Assessment 1 Parts 1 & 2

All use group 2 data

Hand in at 10am on Tuesday 16th October in LT (beginning of the lecture)

Time Distance Plots

Step Discontinuity eg caused by a fault

A vertical step causes an offset on the travel time plot The gradient stays the same

Diffractions link the two head wave curves

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Dt

When offset is small wrt depth of refractor the offset Dz can be calculated from Dt.
2 Dz v2 v12 Dt v1 v2

Dz is the vertical throw of the fault

Dz

Dtv1 v2
2 v2 v12
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Non planar interface

How will this affect the t x plot?

Plus Minus method for non planar interface

Non planar interface

Use Delay Times again

At shot, extra time needed to go AB compared to CB At receiver, extra time needed to go DE compared to DF
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Concept of Delay Time dt

Compare headwave travel time to travelling distance x at V2 At shot: extra time needed to go AB compared to CB At receiver: extra time needed to go DE compared to DF E

V2>V1

x x t t AB t BC t DE t DF d ts d tr v2 v2

d ts d tr

x t d ts d tr v2
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Plus Minus Method

Reciprocal time is the time from S1 to S2

t s1s 2

l d s1 d s 2 t s 2 s1 v2
Forward shot into detector

t s1D

x d s1 d D v2

Reverse shot into detector

ts 2 D

lx d s2 d D v2
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Plus Minus Method

Minus Term to estimate v2 Plot of minus terms vs 2x straight line with gradient of 1/v2

t s1D t s 2 D t s1D t s 2 D

2x l d s1 d s 2 v2 2x C v2

Plus Term to estimate delay s1D s 2 D time at detector and hence perpendicular t s1D t s 2 D t s1s 2 2d D depth to refractor 1

l d s1 d s 2 2d D v2

dD

t s1D t s 2 D t s1s 2
v2v1
2 v2 v12

z perp d d

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Repeat for each detector

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Seismic Refraction Experiment to determine topography of underlying rock layer

Reciprocal time 90 ms

v1 = 0.28 km/s

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Distance (m) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115

Forward shot Reverse Shot T (ms) T (ms) Minus term 0 90 20 87.5 40 87 50 86 -36 51 84 -33 53 82.5 -29.5 56 80 -24 57 78 -21 60 77 -17 62 74 -12 63 71 -8 64 68 -4 65 67 -2 67 64 3 69 62.5 6.5 70 62 8 72.5 61 11.5 75 60 15 79 59.5 19.5 82 59 23 84 59 25 87 51 89 30 90 8

Gradient = 2/v2 = 0.73 v2 = 2.74 km/s

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z perp d d
Distance (m) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 Forward shot Reverse Shot T (ms) T (ms) Minus term Plus term Delay time (ms) Depth (m) 0 90 1 d D t s1D t s 2 D t s1s 2 20 87.5 2 40 87 50 86 -36 136 23 6.48 51 84 -33 135 22.5 6.34 53 82.5 -29.5 135.5 22.75 6.41 56 80 -24 136 23 6.48 57 78 -21 135 22.5 6.34 60 77 -17 137 23.5 6.62 62 74 -12 136 23 6.48 63 71 -8 134 22 6.19 64 68 -4 132 21 5.91 65 67 -2 132 21 5.91 67 64 3 131 20.5 5.77 69 62.5 6.5 131.5 20.75 5.84 70 62 8 132 21 5.91 72.5 61 11.5 133.5 21.75 6.12 75 60 15 135 22.5 6.34 79 59.5 19.5 138.5 24.25 6.83 82 59 23 141 25.5 7.18 84 59 25 143 26.5 7.46 87 51 89 30 90 8

v2v1
2 v2 v12

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v1 = 0.28 km/s v2 = 2.74 km/s

Plus Minus Method: Depth of non planar first interface Refine V in the first layer (to detect lateral variations)

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Plus Minus Method Limitations Only for dips up to about 10 degrees Only applicable where refracted ray is first arrival so profile length should be long compared to xcross

If more than 2 layers limits useful length Assumes surface planar between points where ray leaves interface
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Generalised Reciprocal Method GRM

Pairs of rays are chosen that leave the interface at the same location. More powerful method than plus minus method
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Other Processing
Seismic traces at each detector must be processed prior to analysis

Data can be filtered to remove unwanted noise

Elevation Correction

Applied by shifting the travel times to a common reference level, based on the measured elevation of the detectors and shot
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Weathered layer Correction

Can be highly variable along the profile line.
As the base of the weathered layer represents a velocity increase, this interface is a good refractor. Therefore, seismic refraction surveys are used to map the base of the weathered layer. requires short profile lines with closely spaced detectors. Once the thickness and velocity of the weathered layer are known, a time correction can be applied to each detector to account for the time delay due to the weathered layer for a larger scale survey.

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Seismic Refraction Studies

Used to resolve lateral changes in depth to refractor and the seismic velocity within it Determine velocity for the upper 100m in reflection seismic surveying (static corrections) Foundation studies for engineering purposes depth to bed rock, buried channels Rock strength and rippability Finding the water level in arid environment Hazardous waste disposal detecting faults, joints etc Research: Large tectonic scale problems, like mountain building, subduction, basements,
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MAPPING BEDROCK SURFACE

Purpose: Proposed landfill construction at the site required knowledge of the bedrock surface topography.

Results: The interpreted bedrock depths closely matched existing boring information in the area. The survey was able to provide bedrock 23 and depths along the entire traverse, filling in information between beyond the borings.

Surveys on Water

Useful for proposed tunnel routes, eg sewerage under a harbour

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Seismic Refraction Case Studies

Depth to bedrock at the location where a pipeline was planned to cross a creek. DC resistivity data were also collected at this location.
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Example Seismogram
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Model derived using GRM

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We have been dealing with the INVERSE problem

The forward problem RAY TRACING

1. Guess velocities and geometry and produce ray paths and tx plots by using Snells law at each interface 2. Calculate amplitudes take account of attenuation

3. Produce synthetic seismogram

4. Iterate till synthetic seismogram matches real one

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Ray tracing is particularly good for complex geology such as: Horizontal or vertical velocity gradients within layers,

Highly irregular or steeply dipping refractor interfaces

Discontinuous layers.

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Carboniferous Limestone
Palaeozoic Sedimentary Sequence

Precambrian Basement

Refraction profile refracted ray paths between quarries in south Wales. This model accounts for the measured travel times of refracted arrivals observed along the profile

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Large Scale Crustal Structure Study Funck et al. 2003

Rifted Margin Newfoundland continental margin conjugate to Iberia margin Is the continental mantle serpentinised similar to Iberia? What is the amount and distribution of crustal extension? Is there evidence for significant magmatism?
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Experiment Set Up
320 km line across Flemish Cap into Newfoundland Basin 2 ship operation:- OBS and air gun array Array of 20 air guns. Shot spacing 200m

29 OBS station, spacing 21 km in shallow water and 8 km in Basin

Method
Forward and Inverse modelling to get a velocity model
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Velocity Model

Major differences to Iberia margin

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Resolution of the Model How good is the synthetic data compared to the actual?
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Seismic Refraction - Summary

Seismograms and time distance plots - equations

How to carry out a survey

Limitations Multi horizontal layers Dipping Layers Plus Minus method for undulating surface

Ray Tracing the forward problem

Case Studies
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Reflection Seismology
Most extensively used geophysical exploration method. Ultimate goal is to get detailed structural image of the Earth Oil/gas exploration Tectonics
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Geological Section
A

Profile

Depth C D

Seismic Section
Profile A

E
B C D

TWTT

TWTT = two way travel time

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Refraction

Snells Law

Reflection
i1 i2

sin i1 sin i2 v1 v1
= ray parameter p

i1 =i2

Reflection Angle = Incident Angle

The ray parameter stays constant regardless of Reflection, or Refraction, or Conversion.

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Critical Refraction

i v1 ic ic r

v1

v2>v1

v2>v1
If incident angle i > ic then no energy is refracted in to the second layer.

Total Internal Reflection

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What causes a reflection?

A change in ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE Z
Acoustic Impedance = Seismic Velocity x Density

Units kg m s-1 m-3 If two layers have the same Z then there is no reflection. All energy is transmitted in to the second layer.

This does not mean that the two layers have the same velocity and density just the same vr 42

Normal Incidence
Incident Ray Reflected Ray

v1,r1
Transmitted Ray AI = Amplitude of Incident Ray AR = Amplitude of Reflected Ray AT = Amplitude of Transmitted Ray
Reflection Coefficient R = AR/ AI

r2v2 r1v1
Z2 Z1

v2,r2

Transmission Coefficient 43 T = AT/ AI

The amount of energy that is reflected and transmitted depends on:

Angle between incidence and interface The acoustic impedance Z of each layer

They are given by the Zoeppritz Equations. For normal incidence, Reflection and Transmission coefficients (R&T) are quite easy to compute:

AR Z 2 Z1 r 2v2 r1v1 R AI Z 2 Z1 r 2v2 r1v1 AT 2 r1v1 2Z1 T AI r1v1 r 2v2 Z1 Z 2

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AR Z 2 Z1 r 2v2 r1v1 R AI Z 2 Z1 r 2v2 r1v1

1 R 1

R = 0 all energy is transmitted Z1 = Z2 R = 1 all energy is reflected R is negative when Z2 < Z1 R with ve value waveform is inverted

Phase change of 180 degrees at incidence

R = +1 if Z1 = 0 R = -1 if Z2 = 0

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R = -1 Vs = 0 Z2 = 0 Z1 S wave R -1 Pwave Rock Air interface Sea Air interface Sea Ocean Floor

AR Z 2 Z1 R 1 AI Z 2 Z1

Between different rock types: R typically 0.2 R rarely > 0.5

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Transmission coefficient

AT 2 r1v1 2Z1 T AI r1v1 r 2v2 Z1 Z 2

Transmitted wave has the same phase as the incident wave

0T 2 R T 1

Inside Earth Z1 Z2 so R is small and T 1

Therefore most energy is transmitted at each interface. This is how we can see more than 1 layer

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Acoustic Impedance and Reflectivity Coefficient Logs

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Sandstone

Can work out what the seismic record looks like

Granite Basement

If Ai = 1

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Two way Travel time TWTT

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More than 2 layers

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Recap
Seismic Reflection most important and widely used tool for detailed imaging of approx horizontal layers Results closest of any geophysical technique to a geological section BUT there are differences

Seismic section is with respect to time not distance.

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High-resolution reflection section showing faulted dipping structure of copper ore sediments (yellow) at interface of shale and conglomerate sediments. Copper mineralization originated in lower basaltic flows (blue).

Seismic Source: Bison EWG-4; geophone spacing: 20 feet.

Processed and Interpreted Seismic Section

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Example from marine seismic exploration in the Gulf of Corinth The seabed (SB) gives a strong reflection, and multiple reflections are quite strong (SBM1 and SBM2) and obscure other reflections from greater depth.

Not a realistic representation of the sub surface

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If have a seismic section to interpret possible concerns 1. Events not shown in their true position in time or depth 2. Reflection response differences can cause apparent bedding changes

3. Noise interferes with and masks signal

Seismic processing addresses these issues but when you interpret a seismic section still need to be aware
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Seismic Reflection Processing

Powerful tool to convert raw data (signal and noise) to meaningful seismic cross-sections that represent vertical slices through the subsurface.

Cant solve all problems eg poor data resolution / errors / faulty equipment.
The geophysicist is the major factor in the quality and the validity of the processed data.

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