1

Outline briefly the main principles of the use of magnetic resonance to obtain information
about internal body structures.

Sh
aky
a

.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................

an
dr
ea
rra
ng
ed
by
Sa
jit
Ch
an
dra

.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................. [8]

Co
mp
ile
d

UCLES 2008

9702/04/M/J/08

For
Examiners
Use

2 (a)

Explain the main principles behind the use of ultrasound to obtain diagnostic information
about internal body structures.

aky
a

..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................

Sh

..........................................................................................................................................

nd
ra

..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................

ha

..........................................................................................................................................

aji
tC

.................................................................................................................................... [4]
(b) Data for the acoustic impedances and absorption (attenuation) coefficients of muscle
and bone are given in Fig. 11.1.
absorption coefficient
/ m1

1.7 106
6.3 106

23
130

rra
ng
e

db

muscle
bone

yS

acoustic impedance
/ kg m2 s1

Fig. 11.1

The intensity reflection coefficient is given by the expression

rea

(Z2 Z1)2
.
(Z2 + Z1)2

da
nd

The attenuation of ultrasound in muscle follows a similar relation to the attenuation of

X-rays in matter.
A parallel beam of ultrasound of intensity I enters the surface of a layer of muscle of
thickness 4.1 cm as shown in Fig. 11.2.

Co

mp

ile

muscle

beam of
ultrasound

4.1 cm
Fig. 11.2

UCLES 2009

9702/04/M/J/09

bone

For
Examiners
Use

The ultrasound is reflected at a muscle-bone boundary and returns to the surface of the
muscle.

the intensity reflection coefficient at the muscle-bone boundary,

ha

nd
ra

Sh

(i)

aky
a

Calculate

the fraction of the incident intensity that is transmitted from the surface of the muscle
to the surface of the bone,

rra
ng
e

db

yS

(ii)

aji
tC

coefficient = ............................................... [2]

fraction = ............................................... [2]

the intensity, in terms of I, that is received back at the surface of the muscle.

intensity = ............................................ I [2]

Co

mp

ile

da
nd

rea

(iii)

UCLES 2009

9702/04/M/J/09

For
Examiners
Use

(a) State what is meant by acoustic impedance.

aky
a

..........................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................[1]

Sh

(b) Explain why acoustic impedance is important when considering reflection of ultrasound
at the boundary between two media.
..........................................................................................................................................

nd
ra

..........................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................[2]

ha

(c) Explain the principles behind the use of ultrasound to obtain diagnostic information
about structures within the body.

aji
tC

..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................

yS

..........................................................................................................................................

db

..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................

rra
ng
e

..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................

Co

mp

ile

da
nd

rea

......................................................................................................................................[5]

UCLES 2007

9702/04/O/N/07

For
Examiners
Use

4 (a)

Distinguish between the images produced by CT scanning and X-ray imaging.

Sh
aky
a

..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................... [3]

Ch
an
dra

(b) By reference to the principles of CT scanning, suggest why CT scanning could not be
developed before powerful computers were available.
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................

jit

..........................................................................................................................................

Sa

..........................................................................................................................................

by

..........................................................................................................................................

Co

mp

ile
d

an

dr

ea

rra

ng

ed

...................................................................................................................................... [5]

UCLES 2008

9702/04/O/N/08

For
Examiners
Use

Outline briefly the main principles of the use of magnetic resonance to obtain diagnostic
information about internal body structures.

Sh
aky
a

.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................

an
dr
ea
rra
ng
ed
by
Sa
jit
Ch
an
dra

.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................

Co
mp
ile
d

........................................................................................................................................... [6]

UCLES 2009

9702/41/O/N/09

For
Examiners
Use

A typical spectrum of the X-ray radiation produced by electron bombardment of a metal

target is illustrated in Fig. 10.1.

Sh
aky
a

6 (a)

Ch
an
dra

intensity

wavelength

Fig. 10.1

a continuous spectrum of wavelengths is produced,

Sa

(i)

jit

Explain why

..................................................................................................................................

by

..................................................................................................................................

ed

..................................................................................................................................

the spectrum has a sharp cut-off at short wavelengths.

rra

(ii)

ng

............................................................................................................................ [3]

..................................................................................................................................

Co

mp

ile
d

an

dr

ea

............................................................................................................................ [1]

UCLES 2009

9702/42/O/N/09

For
Examiners
Use

Sh
aky
a

(b) The variation with photon energy E of the linear absorption coefficient  of X-rays in soft
tissue is illustrated in Fig. 10.2.
300

/ cm1

100

0
50

30

10

Ch
an
dra

200

70

Explain what is meant by linear absorption coefficient

by

(i)

Sa

Fig. 10.2

jit

E / keV

ed

..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................

ng

..................................................................................................................................

For one particular application of X-ray imaging, electrons in the X-ray tube are
accelerated through a potential difference of 50 kV.

ea

(ii)

rra

............................................................................................................................ [3]

dr

Use Fig. 10.2 to explain why it is advantageous to filter out low-energy photons
from the X-ray beam.

an

..................................................................................................................................

ile
d

..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................

Co

mp

............................................................................................................................ [3]

UCLES 2009

9702/42/O/N/09

For
Examiners
Use

Explain the main principles behind the generation of ultrasound to obtain diagnostic
information about internal body structures.

For
Examiners
Use

.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................

Sh
ak
ya

.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................

ra

.................................................................................................................................................

Ch
an
d

.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................

jit

.................................................................................................................................................

Sa

.................................................................................................................................................

by

.................................................................................................................................................

ed

.................................................................................................................................................

Co
mp

ile
da

nd
r

ea
r

ra

ng

........................................................................................................................................... [6]

UCLES 2010

9702/43/M/J/10

[Turn over

8 (a)

Briefly explain the principles of CT scanning.

..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................

Sh
ak
ya

..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................

ra

..........................................................................................................................................

Ch
an
d

..........................................................................................................................................

Co
mp

ile
da

nd
r

ea
r

ra

ng

ed

by

Sa

jit

...................................................................................................................................... [6]

UCLES 2010

9702/41/M/J/10

For
Examiners
Use

(b) A simple section through a body consists of four voxels, as illustrated in Fig. 10.1.

For
Examiners
Use

section

Sh
ak
ya

directions
of viewing

ra

Fig. 10.1

34

31

jit

22

by

Sa

25

Ch
an
d

An X-ray image of the section is obtained by viewing along each of the directions shown
in Fig. 10.1.
The detector readings for each direction of viewing are summed to give the pattern of
readings shown in Fig. 10.2.

ed

Fig. 10.2

For the pattern of readings of Fig. 10.2, state the magnitude of the background
reading.

ra

(i)

ng

For any one direction, the total of the detector readings is 16.

nd
r

On Fig. 10.1, mark the pattern of pixels for the four-voxel section.

[2]

Co
mp

ile
da

(ii)

ea
r

background reading = ................................................ [1]

UCLES 2010

9702/41/M/J/10

[Turn over

20
10 (a) (i)

State what is meant by the acoustic impedance of a medium.

..................................................................................................................................

For
Examiners
Use

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

330
1500
1600
4100

4.3 102
1.5 106
1.6 106
7.0 106

air
gel
soft tissue
bone

ha
k

acoustic impedance
/ kg m2 s1

aS

speed of ultrasound
/ m s1

dr

medium

ya

Data for some media are given in Fig. 10.1.

an

(ii)

Ch

Fig. 10.1

density = .................................... kg m3 [1]

rra

ng

ed

by

Sa

jit

Use data from Fig. 10.1 to calculate a value for the density of bone.

boundary

dr

ea

(b) A parallel beam of ultrasound has intensity I. It is incident at right-angles to a boundary

between two media, as shown in Fig. 10.2.

transmitted
intensity IT

reflected
intensity IR

acoustic impedance Z1

acoustic impedance Z2

Co
m

pi

le
d

an

incident
intensity I

Fig. 10.2

(i)

State the relation between I, IT and IR.

The media have acoustic impedances of Z1 and Z2. The transmitted intensity of the
ultrasound beam is IT and the reflected intensity is IR.

.............................................................................................................................. [1]
UCLES 2010

9702/41/O/N/10

21
(ii)

The reflection coefficient a is given by the expression

a=

For
Examiners
Use

(Z2 Z1)2
.
(Z2 + Z1)2

gel and soft tissue,

jit

Ch

an

dr

aS

1.

ha
k

ya

Use data from Fig. 10.1 to determine the reflection coefficient a for a boundary
between

air and soft tissue.

ea

rra

ng

ed

by

2.

Sa

a = .................................................. [2]

dr

a = .................................................. [1]

an

(c) By reference to your answers in (b)(ii), explain the use of a gel on the surface of skin
during ultrasound diagnosis.

le
d

..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................

pi

..........................................................................................................................................

Co
m

...................................................................................................................................... [3]

UCLES 2010

9702/41/O/N/10

[Turn over

19
Section B

For
Examiners
Use

Answer all the questions in the spaces provided.

(a) (i)

State, with reference to X-ray images, what is meant by sharpness.

ya

ha
k

..................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [1]
Describe briefly two factors that affect the sharpness of an X-ray image.

aS

(ii)

dr

1. ...............................................................................................................................

an

..................................................................................................................................

Ch

2. ...............................................................................................................................

jit

..................................................................................................................................
[3]

by

Sa

(b) An X-ray image is taken of the skull of a patient. Another patient has a CT scan of
his head.
By reference to the formation of the image in each case, suggest why the exposure to
radiation differs between the two imaging techniques.

ed

..........................................................................................................................................

ng

..........................................................................................................................................

rra

..........................................................................................................................................

ea

..........................................................................................................................................

Co
m

pi

le
d

an

dr

...................................................................................................................................... [4]

UCLES 2010

9702/43/O/N/10

[Turn over

22
11 The linear attenuation (absorption) coefficient for X-ray radiation in bone, fat and muscle is
given in Fig. 11.1.
/ cm1
2.9
0.90
0.95

ya

bone
fat
muscle

ha
k

Fig. 11.1

an

dr

I
for a thickness of
I0

1.5 cm of bone,

4.6 cm of muscle.

ratio = ................................................ [1]

pi

le
d

an

dr

ea

rra

(ii)

ratio = ................................................ [2]

ng

ed

by

Sa

jit

Ch

(i)

aS

(a) A parallel X-ray beam of intensity I0 is incident either on some bone or on some
muscle.
The emergent beam has intensity I.
Calculate the ratio

Co
m

(b) Suggest why, on an X-ray plate, the contrast between bone and muscle is much greater
than that between fat and muscle.
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................... [3]

UCLES 2010

9702/43/O/N/10

For
Examiners
Use

20
10 (a) State what is meant by the acoustic impedance Z of a medium.
..........................................................................................................................................

For
Examiners
Use

...................................................................................................................................... [1]

(Z2 Z1)2
(Z2 + Z1)2

aS
ha

ky
a

(b) Two media have acoustic impedances Z1 and Z2.

The intensity reflection coefficient for the boundary between the two media is given
by
.

dr

Describe the effect on the transmission of ultrasound through a boundary where there is
a large difference between the acoustic impedances of the two media.

an

..........................................................................................................................................

Ch

..........................................................................................................................................

jit

..........................................................................................................................................

Sa

...................................................................................................................................... [3]

ed

by

(c) Data for the acoustic impedance Z and the absorption coefficient for fat and for muscle
are shown in Fig. 10.1.

ng

Z / kg m2 s1

re
a

rra

fat
muscle

1.3 106
1.7 106

/ m1
48
23

Fig. 10.1

Co
m
pi

le

da
nd

The thickness x of the layer of fat on an animal, as illustrated in Fig. 10.2, is to be

investigated using ultrasound.
surface S
fat

incident
ultrasound

x
Fig. 10.2

UCLES 2011

9702/41/M/J/11

muscle

21
The intensity of the parallel ultrasound beam entering the surface S of the layer of fat is I.
The beam is reflected from the boundary between fat and muscle.
The intensity of the reflected ultrasound detected at the surface S of the fat is 0.012 I.
Calculate
the intensity reflection coefficient at the boundary between the fat and the muscle,

an

dr

aS
ha

ky
a

(i)

For
Examiners
Use

the thickness x of the layer of fat.

x = .......................................... cm [3]

Co
m
pi

le

da
nd

re
a

rra

ng

ed

by

Sa

jit

(ii)

Ch

coefficient = .................................................. [2]

UCLES 2011

9702/41/M/J/11

[Turn over

22
10 Explain briefly the main principles of the use of magnetic resonance to obtain diagnostic
information about internal body structures.

For
Examiners
Use

.................................................................................................................................................

ky
a

.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................

aS
ha

.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................

dr

.................................................................................................................................................

an

.................................................................................................................................................

Ch

.................................................................................................................................................

jit

.................................................................................................................................................

Sa

.................................................................................................................................................

Co
m
pi

le

da
nd

re
a

rra

ng

ed

by

........................................................................................................................................... [8]

UCLES 2011

9702/42/M/J/11