lexeme: BAKE (verb) Word-forms: bake, bake bakes bakes, baking baking, baked. II. Lexeme: BAKER (noun) Word-forms: baker, baker bakers bakers, bakers baker s III. Lexeme: BAKERY (noun) Word forms: bakery, Word-forms: bakery bakeries, bakeries bakerys bakery s

Inflection and derivation

z Inflection = the morphological expression of grammatical information and categories.
{ Inflectional affixes are used to encode grammatical information and thus create different word-forms of th same lexeme. the l

z Derivation D i i = the h creation i of f new lexemes l b by affixation.

{ Derivational affixes are used to create new lexemes.

Inflection
Affi Affix F Function ti E Examples l

-s s s -ed -s -ing i -er -est

creates the plural form of nouns creates the genitive form of nouns creates the past tense form of verbs creates the third person singular present tense form of verbs

cats, days Peters Peter s, John Johns s played, stopped, cared (he/she/it) plays, stops, cares

creates t the th progressive i form f of f verbs b (i (is/are) / ) playing, l i going, writing creates the comparative p form of adjectives creates the superlative form of adjectives dj ti warmer, , colder warmest, coldest

Inflection vs vs. derivation

z Position:
{ In English, inflectional morphemes are only suffixes (b k s, bak (bake b ked d, bak b king i ). { In English, derivational morphemes can be suffixes or prefixes (compare: baker, remove). )

z Consistency C i t of f meaning i or function: f ti { Inflectional affixes have consistently the same

meaning i in i all ll words d they th are attached tt h d to. t { The meaning of derivational affixes is more variable.

Inflection vs vs. derivation

Example Cars Tables Shoes Cottages Word meaning more more than one car car more than one table more than one shoe more than one cottage Affix meaning/function more more than one one more than one more than one more than one

The function of the inflectional suffix s is consistently exactly the same in every word to which it is attached.

Inflection vs vs. derivation

Example computarise hospitalise modernise regularise brotherise gutterise tt i Word meaning put into a computer put into a hospital make make (more) modern modern make (more) regular provide with a brother provide id with ith a gutter tt Affix meaning/function put into X put into X make make (more) X X make (more) X provide with X provide id with ith X

The function of the derivational suffix ise has at least three different semantic interpretations or senses.

Inflection vs vs. derivation

z Distribution and productivity:
{ Inflectional affixes attach virtually to every word of a given class (the English past tense sufix ed can be attached to every regular verb).

{D Derivational i ti l morphemes h h have a more restricted ti t d usage: stable > stability But: joyful > *joyfulity creative > creativity long > *longity

Inflection vs vs. derivation

z Effects on word class:
{ Inflectional affixes never change the word-class of the base. { Derivational D i ti l affixes ffi can change h th word-class the d l of f the th base. b
base wordclass l of f the base V V V V V V suffixed form word-class of the h suffixed ffi d form V V V N N N

walk write bake walk write bake

walks writes bakes walker writer baker

Summing up up
Inflectional affixes are always suffixes in English. Derivational affixes can be suffixes and prefixes.

have consistently the same can have different meanings in grammatical function in every word different words. they attach to. to attach to every word of a given attach to certain words of a class. given class. never change the word-class of can change the word-class of the base. the base.

(strategies for creating new l lexemes) )

f) Word Word-formation formation

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WORD FORMATION DEVICES WORD-FORMATION

1) Affixation 2) Compounding
CONCATENATIVE PROCESSES

3) Conversion 4) Shortening

NON-CONCATENATIVE PROCESSES

f.1- Word formation f.1

AFFIXATION
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AFFIXATION

Affixation > Derivational suffixes

base word-class of the base suffixed form word-class of the suffixed form

forget fiction elect solid speech black

V N V A N A

forgetful fictional election solidity speechify blacken

A A N N V V

Many English suffixes change the word-class of the base.

Affixation > Derivational suffixes

base word-class of the base suffixed form word-class of the suffixed form

green devil devil friend

A N N N

greenish devilry y devilment friendship

A N N N

Some English suffixes do NOT change the word-class of the base.

Affixation > Derivational suffixes

z Depending on the word-class of the derivative they create,suffixes can be subdivided into Nominal, e.g. ee ee: employ > employee Verbal, e.g. en: broad > broaden Adjectival e.g. Adjectival, e g al al: fiction > fictional Adverbial, e.g. wise: clock > clockwise

Affixation > Derivational suffixes

z There are restrictions on the word-class of the bases to which particular suffixes can be attached: - The suffix en attaches primarily to adjectives. It creates deadjectival verbs: wide > widen. - The suffix al attaches primarily to nouns (thus, it creates denominal adjectives: culture > cultural)

Affixation > Derivational suffixes

z Meanings and functions of derivational suffixes. { Try y to figure g out the suffixes below:
suffix -er -er -ette -ess derivatives commander, preacher, wanderer mixer, cutter, toaster, slicer kitchenette, towelette, teatrette millionairess, waitress, tigress, hostess

Affixation > Derivational suffixes

z Meanings and functions of derivational suffixes.
suffix -er -er -ette -ess type Agentive suffix (e.g. preach > preacher) Instrumental suffix (e.g. toast > toaster) Diminutive suffix ( (e.g. g towel > towelette) Gender-marking suffix (e.g. tiger < tigress)

Affixation > (derivational) prefixes

Base word-class of the base prefixed form word-class of the prefixed form

obey manage g rational medical function member

V V A A N N

disobey Mismanage g irrational pre-medical pre medical malfunction non-member

V V A A N N

Many y English g prefixes do NOT change p g the word-class of the base.

Affixation > (derivational) prefixes

Base word-class of the base prefixed form word-class of the prefixed form

witch large g forest courage

N A N N

bewitch enlarge g deforest discourage

V V V V

Some English prefixes change the word-class of the base.

Affixation > (derivational) prefixes

z Meanings and functions of derivational suffixes.
prefix nonultrasemipremeaning not X (negative prefix) very, extremely X ( (augmentative i prefix) fi ) half X before X example non-stop ultra-conservative semi-conscious pre-war

Productivity of affixes
z Productivity = ability of affixes to create new words (i.e. variety of bases they are attached to). z Affixes differ considerably in their productivity. The agentive g suffix er is much more productive than the nominal suffix al.
{ -er is used frequently and gave rise to many new words in the 20th century: fictioner, socializer, pager, etc. { -th is attached to a very limited number of words (length, width, strength) and is hardly ever used to create new words words.

Productivity of affixes
z The productivity of affixes is determined by a number of factors: A) Blocking Availability of a word that denotes the same concept The existence of the word ticket office concept. blocks the creation of the word *ticketery. B) Structural restrictions

Productivity of affixes
z The productivity of affixes is determined by a number of factors: A) Blocking B) Structural restrictions b 1 Phonological b.1b.2- Morphological b.3- Semantic

Productivity of affixes
z Example of phonological restriction on the productivity of affixes.
{ The person-forming suffix eer attaches to disyllabic bases that are stressed on the second-but-last syllable. auction > auctioneer, auctioneer mountain > mountaineer BUT: book > *bookeer bookeer instrument > *instrumenteer police > *policeer policeer

Productivity of affixes
z Example of morphological restriction on the productivity of affixes.
{ The suffix ation is attached only to bases that end in the suffix ise/-ize hospitalise > hospitalisation I tit ti Institutionalise li > institutionalisation i tit ti li ti BUT BUT: treat t t > *treatation *t t ti accomplish > *accomplishation adjust > *adjustation

Productivity of affixes
z Example of morphological restriction on the productivity of affixes.
{ The suffix ment is attached only to bases that DO NOT CONTAIN the suffix ise/-ize hospitalise > *hospitalisement I tit ti Institutionalise li > *institutionalisement *i tit ti li t BUT BUT: treat t t > treatmeant t t t accomplish > accomplishment adjust > adjustment

Productivity of affixes
z Example of semantic productivity of affixes. restriction on the

{ The suffix ess attaches primarily to bases that denote HUMAN BEINGS or HIGHER ANIMALS. actor > actress li > lioness lion li BUT BUT: theatre th t > *theatress *th t book > *bookess milk > *milkess

f.2 - Word formation

COMPOUNDING
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COMPOUNDING
z Compounds are formed by combining two or more words. z This is an extremely productive word-formation device in English g (less so in Spanish). ( )
2 members: high-speed moonlight 3 members: wildlife sanctuary 4 members: high-level expert group overcoat

COMPOUNDING
z Variable orthography: three ways of spelling English compounds: a. Spelled as one word: ashtray, windmill, hotline. b With a hyphen: fast-food, b. fast food ice-cold ice cold, call-girl. call girl c. Spelled separately: education minister. income tax increase,

COMPOUNDING
z Variable orthography: three ways of spelling English compounds.
{ No hard andfast rules for compound orthography in English (call girl, call-girl). { One O important i t t determinant d t i t of f the th spelling lli is i frequency f of ocurrence:

- Compounds that are infrequent are unlikely to be p as one word or to be hyphenated. yp spelled - Compounds that are very frequent are more likely to be spelled as one word.

Compound or syntactic construct?

z Observe the following pairs of expressions. Try to figure out their meaning:
a blackboard a bluebell a redcoat a blackbird a black board a blue bell a red coat a black bird

Compound

Meaning

Syntactic construct a black board

Meaning

a blackboard

a board for writing on with chalk (pizarra) a plant which has blue flowers in the shape of a bell (campanilla) bell a British soldier in the 18th and 19th centuries (un casaca roja) a bird with black feathers and a bright yellow beak in the male and brown feathers in the female (mirlo)

a board which is black in colour a bell which is blue in colour a coat which is red in colour a bird which is black in colour colour

a bluebell

a blue bell

a redcoat

a red coat

a blackbird

a black bird

Compound or syntactic construct?

z Stress pattern: unlike syntactic constructs, compounds are regularly stressed on the lefthand element. Compare (the stressed syllable is typed in capital letters):
a BLACKboard a BLUEbell a REDcoat a BLACKbird a black BARD a blue BELL a red COAT a black BIRD

Structure of compounds
z Morphemes are attached successively, and not simultaneously, to each other. z Compounds can be described as BINARY STRUCTURES, i.e. as entities with two structural units (a left-hand constituent and a right-hand constituent).
{ Each constituent can be complex in itself, i.e. it can be further divided into two smaller constituents. wild + life > wildlife wildlife + sanctuary > wildlife sanctuary

Structure of compounds
wildlife sanctuary Observe that the meaning of wildlife sancturay y is a sanctuary y for wildlife, not a sanctuary for the life in the wild.

wildlife

wild

life

Hence, we first create the word wildlife and then combine this compound with sancturay to f a more complex l (th (threesanctuary form word) compound. THE ORDER OF ATTACHMENT MATTERS!!

Structure of compounds
z Next question: The role each constituent plays in a compound.
z Consider the following compound: houseplant
{ What is the contribution of house to the meaning of the whole compound? { Is a houseplant a kind of plant or a kind of house?

Structure of compounds
z Next question: The role each constituent plays in a compound.
z Now consider the following compound: plant house
{ What is the contribution of plant to the meaning of the whole compound? { Is a plant house a kind of plant or a kind of house?

Structure of compounds
z Houseplant = a plant which is grown in a container inside a house or other building. Here, house specifies the meaning of plant. z Plant house = a structure in which plants are kept or grown.
Here, plant specifies the meaning of house.

Structure of compounds
z Now consider the compound colour-blind (= Sp. daltnico).
{ What is the contribution of blind to the grammatical features of the whole compound?

z Compare:
compound word class of word-class constituents N A A N N V word class of the word-class whole compound N N V

glasshouse small talk p y deep-fry

Structure of compounds
z Headedness p above, { In the examples
z the left-hand element modifies the meaning of the right-hand element; z and the word-class of the compound is the same as the word-class of the right-hand element.

{ Generally, compounds have one element that is semantically and grammatically more important than the other elements. { This element is called the head.

Structure of compounds
z Headedness and binarity:
{ In general, English compounds can be described as consisting i i of f a modifier difi and d a head h d. { The head determines the word-class of the whole compound. compound { The modifier provides additional information about the meaning of the head (the verb deep deep-fry fry describes a method of frying food, not a way of being deep). y the head of a compound p is the right-hand g { Normally, element. However, there are exceptions to this: passer-by (Sg.) passers-by (Pl.)

Structure of compounds
z Most compounds in English are headed (endocentric), i.e. they consist of a head and a modifier, e.g. glasshouse, colour-blind. z However, not all compounds are headed. Relatively few English compounds are nonheaded (exocentric). - E.g. lazybones (= someone who is lazy). neither
word is clearly y the head of the compound. p - Another example: parent-teacher (Adj.), as in parent-teacher conferences.

f.3 - Word formation

CONVERSION
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CONVERSION
z Strategy: change the word-class of the base without any change in form z Extremely productive in English. BASE a cage (N) to flirt (V) professional (A) empty (A) DERIVATIVE to cage (V) a flirt (N) a professional (N) to empty (V)

CONVERSION
z How can we conversion? determine the direction of

water (N) water (V) or water (V) water (N)

CONVERSION
z How can we determine the direction of conversion? z Usually, the derivative is semantically more complex th the than th base. b { Therefore, Th f water t (N) is i the th base b and d water t (V) is i the th derivative, rather than the other way round. { The meaning of the verb water, pour water on to plants , is more complex than the meaning of the plants noun water (the meaning of water (N) is contained within water ( (V), ), but not conversely). y)

f.4 - Word formation

SHORTENING
93

SHORTENING
z Strategy: form new items by deleting linguistic material instead of adding it.

z Types: T
a) Truncation b) Blending c) ) Abbreviation Abb i ti

SHORTENING > Truncation

z Truncation: name truncations and clippings. { Process = deleting a part of the base word. { Highly productive with names as a means of expressing familiarity. e.g. Patricia Pat, Trish z Truncated words other than truncated names are called clippings li i . e.g. laboratory lab

SHORTENING > Blends

z Blending: { Unlike truncation, blends involve more than one word. { Twofold process - deleting d l i parts of f two bases b or only l of f one base b - combining the remaining parts into a new word.

SHORTENING > Blends

z Blending. Examples: BASES motor + hotel breakfast + lunch smoke + fog situation + comedy parachute + troops DERIVATIVES motel brunch smog sitcom paratroops

SHORTENING > Abbreviations

z Abbreviations: { Words formed by combining only the initial letters of multiword lti d combinations. bi ti { Thus, deletion in abbreviations is more radical than in clippings or blends. blends All parts of the base words except the initial letters are deleted. { Two subtypes: a) Initialisms b) Acronyms

SHORTENING > Abbreviations

SHORTENING > Abbreviations

z Initialisms:

SHORTENING > Abbreviations

z Acronyms:

f) Word formation

SUMMING UP
102

WORD-FORMATION DEVICES: A RECAP

I. CONCATENATIVE PROCESSES
(adding some morphological material to a given form) I.1. Affixation I.1.1. Prefixation I.1.2. Suffixation I.1.3. Infixation* (not relevant in English) I.2. Compounding I.2.1. Endocentric/Headed compounds I 2 2 Exocentric/Non I.2.2. Exocentric/Non-headed headed compounds

WORD-FORMATION DEVICES: A RECAP

II. NON-CONCATENATIVE PROCESSES
(no addition of morphological material to the base) II.1. Conversion/Zero-derivation/Zero-affixation II.2. Shortening II.2.1. Name truncation and clipping pp g II.2.2. Blends II.2.3. Abbreviations a) Initialisms b) Acronyms

Word formation: practice activity Word-formation:

For each of the words in bold type, indicate the kind of word-formation strategy employed:
a) That kind of remark only ups the stress for everyone. b) The VX2000 is about as big as you want a handheld camcorder to be. c) One band expressed a desire to start a fanzine based around The Smiths. Smiths

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Word formation: practice activity Word-formation:

For each of the words in bold type, indicate the kind of word-formation strategy employed:
a) That kind of remark only ups the stress for everyone. (Conversion: verb from preposition) b) The VX2000 is about as big as you want a handheld camcorder to be. (Shortening, blend: camera + recorder) c) One band expressed a desire to start a fanzine based around The Smiths. (Shortening, blend: fan + magazine)

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Word formation: practice activity Word-formation:

For each of the words in bold type, indicate the kind of word-formation strategy employed:
d) On 9 december 2011, Croatia signed the EU accession treaty. e) The UN was founded in 1945 after World War II to replace the League of Nations. f) It is in easy reach of the auditorium's dress circle and upper circle areas. areas

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Word formation: practice activity Word-formation:

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Word formation: practice activity Word-formation:

For each of the words in bold type, indicate the kind of word-formation strategy employed:
g) This is providing an entirely new understanding of causation and treatment of many diseases. h) The teachers say the tests are misconceived. i) I texted her to arrange a time to meet.

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Word formation: practice activity Word-formation:

For each of the words in bold type, indicate the kind of word-formation strategy employed:
g) This is providing an entirely new understanding of causation and treatment of many diseases. (Affixation, (Affixation prefixation) h) The teachers say the tests are misconceived. (Affixation, prefixation) i) I texted her to arrange a time to meet. (Conversion: verb from noun)

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Word formation: practice activity Word-formation:

For each of the words in bold type, indicate the kind of word-formation strategy employed:
j) He is a college-educated man from an old WASP family. k) There is certainly a plethora of Bangkok tourist info available to you. l) If you want to know what the weather will be like this evening, ask Dave.

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Word formation: practice activity Word-formation:

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