CHAPTER TWO: A UNITARY REALITY

"And as all things are from the One, by the meditation of One, so all things have their birth from this
One Thing by adaptation.
Hermes (Mercurius) Trismegistus, The Emerald Tablet.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
It has been alluded to in the previous chapter that worldviews shape the interpretation of
all human experience. Furthermore, presently there is a division between inner and
outer worldviews where individual experiences seemingly become negligible in
comparison to socio-cultural and global doctrines and issues. The tendency to trivialise
individual accounts of diverse intrapersonal and transpersonal experiences in current
scientific analysis compared to socio-cultural investigation is perpetuated by the
empirical requirements of positivistic methodology and materialistic pragmatism since
the nature of these experiences is abstract and for the most part unobservable.
Paradoxically, this assertion is affirmed by quantum physicist Goswami (1993:1) who
states, We have come to accept materialism dogmatically, despite its failure to account
for the most familiar experiences of our daily lives. In short, we have an inconsistent
worldview (Goswami, 1993:1).

Bohm (1983:1), a theoretical and quantum physicist, additionally refers to an increasing
trend of fragmentation in science and a resultant confusion of minds. This
fragmentation also relates to the incongruent partitioning of science versus the lived
experiences of individuals. What is needed is awareness that wholeness is what is real,
and that fragmentation is a response of this whole to mans actions guided by
illusionary perception, which is shaped by fragmentary thought (Bohm, 1983:7). He
(Bohm, 1983:176) states, To begin with undivided wholeness means, however, that we
must drop the mechanistic order, and use imaginative and intuitive ways to resolve the
many problems created by scientific fragmentation (Bohm, 1983:177).

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What is hence noticeable, despite the disregard in certain scientific schools of
experiential yet ineffable intrapersonal and transpersonal phenomena, is that both
layperson and scientist are engaged in the pursuit of holistic, inclusive and feasible
realities. This quest necessitates the re-visiting and possible integration or re-integration
of certain constructs in both the social and scientific paradigms and ideologies.

In accord with these interpretations, Peat (2003), Ward (2002), Aerts et al (1994), and
Taylor (1994) state that ever since Einstein (1879-1955), theoretical physicists have
been seeking, with growing though not decisive success, a unified theory that would
reduce all forces of nature to one type of force, to which matter itself would be
reducible. Ward (2002:3) states that physicists are searching for the synthesis of
everything that exists, and Peat (2003) asserts that the foundation of such a GUT (grand
unified theory), TOE (theory of everything) or also referred to as universality by Ward
(2002), is very specialised and technical, and yet also philosophical.

The search for a grand unifying theory or the theory of everything is not a new quest by
any means. Plato (428-348 BC), the Greek mathematician and philosopher, argued that
the world of ideas represents a deeper, truer and unified world of which physical reality
is but a poor copy (Robertson, 1995:xi). According to Plato (cited in Robertson,
1995:xii), all manifestations of the physical reality could be reduced to a single unified
world of ideas. Generally, Platos concept has been both disregarded and refuted by
the modern reductionistic scientific community and labelled as idealistic and romantic
by contemporary philosophers. Ironically, twenty-first century theoretical and quantum
physicists, although using different jargon, are once more seeking an all-encompassing
theory, and the smallest indivisible particle forming the basis of everything. Ostensibly,
scientific inquiry has moved full-circle.

Philosophical idealism and unifying theories are thus re-emerging. For example, the
ideas of Pythagoras (569-475 BC) and Plato (428-348 BC) reappeared in the archetypal
hypothesis of psychologist C. G. J ung, who once again espoused the Platonic
philosophy that beyond both the outer physical world and the inner world of the psyche
lies a world of ideals (Robertson, 1995:xiii). J ung (1965) referred to this unitary reality
as the unus mundus or objective unitary world and argued that all humans possess an
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innate, unifying and archetypal mental and psychic structure through which this reality
can be experienced.

This chapter will explore and delineate a selection of constructs regarding unifying
theories drawn from diverse and deep ranges of multi-disciplinary sources in an attempt
to represent both their archaic origin and universal application. It should be borne in
mind that the theoretical terrain of this study is myriad and diverse, hence discussing all
the theories in detail would be impossible. Providing a smorgasbord would do injustice
to the richness and miscellany of the history of communication studies and inquiry.
Alternatively, due to the eclectic demand of this study, the most pertinent and relevant
unifying and archetypal theories and constructs will be identified in the endeavour to
underscore the juxtaposition of archetypal mental structures and communication
symbols of the Self. Consequently, the exploration will encompass the following:

The demarcation of the nature of unifying theories, their archetypal roots and the
contemporary theoretical standing of their symbolic representation sourced from
selected Western, Eastern, and African worldviews and cosmologies. Egyptian and
San symbolic representations will form the Ancient African keystones of the search
for the archetypal roots of unifying theories. Western archetypal perspectives will
be sourced from depth psychology, transpersonal mysticism, quantum physics and a
branch of evolutionary biology, namely memetics. An exploration of Eastern
perspectives will include Hinduism and Buddhism. These perspectives and
disciplines have been selected because of the availability and diversity of sources. It
is proposed that an understanding of the constructs of unifying and archetypal
theories will facilitate the grounding in communication studies of J ungs (1965)
assertion that that all humans possess an innate, and archetypal mental and psychic
structure through which a universal and archaic symbolic reality seated in the
collective unconscious can be perceived and experienced.
An examination of archetypal and transpersonal constructs in current
communication theory as representations of unifying theories regarding selfhood.
This will facilitate the anchoring of theoretical constructs and derived axiomatic
assumptions regarding the Self and its universal and archetypal symbolic
representations during the process of intrapsychic communication.
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The differentiation of shades of meaning between the concepts of an archetypal,
universal, transpersonal, or transcendent reality. Although these terms could be
categorised collectively in terms of their association with an ultimate and objective
reality, fine distinctions in meaning and application may go unnoticed.
2.2 A UNITARY REALITY
In addition to and prior to Plato, several philosophers and scientists articulated the idea
of a unitary reality underlying all human awareness which is currently generally referred
to as philosophical idealism and romanticism. For example, pre-Socratic philosophy
(650-500 BC), including the Pythagoreans and Atomists, questioned the basic
permeating principle and the primal substance from which the world was created
(Delius, Gatzemeier, Sertcan & Wnscher, 2000:6).

However, the Renaissance signalled a critical point in the history of Western, European
thought with a new emphasis on the scientific, measurable and practical details of the
physical world. This marked a transition from myth to logos where mythological
interpretations were increasingly considered irrational and iniquitous, and replaced by
mathematical, scientific and rational explanations of the world. With this
anthropocentric and empiricist turn, the thoughts of the Humanists and specifically,
Descartes dominated Western culture (Robertson, 1995:xii). Conversely, the new
Renaissance ideal slowly evolved and transformed, going so far in this new direction
that it came around the corner and arrived back where it had left Pythagoras and
Plato (Robertson, 1995:xii).

Robertson (1995:xiii) asserts that J ung expanded upon the universal Platonic ideas or
ideals which he initially referred to as primordial images. These primordial images he
later referred to as archetypes of the collective unconscious. The collective unconscious
represents both a component of and portal to said unitary reality since the archetypes
embody innate mental structures which facilitate access to this reality.

According to Lewis-Williams (2004:51), Italian jurist and classical scholar Vico (1668-
1744) also proposed that the human mind gives shape to the material world and that
there must be a universal language of the mind that is common to all communities.
Robertson (1995:33) asserts that the concept of an archetypal mental structure is
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reminiscent of Kants (1724-1804) postulation that humans have inherent mental
categories and structures through which experiences of reality are filtered. Moreover,
Kant was in agreement with Berkeley (1685-1753) that an outer reality could only be
experienced through the inner world of thoughts and feelings. Additionally, the
convergence of an inner and outer reality occurs by means of inherent mental structures.
Robertson (1995:33) points out that these assertions are similar to Bohms (1917-1992)
hypothesis that there is an implicate order from which the explicate order of the
physical world we know emerges. Bohm (1983:196) is of the opinion that
consciousness, including thought, feeling, desire and will, is to be understood in terms
of the implicate order, along with reality as a whole. In such an implicate order there
is the notion of unbroken wholeness in which consciousness is not separate from matter.

Ostensibly, authors representing diverse disciplines ranging from philosophy and
psychology to quantum physics have proposed the concept of an underlying, deeper
reality allied with an inner level of consciousness. Several terms were coined in
reference to this underlying reality, of which the most widely used in the social sciences
are the archetypal and unified reality theories. The nature of certain of the assumptions
related to archetypal theory needs closer investigation to ascertain their implications
and, consequently, their applicability to this study.
2.3 ARCHETYPAL THEORIES
The search for the conception and postulation of an archetypal theory yielded wide-
ranging and contradictory results. For example, the coining of the term is attributed to
the post-J ungian, post-modern psychologist J ames Hillman who began using the term in
1970. Griffin (1989:2) in general refers to archetypal psychology, a component of depth
psychology, which includes both J ung and neo- or post-J ungian psychology, but
specifically relates it to Hillman.

The term depth psychology, in turn, is translated form the German term
Tiefenpsychologie and was, according to Chalquist [sa], first used by Eugen Bleuler
(1857-1939), a Swiss psychiatrist. However, Meyer, Moore and Viljoen, (1997:43)
indicate that Freud is regarded as the father of depth psychology since the foundation
and most important branch of this school of psychological thought is psychoanalysis.
Meyer et al (1997:44) and Clark (1980:100) assert that this psychological approach
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started with the publication of a report by J osef Breuer, a psychiatrist, noting his cure
by conversation with a patient under spontaneous hypnosis, referred to as Anna O.
Breuer (quoted in Clark, 1980:100) was believed to have said that the treatment of Anna
O became the germ cell of the whole of psychoanalysis.

In view of the above statements, an exploration of depth psychology is necessary. Such
an exploration will facilitate the identification of concepts and constructs related to
archetypal and unifying theories, and their relationship to archetypal symbols of the Self
and communication theory. Berger and Metzgers (1984:278) explanation that the
notion of the self in communication theory, and the earliest interest in dimensions of
selfhood, came from social philosophers and psychologists established the
comparability between psychological concepts and communication theory.
2.3.1 DEPTH PSYCHOLOGY
Chalquist [sa] describes depth psychology as the ongoing development of theories and
therapies pioneered by J ung, Freud and Adler. He (Chalquist, [sa]) identifies the modern
version of this tripod as:
1) Psychoanalysis which includes Freud, object relations and Kohurts (1913-1981) Self
Psychology;
2) Adlerian, derived from Adlers (18701937) Individual Psychology; and
3) J ungian which includes J ungs Analytical Psychology and Hillmans Archetypal
Psychology.

According to Chalquist [sa], depth psychology has also been influenced both by
transpersonal psychology, which includes humanistic and Far Eastern currents, and
existentialism through the work of Rollo May (19091994) an existential psychologist
and his protg, Stephen Diamond, a clinical and forensic psychologist associated with
Psychology of Creativity.

J ung (1875-1961), Adler (1870-1937) and Freud (1856-1939) were contemporaries,
each forming their own branch or offshoot of psychology and inspiring extensive
developments, currently mostly grouped together as depth psychology. Meyer et al
(1997:46) state that each has its own theoretical framework concerning human
functioning and the human personality.
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2.3.1.1 Principal tenets of depth psychology
The fundamental hypothesis of depth psychology is that a persons inner, subjective
consciousness consists of various layers that differ in their depth and the extent to which
they are conscious or unconscious. The surface layers are experienced consciously
while the deeper layers are unconscious (Meyer et al, 1997:43).

Depth psychology places subjective experience at the centre of its theoretical and
clinical constructs and encompasses the fluctuating experiences of the individual in
relation to the environment. Concurrently, it recognises certain abiding psychic
functions and structures, which give expression to these subjective experiences. The
notion of abiding functions that are ubiquitous in all forms of psychoanalysis is based
on the observation that while people continually change, in important ways they remain
fundamentally the same (Ornstein, 1997).

The following selected, summarised assumptions, identified by Chalquist [sa] on which
depth psychology rests, seem of particular importance to the search for the birth and
nature of archetypal theory:
The psyche is partially conscious and unconscious. The unconscious contains
repressed experiences and other personal-level issues in its upper layers, and
transpersonal or collective and archetypal forces in its depths.
The psyche is irreducible to either neurochemistry or some higher spiritual reality: It
is a third between matter and spirit that must be taken on its own terms. This
principle is known as psychic objectivity (J ung, Edinger cited in Chalquist, [sa]).
Archetypalists, who represent an offshoot of classical J ungian psychology, refer to
the psyches in-between quality as luminal or imaginal.
The psyche spontaneously generates mythico-religious symbolism and is therefore
spiritual as well as instinctive in nature. All minds are ultimately embedded in some
sort of myth-making. Mythology is not a series of old explanations for natural
events; rather it is the richness and wisdom of humanity played out in symbolic
storytelling.
The psyches personal and transpersonal poles meet in the seat of meaningful
experience or soul. One of depth psychologys aims is to bring discussion of soul
back into psychology as reflected in the works of Hillman (1996, 1989). Soulfulness
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is considered a subjectivity that extends everywhere. The goal of depth psychology
and its therapy is not only wholeness, but also the cultivation of soulfulness and
meaningfulness of experiences.
Depth psychology rejects as philosophically archaic the absolute Cartesian split
between self and other, and instead posits a shifting interactive field of subjective
and objective activities. A projection, for instance, is seen as dancing imaginally in
the space between the sender and the receiver of it. An implication of this
interactivity is that objective research, when applied to the psyche, is limited and
even fictionalised by the fact that researchers influence whatever they study.
Whereas empirical investigation uncovers only those facets of the psyche that are
easily quantified, depth psychology deconstructs this would-be empiricism by
envisioning the psyche studying itself as a hall of mirrors (Romanyshyn, van den
Berg & Miller, 2001) in which a consciousness, sensitised to its own relativity,
participates in perpetually reflected realities.
Depth psychology investigates the psyche in its personal, biological, cultural, and
archetypal context.
2.3.1.2 A selection of theories from depth psychology
J udging from the above-mentioned assumptions, the scope of depth psychology is vast,
which makes it impossible to cover all the theorists who have contributed to it.
Preference will be given to theories that focus more intensely on the intrapsychic and
transpersonal aspects and structures of the psyche rather than the more socially oriented
psychoanalytical theories of, for example, Adler and Kohurt. These theories include
Freuds psychoanalytical theory, J ungs analytical theory, Hillmans archetypal theory
and a selection of views from transpersonal psychology.
i Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis is considered as more of an art, a philosophy, and a practice than a
science. The psychoanalytical approaches or psychodynamic theories have their
being in the study of the unconscious processes of the mind (Meyer et al, 1997:43;
Robertson, 1995:72; Mischel, 1986:27; Papalia & Olds, 1987:485). Classical
psychoanalysts focused on unconscious drives and forces whereas recent
developments in psychoanalysis place more emphasis on social factors in human
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functioning. Human behaviour is thus explained in terms of interpersonal
relationships rather than intrapsychic processes (Meyer et al, 1997:46). TThe socially
oriented psychoanalysts are also referred to as second generation psychoanalysts
(Meyer et al, 1997:47).

Freud is considered as the founder of psychoanalysis. Though few psychologists
today will agree completely with Freud's theory of the mind and the psychosexual
stages of development, nearly all now acknowledge that human consciousness is
affected by underlying motivations or thoughts, which are seated in the realm of the
unconscious (Ashworth, 2000:34; Stevenson, 1996).

Sigmund Freud (18561939)
Freuds concept of the unconscious is considered as his single most valuable
contribution to the study of human personality (Papalia & Olds, 1987:490). He
(Freud, 1926) asserted that the different functions of the mind operated at different
levels of consciousness, and compared the human mind to an iceberg with the
conscious representing a comparatively small surface-awareness above the depths of
the unconscious. According to Papalia and Olds (1987:490), Freud endeavoured to
explore the unconscious by means of free association, a method which involves
allowing the subject to talk about whatever comes into their conscious mind,
however silly or trivial it may appear. Through the analysis of free associations,
dream analysis and early childhood memories, Freud tried to figure out the basic
elements of personality (Papalia & Olds, 1987:491).

Freuds theory of the structure of the personality consists of a tripartite division of
the mind that includes the following components as summarised from Ashworth
(2000:46-47), and Papalia and Olds (1987:486-487):
1) The id (Latin for it) which consists of life (eros or sexual) and death (thanatos or
aggressive) instincts, which in turn are fuelled or driven by the libido, a form of
physical energy. Since the id component is present at birth, it mainly operates on the
pleasure principle, seeking to avoid pain and maximise gratification. If tangible
gratification of the primitive impulses is unavailable, then the id may form a mental
image or hallucination to reduce the tension of ungratified desire, for example, a
starving man may form a mental image of a delicious meal. That is an example of
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what Freud termed wish fulfilment. The id is irrational and unconscious, closely
related to biological processes, and feels and unthinkingly expresses emotions;
2) The ego (Latin for I) operates on the reality principle through rational and
conscious thought and analysis of situations to gratify the id. Freud likens the ego
to a man on the horseback of the id; the horse is stronger than the rider, but the rider
controls it. Inevitably, however, the horses strength will predominate and the rider
will sometimes lose control or will sometimes have to content him/herself with
guiding the horse to where it wants to go; and
3) The superego (Latin for over-the-I) operates on the perfection principle. The
superego consists of the ego-ideal (should component of personality), and the
conscience (the should-not component). The superego is the moral taskmaster of
the soul. Ideally, the id, ego and superego exist in equilibrium and utilise defence
mechanisms to distort reality to maintain a state of equilibrium if necessary.

Additionally, Freud believed that personality was unalterably set at childhood and
that sexuality is the major determinant of behaviour (Papalia & Olds, 1987:492;
Freud, 1926).
ii Jungs Analytical Theory
J ungs highly complex analytical theory incorporates and develops some basic
Freudian principles (Meyer et al, 1997:101). J ung and Freud exchanged views
throughout their seven year association, but eventually J ung could not accept Freuds
mechanistic view of a person, which regarded the individual as the product of a
suppressed sexual past (Hall, Lindzey & Campbell, 1998:80). According to Meyer et
al (1997:102), J ungs theory is typified as analytical because he goes much more
deeply into the unconscious in analysing the psyche than Freud does. In his analysis
of the human psyche, J ung reveals its many composite elements and emphasises its
complexity. However, Clark (1980:330), a historian, claims that J ung gave the name
of analytical theory to his body of views during his famous Fordham lectures to
differentiate it from Freuds psychoanalysis to free psychoanalytic theory from the
purely sexual standpoint.

Both Freud and J ung were purportedly influenced by the scientific and philosophical
developments of the nineteenth century, including the evolutionary theory and
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certain discoveries in archaeology and cross-cultural studies (Meyer et al, 1997:101).
Dry (1961 cited in Hall et al, 1998:83-84) has identified romanticism and the
nineteenth century philosophers Schopenhauer, von Hartmann, and Nietzsche who
presumably influenced J ung. Additionally, Robertson (1995) and Griffin (1989)
indicate that some of J ungs concepts are decidedly Kantian in their orientation. The
aforementioned influences relate to the conceptions of the unconscious, of polarity
working toward unity, and the substitution of will for intuition in comprehending
reality.

The nature of human behaviour
Although J ungs theory is at times portrayed as deterministic in nature, the notion is
contradicted by his proposed view that behaviour was the consequence of past events
that are directed towards the future. His theory of human nature implied that
individuals were not helplessly driven by their instincts and their past but orientated
towards a perpetual creative development in striving to achieve a complete self
(Meyer et al, 1997:102). For J ung, this is the effect of a religious, spiritual or
numinous and transpersonal drive in the human being. Based on this postulation,
J ungs view of humankind has been interpreted as seemingly at once both optimistic
and pessimistic, and both deterministic and teleological (Meyer et al, 1997:102;
Hyde & McGuinness, 1992:23). Hall et al (1998:83) put forward that this
combination of causality and teleology is the most prominent and distinctive feature
of J ungs view of humans. For example, human behaviour is conditioned not only by
individual and racial history (causality) but also by aims and aspirations (teleology).
Hence, both the past as actuality and the future as potentiality guide an individuals
present behaviour.

An additional distinguishing feature of J ungs approach to the human psyche is his
emphasis of the racial and phylo-genetic foundations of an individual. Jung sees the
individual personality as the product and container of its ancestral history. Modern
humans have been shaped and moulded into their present form by the cumulative
experiences of past generations extending far back into the dim and unknown origins
of humans. The foundations of personality are archaic, primitive, innate,
unconscious, and probably universal (Hall et al, 1998:83).

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Jungs systemic model of the psyche
Fordham (1966:15) explains that Jung has chosen the terms psyche and psychic,
rather than mind and mental, since the latter are associated primarily with
consciousness, whereas psyche and psychic are used to cover both consciousness
and the unconscious. To J ung, the human psyche consists of differentiated, but
interacting and interdependent systems and dimensions (Hall et al, 1998:84). The
dimensions are summarised from Meyer et al (1997:102-103) as:
The physiological dimension which involves all processes and drives essential
for physical survival, including the need to breathe, eat, drink and have sex;
The social dimension which is concerned with interaction with other people;
The psychic dimension which refers to all conscious processes which can
logically be understood and explained by reason and which helps in the adapt to
individual reality; and
The spiritual or religious dimension which refers to irrational experiences. The
spiritual and religious dimension elevates the human psyche to a spiritual plane
above the usual physiological, social and psychic existence.

The key systems or structure of the psyche include the ego, the centre of
consciousness; the personal unconscious and its complexes; the collective
unconscious with its archetypes the persona, shadow, anima or animus; and the
Self, the centre of the psyche. Additionally, J ung describes the attitudes of
introversion and extroversion, and functions of thinking, feeling, sensing and
intuiting (Hall et al, 1998:84). These key systems, attitudes functions and strata of
consciousness predominantly interact in three different ways. For example, they may
compensate, oppose or unite one another (Hall et al, 1998:94). These interactions
will be elucidated in the subsequent discussion.

J ung (1933; 1958) proposed that the key systems of the psyche operated from within
three levels or strata: the conscious, the personal unconscious and the collective
unconscious. The unconscious aspect of the psyche is different from, but
compensatory to the conscious. Additionally, the conscious mind grows out of an
unconscious psyche which is older than it is, and goes on functioning together with it
or even in spite of it. Consequently, the psyche is a complex system within which the
conscious and unconscious processes are dynamic, in constant movement, and at the
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same time self-regulating. For this reason, the term psychodynamic is often
associated with J ungs view of personality. Human beings are then dynamic
organisms that are either consciously or unconsciously driven into action by
opposing forces which concomitantly serve a regulatory function (Meyer et al,
1997:102). This regulatory function of opposites is inherent in human nature and
essential to an understanding of psychic functioning.

The regulatory function or the balancing of opposing forces is ascribed to a general
psychic energy, the libido, which is subject to the principles of equivalence (the first
law of thermodynamics) and entropy (the second law of thermodynamics) (Allan,
2000:55). J ung (cited in Fordham, 1966:19), in contrast to Freuds sexual dynamic
view of the libido, proposed that libido is a natural energy which first and foremost
serves the purposes of life and then a certain amount can be converted into
productive work and used for cultural purposes.

The direction of this psychic energy becomes initially possible by transferring it to
something similar in nature to the object of instinctive interest. The transfer cannot,
however, be made by a simple act of will, but is achieved in a roundabout way. After
a period of gestation in the unconscious a symbol is produced which can attract the
libido, and also serve as a channel diverting its natural flow. The symbol is never
thought out consciously, but comes usually as a revelation or intuition, often
appearing in a dream (Fordham, 1966:19). Fordham (1966:19) points out that J ung
uses the word symbol in a definite way, making a distinction between symbol and
sign: a sign is a substitute for, or representation of the real thing, while a symbol
carries a wider meaning and expresses a psychic fact which cannot be formulated
more exactly. The implications of J ungs use of a symbol regarding communication
studies will be discussed in detail in succeeding chapters.

The natural movement of the libido is forwards and backwards similar to the
movement of the tides. Progression is the forward movement which satisfies the
demands of the conscious and regression the backward movement, satisfying the
demands of the unconscious. Progression is concerned with the active adaptation to
ones environment, and regression with the adaptation to ones inner needs.
Regression therefore (contrary to some points of view) is just as normal a counter
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pole to progression as sleeping is to waking, so long as the libido is functioning in
an unhindered manner, i.e. according to the law of enantiodromia, when it must
eventually turn over into a progressive movement (Fordham, 1966:18).

It is to this dialectical movement and relationship between universal, opposing forces
that J ung ascribes the development of the psyches consciousness. These opposing
tendencies impel the psyche from a simple, undifferentiated and unconscious natural
state to a complex state of higher awareness and integration into a harmonious and
united whole, the Self. The Self, which represents a sense of meaning and
purposefulness, is thus the conscious and unconscious totality of the individual
(Hyde & McGuinness, 1992:57).

J ung hence believed in a dualism very similar to the philosopher Hegel (1779-1831)
who stated that the ultimate reality is a single all-embracing entity which he called
the Absolute Spirit. Everything is a manifestation of the infinite activity of the
Absolute Spirit which unfolds itself in time according to a dynamic and irreversible
process. The Absolute Spirit propels the world-process to more complex and higher
stages of evolution using triads, consisting of the thesis and the opposite antithesis,
which in turn is supplanted by a higher synthesis. The synthesis incorporates and
harmonises features of both thesis and antithesis (Olsen, 1967:15). A more detailed
discussion of Hegels systemic process will follow in a succeeding chapter.

The synthesis of J ungs theory of the human psyche is reflected in his holistic and
inclusive description of the individuation process and the transcendent function (Hall
et al, 1998:106). The individuation process is the psyches developmental and
unfolding tendency towards an original state of undifferentiated wholeness and
selfhood, hence the Self. However, to achieve this synthesised and integrated Self,
the various systems of the personality have to become fully differentiated and
developed through the process of individuation and then re-integrated by the
transcendent function (Hall et al, 1998:106). The implied need for wholeness is
expressed and represented in symbols found in myths, dreams, architecture, religion
and art (Hall et al, 1998:106).

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Since the focus of this chapter is on unitary reality and because J ungs association of
symbols to different levels of consciousness alludes to a unitary reality seated in the
collective unconscious, a brief exploration of the constructs related to levels of
consciousness is necessary.

The conscious
According to Stevens (1991:29), the phenomenon of human consciousness was a
recurrent source of wonder to J ung (1958), and he felt that the focal point of the
unique individual and his or her consciousness was downplayed and almost ignored
in contemporary mass society.

J ung (1958:46) defines consciousness as a precondition of being, and states that at
the core of consciousness is an archetypal sense of I or the ego. Without
consciousness, there would be no world or reality, for the world exists as such only
in so far as it is consciously reflected and consciously expressed by the psyche. The
agent of this consciousness is the individual, that infinitesimal unit on whom a
world depends (J ung, 1958:113). The essence of the conscious is the ego, and the
conscious is a prerequisite for its development. Ego consciousness, the continuous
conscious experience of the I and personal identity emanate from the unconscious.
Consequently, everything that is consciously known comes from the unconscious
(Robertson, 1995:153). The unconscious can only be observed indirectly through
its by-products such as the symbolic interpretation of dreams (Robertson,
1995:143; Stevens, 1991:30).

The ego is also described as the mediator of the Self (our essential being) to the
world, and of the world to the Self. J ung (1958:5) describes the pivotal Self as the
whole circumference which embraces both consciousness and unconsciousness; it is
the center of this totality, just as the ego is the center of the conscious mind. The
Self is both the origin and the goal of ego-consciousness. Everything not
experienced by the ego is unconscious and unknown (Stevens, 1991:190).

J ung (1958:6) states that most people confuse ego-consciousness with knowledge of
themselves, but the ego knows only its own contents, not the unconscious and its
contents. Most people measure their self-knowledge by what the average person in
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the social environment knows about himself or herself. People do not know the real
psychic facts which are hidden for the most part from them. What is commonly
called self-knowledge is therefore a very limited knowledge, most of it dependent
on social factors, of what goes on in the human psyche (J ung, 1958:7). What people
equate with ego-consciousness is then actually a social consciousness. This
statement is of direct relevance to communication theory with its focus on the socio-
cultural derivatives of reality and consciousness.

The personal unconscious
J ung (1960:149) proposed that an individuals personal unconscious could be
regarded as the storeroom of individual experiences and interactions with the world,
and the accompanying interpretations of these experiences and interactions.
Moreover, each individuals personal unconscious is unique. Rather than housing
irrational and impulsive drives as elucidated by Freud, the contents of the personal
unconscious are usually available to consciousness and there is continual interaction
between the personal unconscious and the ego.

J ung (1960:151) distinguished three ways in which the content of the personal
unconscious is formed: 1) mental data becomes unconscious because it loses its
intensity and is forgotten; 2) some sensory impressions are not intense enough to
penetrate through to the conscious, but do enter the psychic subliminally; and 3)
some mental information has been repressed to the unconscious.

The most important contents of the personal unconscious are individual complexes
or transformed instincts. A complex, such as the mother or father complex, is hence
a composite of ideas or repeated personal experiences engendered from archetypes
and instincts from the collective unconscious loaded with specific emotional
intensity (Meyer et al, 1997:106). Additionally, each complex has a nucleus that acts
as a magnet to attract various experiences to an individual. The nucleus of a complex
is derived in part from archetypal memories and in part personal experiences with
aspects of reality (J ung 1934 cited in Hall et al, 1998:85).
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The collective unconscious
The collective or transpersonal unconscious is one of J ungs most original and
controversial concepts (Hall et al, 1998:85). It is the most powerful and influential
system of the psyche and in pathological cases over-shadows the ego and the
personal unconscious (J ung, 1936, 1943, 1945). The collective unconscious stores
primitive ideas, images and thought forms or archetypes inherited from our
ancestors. It is the matrix of all conscious psychic occurrences, and hence it exerts
an influence that comprises the consciousness in the highest degree, since it is
continually striving to reach conscious processes back into the old paths (J ung,
1960:112). These archetypes emerge in dreams, art and religion. An archetype is
hence both an archaic and a universal mental design, which forms the foundation of
the individual psyche.

Consequently, the collective unconscious includes latent memory traces and psychic
vestiges inherited and accumulated from an ancestral past and all human
evolutionary development. The unus mundus or unitary reality as proposed by J ung,
is the original source of all diverse individual and collective experience (Griffin,
1989). The accumulation is a consequence of repeated experiences over many
generations. Moreover, it is almost entirely detached from anything personal in the
life of an individual and is seemingly universal (Hall et al, 1998:85).

J ung (1968:187) attributes the universality of the collective unconscious to the
similarity of the structure of the brain in all races of humans, and this similarity in
turn is due to a common evolution. Moreover, the collective unconscious influences
the behaviour of individuals from the very beginning of life. J ung (1968:188) states,
The form of the world into which he is born is already inborn in him as a virtual
image. This virtual image becomes a concrete perception or idea through
identification of objects in the world that corresponds to the image. The collective
unconscious contains two components viz.; instincts and archetypes, where instincts
refer to physiologically inherited impulses which determine behaviour without
conscious motivation, and archetypes which refer to innate psychic predispositions
or intuitions influencing the person to perceive in a certain way, to experience and
form images.

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A principle related to archetypes and which alludes to the concept of a unitary reality
is that of synchronicity. J ung (1952) proposed the principle of synchronicity that is
neither causal nor teleological and applies to events that occur together in time but
do not influence one another, for example, when a thought corresponds with an
objective event (Hall et al, 1998:102).

Archetypes and their relationship to symbols and communication studies, and the
principle of synchronicity will be explored extensively in subsequent chapters.
iii Hillmans Archetypal Psychology
Hillmans archetypal psychology, psychology of the soul or imaginal psychology
was inspired by J ung and is, according to Meyer et al (1997:246), an attempt to
restore the psyche (a term he uses interchangeably with soul) to its rightful place
in psychology. Although Chalquist [sa] groups his view of the psyche with depth
psychology, paradoxically Hillman (quoted in Meyer et al, 1997:246), is seemingly
critical of structuralism, Lacanism and depth psychologists because of their emphasis
on rationality and control. He (Hillman quoted in Meyer et al, 1997:247) describes
his theory as a Mediterranean fantasy during which his thoughts are continually
washed by emotion. He additionally strives to annul Jungs metaphysics so as not
to lose his psychology.

Three concepts are seemingly central and interdependent to Hillmans (cited in
MacLennan, 2001) perspective of the individual which includes soul, the aesthetic
response, and polytheism. Soul is the pivotal aspect of Hillmans archetypal
psychology and is a mediating principle between mind and body; subjective and
objective; and imaginal and rational. Moreover, soul animates, mythologises and
confers meaning through images, myths, and stories of individuals and societies.
This constitutes the soul's language and aesthetic response to what it perceives
(MacLennan, 2001). This theistic aspect of soul is also reflected in Hillman's (cited
in MacLennan, 2001) notion of polytheism or the faces of the soul. In tandem with
the imaginal capacities of the soul, the theistic aspect of soul places all ideas,
ideologies, mythologies, and sciences on a level playing-field: they are all products
of the human imagination.

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While Hillman (cited in Meyer et al, 1997:247) uses J ungs work as the foundation
of his own view of humankind, behaviour is not only related to the archetypes in the
collective unconscious, but also directly to mythology and the world of myths and
gods. Additionally, he (Hillman cited in Meyer et al, 1997:247) regards the view of
the ego or self as the foundation of consciousness as obsolete and equates the ego
with imagination. Hillman (cited in MacLennan, 2001) substitutes the anima (soul)
for the ego and prefers to use the term fantasy rather than the unconscious through
which he attempts to understand all behaviour as related to the imagined world of the
gods and of mythology.

Hillman (quoted in Griffin, 1989:64) also replaces J ungs equation of the archetypal
image of the Self, with the one, all-powerful God-archetype with a polytheistic
psychology in which all the archetypes are treated with parity and the
Schopenhauerian cosmic creator is not in view. According to Griffin (1989:64), this
modification removes the basis of unconscious messages as revelations from a divine
reality itself. Furthermore, Hillman (cited in Griffin, 1989:64) rejects the idea of the
unus mundus or at least the idea of a noumenal world in which all times and places
are one, which lies behind the notion of synchronicity.

Griffin (1989:64) states that in Hillmans approach there is no Kantian, noumenal
archetype-in-itself behind the archetypal image which removes the basis for thinking
of archetypes as eternal, unchanging patterns that are divinely sanctioned by the
creator of the world. This view opens the way for the consideration of archetypes as
historically and socially conditioned patterns even if Hillman himself does not do
so, but instead thinks of them phenomenally, aesthetically, and valuationally,
generally ignoring the question of origin (Griffin, 1989:64).

Griffin (1989:64) points out that Hillman has annulled J ungs metaphysical-
theological ideas not by rejecting them as false and replacing them with better ideas,
but by rejecting metaphysics, cosmology, and theology altogether. In his own words
Hillman (in Griffin, 1989:214) states that in the depth psychology of soul-making as
I have been formulating it, is as a via negative. No ontology. No metaphysics. No
cosmology. Ironically, he (Hillman in Griffin, 1989:214) subsequently is of the
opinion that although his work has been dedicated to lowland tactics and in the
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mode of critical scepticism, all in search of soul, it is not enough (Hillman in
Griffin, 1989:216). It is interesting to note that he then proceeds to dedicate an entire
paper to cosmology, metaphysics and psychology.

Seemingly torn between his scepticism of metaphysics and the realisation that his
lowland tactics in service of soul-making is not sufficient, Hillman (1996:4)
proposes the concept of destiny. In one of his books: The souls code: In search of
character and calling, Hillman (1996) alludes to an innate image; an image of a
calling, a sense of personal destiny and fate that restores beauty, mystery and myth in
the life of the individual. Hillman (1996:4) refers to this as the acorn theory: a
destiny written into the acorn. It is a theory pleading for the restoration of the
meaningfulness of the particularity of the individual. We are victims of academic,
scientistic, and even therapeutic psychology, whose paradigms do not sufficiently
account for or engage with, and therefore ignore, the sense of calling, that essential
mystery at the heart of each human life (Hillman, 1996:6).

Meyer et al (1997:249-251) identify several characteristics of the soul representing
Hillmans views of human personality:
The soul as perspective: The soul should be considered as a perspective rather
than a substance, hence a vantage point from which to view things rather than
the thing in itself (Meyer et al, 1997:249).
The soul as the middle ground: This implies the interdependence of the soul with
others and things in the socio-cultural environment.
The soul as consisting of images: Images are the primary data of the soul. The
image is primary because fantasy and imagination precede observation. Psychic
images are a product of fantasy, and images, in turn, are basic, given of the soul.
Moreover, they are self-generating, spontaneous and founded in the archetypes.
Archetypes are the deepest patterns of psychic functioning, the roots of the soul
governing the perspectives we have of ourselves and the world (Hillman 1975
quoted in Meyer et al, 1997:250).
The souls ambiguous and polytheistic nature: The ambiguous, polytheistic
nature of the soul is emphasised because fantasy images arise from numerous
mythological gods and goddesses.
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The soul as a method of making meaning possible: The soul makes meaning
possible because it deepens events into experiences through reflective
speculation (imagination). To experience something as a soul-making process,
one has to experience it in terms of images (to imagine it) and to be in touch with
ones soul, one has to be in touch with fantasy or imagery.
The soul as unknown component: The souls unique relationship with death
gives it its meaning in terms of love and religious matters, because human beings
are the only beings who are aware of their own finiteness and who experience
death as a reality that cannot be escaped or avoided.

An aspect of specific importance to the scope of this study is Hillmans (cited in
Meyer et al, 1997:253) notion of development of the soul or personality. Individual
growth and development do not occur in a linear fashion; rather, images in the
imagination facilitate an awareness of movement and change. Growth and
development are hence not an incremental and linear development, but are viewed as
changes in patterns of significance and imagery.
2.3.2 DEPTH PSYCHOLOGY AND COMMUNICATION THEORY
2.3.2.1 Psychoanalysis
The most noted contribution of Freuds components of the psyche to communication
theory is its indirect influence on the development in transactional analysis of the child,
adult and parent ego states. The notion of the ego has thus been refined to consist of
three states from which individuals communicate. Additionally, psychoanalysis has
been applied to cultural and communication studies in the analysis of the mass media,
specifically film and television. Underwood (in Beck, Bennett & Wall, 2004:61) asserts
that psychoanalysis seems to have received renewed attention in communication and
cultural studies because of the recent influence of the French psychoanalyst J acques
Lacan, derisively attributing this to Lacans being French, and French being
incomprehensibly at the height of cool in cultural studies.

Beck et al (2004:61) indicate that Freuds theories are attractively intellectual; they
give the curiously intelligent the hope that even the mind itself can be worked out.
They (Beck et al, 2004:61) compare psychoanalysis to semiotic approaches to
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communication, saying, Psychoanalysis looks to anchor symptomatic behaviour
(signifiers) to inner truths (signified).

Sonderling (2001:321) asserts that the psychoanalytical approach to the study of film
and television focuses on the viewers conscious and unconscious experience of film
and television texts. Moreover, it explains the link between the pleasures and desires of
the spectator for the fantasies and desires represented in film and television texts. The
traditional theoretical approach to the structure, direction and production of film and
television has largely ignored the spectators experience.

According to Flitterman-Lewis (cited in Sonderling, 2001:322), viewing television and
film images is similar to dreaming and is associated with the gratification of conscious
and unconscious desires and fantasies. The implication is that films and television
drama mirror the viewers inner mental states (Altman, 1977; Andrew 1984 cited in
Sonderling, 2001:322).

Moreover, psychoanalysis, as a cultural theory and structural method of textual analysis,
contributes to the universal understanding of art, literature, film and television and
explains how the conscious and unconscious mental processes function in the
production and understanding of works of art. Universality of experience is implied in
some coherent unity that underlies and makes meaningful the surface manifestation of
diverse cultural phenomena (Wright 1984 quoted in Sonderling, 2001:322).

An analogy between the unconscious, language, Freud and textual analysis is drawn by
Sonderling (2001:325), when he states that the two primary operations of language:
metaphor which implies the condensation of meaning, and metonymy which implies
the displacement of meaning, could be compared to Freuds postulations of
condensation and displacement. Condensation is the process by which latent elements
are compressed and combined into one single manifest image, and; displacement the
process by which a latent element is replaced by a more remote image and the meaning
of an object is displaced onto another somehow associated with it.

Sonderling (2001:325) maintains that it is this analogous comparison which motivated
the French psychoanalyst J acques Lacan to claim that the unconscious is a linguistic and
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cultural construction which can only be understood through language. Moreover,
according to Saussure (1974 cited in Sonderling, 2001:325), the system or structure of
language (langue) is in the unconscious within which the actual speech acts (parole)
becomes meaningful.

Although the above-mentioned statements serve to illustrate the application of Freuds
concepts in textual analysis, his theories have been brutally discredited and derogated
by certain American communication academics who seemingly disregard the realities of
the popular in favour of intellectual grandeur and academic acceptance. For example,
Webster (1995 quoted in Beck et al, 2004:64) states, Freud made no substantial
intellectual discoveries. He was the creator of a complex pseudo-science which should
be recognized as one of the great follies of Western civilization. In creating his
particular pseudo-science, Freud developed an autocratic, anti-empirical intellectual
style which has contributed immeasurably to the intellectual ills of our own era.

Furthermore, Underwood quotes Medawar (1996 cited in Beck et al, 2004:64): no
better theory can be erected on its [Freuds theories] ruins, which will remain for ever
one of the saddest and strangest of all landmarks in the history of twentieth-century
thought. Moreover, such egregious nonsense could not be treated with respect. This
severe criticism seems to be directed at Freuds theories of repressed psycho-sexual
drives and disregards the contribution made by way of the postulation of the
unconscious mind.
2.3.2.2 Analytical and archetypal psychology and communication theory
Meyer et al (1997:126) indicate that J ungs theoretical views have been singled out for
particular criticism because of his so-called unscientific approach to the study of the
psyche. However, J ung believed that when the scientific method was inadequate for
studying complicated psychic phenomena, one should reject the method rather than the
subject. J ung (1960) asserted that the human psyche can be studied only through human
experience, and human experience cannot be encapsulated in a laboratory. A similar
notion and attitude will be adopted in this study where the experiential aspect of
intrapsychic communication will be explored.

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Despite the immensity and diversity of J ungs contribution, specifically on the terrain of
symbolic interpretation of the psyche, his theories have not been integrated into the
corpus of communication studies. A tremendous potential exists for the application of
archetypal symbols and related constructs in an exploration of the intrapsychic
processes of the self as a dynamic system. Research could be applied to, for example,
consumer behaviour, marketing communication, advertising, gender studies, and
communication styles based on his constructs of the complexity of the human psyche,
specifically the notion of underlying mental structures influencing perception of self and
others.

An application of certain of J ungs constructs regarding archetypes and archetypal
symbols is however, apparent in Sabidos (2002 cited in Barker, 2003) analysis of
archetypes as a basis for developing characters that embody universal psychological and
physiological characteristics to address themes within the serial drama. Through these
characters, the viewer finds an archetypical essence of him or herself that interacts with
the social message. These archetypes are portrayed as positive or negative stereotypes,
representing the societal norms of the target audience.

Likewise, other contemporary authors identified the positive application of certain of
J ungs theoretical contributions. For example, according to Van der Post (1976 cited in
Meyer et al, 1997:127), one of J ungs main contributions to contemporary humanity lies
in the rediscovery of the feminine aspects within the objective psyche of the masculine.
This makes possible as never before a reconciliation of the masculine and feminine
elements in life.

Meyer et al (1997:127) state that although some critics dismiss J ungs theories as
unclear and incomprehensible, recently, there has been a revival of interest in J ungs
views. This is largely due to disillusionment with excessively positivist approaches and
his views about humanity which allow for the spiritual dimension of humanity and its
religious struggles.

It is evident from the above exploration that, ironically, with the exclusion of Hillmans
archetypal theory, the foundation in which the pivotal and quintessential assumptions of
depth psychology are rooted, is a proposed collective, universal and archetypal reality.
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Moreover, archetypes and archetypal symbolic representation are said to be embedded
in unifying structures, which possibly could influence the individuals meaningful
interpretation of his or her inner world. This is so since the archetype is seemingly both
an archaic and universal mental design, which forms the foundation of the individual
psyche.

The human psyche or soul as referred to by Hillman (1996), also appears to be
comparable to a dynamic and multilayered system in which symbols play an important
role in individual striving towards an integrated wholeness and inclusiveness.
2.4 TRANSPERSONAL AND MYSTICAL PERSPECTIVES
Both non-professionals and professionals, ranging from the fields of mysticism to
formalised dogma, and recently quantum physicists, have attempted the quest for an
understanding of the transpersonal level of existence (Wolf, 1985). Apparently, the
recurrent nature of this quest is that it is discovered by one generation, only to be
either denounced or exalted by another generation. This pleonastic renascence of truth
or reality is indicative of the concurrent abstract, veiled, multidimensional yet
interdependent nature of existence.

The term transpersonal was seemingly first coined by the transpersonal psychiatrist
Dr. Stanislav Grof in 1967 who used this term to refer to those aspects of humanity
which transcends the ego. The root of the term transpersonal or literally beyond the
mask refers to the transcendence of the ego-self, consequently a growth towards higher
aspects of the personality (Davis, 2002). This concurs with Venters (1994:158)
explanation that the transpersonal perspective expands the current theoretical and
methodological limitations on perceptions and constructs of reality, and adds that there
are two dimensions or principle assumptions of the transpersonal perspective, i.e.
self/ego transcendence and intrapsychic growth. Since the description of the process of
transcendence falls largely within the practice of transpersonal psychology, an
exploration of this field is necessary.
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2.4.1 TRANSPERSONAL PSYCHOLOGY
The central concepts in transpersonal psychology, also referred to as the fourth force in
psychology, are self-transcendence and a sense of identity which is deeper, broader, and
more unified or complete (Campbell & Brennan, 1994:275; Drury, 1992:301).

Davis (2000) and Boucouvalas (1980:40-41) state that the orientation in transpersonal
psychology is founded in the following assumptions:
The inclusion of the spiritual potentialities of the individual and self-transcendent
growth beyond the ego;
The integration of both processes of the mind - reason and intuition, including the
mapping of realms of consciousness and inner states;

The convergence of different movements and ideologies, such as mysticism,
philosophy, science, religion, Eastern disciplines, parapsychology and post-modern
insights; and

The understanding of the total human being in his/her external and internal worlds
without the reduction of complex behaviour.

Although the operational emphasis is not restricted, transpersonal psychology treats the
individual as an integrated body-mind-spirit entity whose Self guides the methods and
techniques applied to achieve integration. Examples of techniques employed include the
following: meditation, yoga, hypnosis, mental imagery and relaxation training (e.g.
visualisation, guided fantasy and imagery, inner dialogue, imagination and music), and
dream studies (Boucouvalas, 1980:43).

Vaughan (1985:11) underlines the importance of inner work, but with the inclusion and
not at the expense of outer work. She (Vaughan, 1995:5) proposes that the process of
self-transcendence consists of two cycles of growth, namely the inward and outward
arcs. The Inward Arc represents the path of return to the Consciousness as Such
which typifies psychological eternity and unity with the Ultimate, whereas the Outward
Arc represents development and growth in a socio-cultural reality (Wilber, 1980:4).
Moreover, the clarity of inner vision (the reciprocal nature of reason and intuitive vision)
depends on self-awareness and intuitive insight, and self-knowledge should deepen into
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awareness of a universal spirituality (Vaughan, 1985:13). Welwood (1984:65) indicates
that the basic purpose of spiritual practice is to liberate the individual with an already
stable self-structure, from an imprisoning self-structure.

The ultimate goal of transpersonal psychology and the transcendent function of the self
is consciousness of unity or oneness. For example, Vaughan (1995:208) states: The
awakened mind is one that sees its wholeness. This seeing occurs in symbolic
representations of reality and is perceived in either the dreaming or the waking state of
consciousness. In addition, Wilber (1980:3) states, development is evolution; evolution
is transcendence; and transcendence has as its final goal as Atman, or ultimate Unity
and Consciousness in only God.

The symbolic representations of reality may relate to a unitary reality and the concept of
universality. For example, Vaughan (1995:209) stresses that universal symbols, as
collective images, give form to the formless and fix in time that which is eternal. From a
transpersonal perspective, archetypes are the exemplary forms on which creation is
patterned. Moreover, Vaughan (1995:208) interprets the term archetype to refer to the
first form in involution or the first manifestation of form emerging from the formless,
undifferentiated void and relates them to Platonic ideals that in philosophy are said to
exist a priori, independently of any particular manifestation, for example, truth, beauty,
perfection, and harmony.

Green and Green (1971:39) indicate that symbols seem to be the elements of
communication between the different levels of being both within an individual and
between individuals, hence in transpersonal, intrapersonal and interpersonal
communication. Moreover, intuition may first be understood through symbolic imagery.
Symbolic imagery is the language of the unconscious which is familiar, but not always
comprehensible. It brings the intuitive perceptions into conscious awareness and may be
either personal or transpersonal. Symbols may range from personally constructed
thought forms to archetypes. Symbols are substantial structures conveying meaning, and
cannot be equated with meaning since symbols in and of themselves are not
transpersonal. However, Vaughan (1995:110) states, Symbols that point to
transcendental realities seem to speak a language that is understood by the soul.

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Both Vaughans (1995) and Wilbers (1980) accounts of self-growth in consciousness
seemingly relate to a unitary and archetypal reality. Wilber (1980:84) identifies different
types (not levels) of unconscious processes, viz. the ground-unconscious, the archaic-
unconscious, the submergent-unconscious, the embedded-unconscious, and the
emergent-unconscious. These unconscious processes are at once structural and dynamic,
layered and developmental.

Ground-unconscious is all the deep structures existing as potentials ready to emerge,
via remembrance, at some future point (Wilber, 1980:93). All the deep structures of
collective humanity are enfolded and enwrapped in the ground unconscious. These
structures are not repressed since they have not yet entered consciousness. They are
similar to J ungian archetypes since they are forms devoid of content. Evolution
consists of a series of unfoldments rooted in ground-unconsciousness (Wilber,
1980:83).

The archaic unconscious relates to Freuds id and J ungs collective unconscious.
According to Wilber (1980:85), it is the most primitive and least developed structures of
the ground-unconscious. It is not the product of personal experience and it is initially
unconscious but not repressed (Wilber, 1980:85).
2.4.2 WESTERN MYSTICISM
Mysticism is a cryptic concept that seemingly both captures the imagination in some
individuals and stimulates loathing and trepidation in others. It is certainly not a neutral
concept which could be indicative of the powerful attempt to either view it as the focal
point in all understanding of the nature of being, or vehemently belabour it as the core
of all evil.

Thomas Aquinas defined mysticism as the knowledge of God through experience,
whereas Goethe explained it as the scholastic of the heart and the dialectic of the
feelings (Ferguson, 1976:126). It is often described as an attempt to process the infinite
in the finite or an endeavour of the human mind to unite with the Ultimate Reality.

Certain generalisations regarding mysticism include: 1) An Ultimate Being, a
dimension of existence beyond that experienced with the senses; 2) The Ultimate can be
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known or appreciated; 3) The soul perceives the Ultimate through an inward sense;
thus, a spiritual sense opening inward; 4) There is an element in the soul akin to the
Ultimate, a divine spark within. In this way, to find God, is to find ones true self; and
5) Mysticism has as its zenith the experience of union with the Ultimate (Ferguson,
1976:126).

J ames (1902 cited in Ferguson, 1976:125), an American philosopher, psychologist and
exponent of pragmatism, identified four marks of the mystical state as: 1) ineffability
(inexpressible and indescribable); 2) noetic qualities (mystical experiences associated
with a revelation of knowledge); 3) transience (fleetingness), and 4) passivity. Venter
(1994) and Rensburg (1989) also refer to these four characteristics of direct mystical
experiences in their discussion of the religious and mystical advantages of the
transpersonal perspective.

Additionally, mysticism refers to the Two Ways of a search for union with God: 1) the
inward search where God is approached through the Self. It is proposed that God is
found in the depths of our being and the knowledge of God is in some sense self-
knowledge - this is referred to as Introspective Mysticism or Introverted Mysticism, and;
2) the outward search where the Divine is perceived as being reflected in creation.
Humankind becomes aware of the Divine through sensual experience in the
environment, nature and others. Some thinkers such as Rudolph Steiner (1861-1925)
professes that the Two Ways are one in that we cannot experience the Divine in our
environment before we have experienced it in ourselves (Ferguson, 1976:200).
2.4.3 THE TRANSPERSONAL AND MYSTICAL PERSPECTIVES AND
COMMUNICATION THEORY
Transpersonal communication, which represents communication from the transpersonal
perspective and which incorporates high level intuitive experiences and a
transcendence of logical reasoning, concepts and language, during an altered state of
consciousness where the individual gains direct insight into the nature of
transcendental reality (Venter, 1994:summary), is one of the most ineffable and
enigmatic levels of all.

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The transpersonal level involves, among others, transpersonal development, religious
and mystical insights and the realms of higher, or broader, and altered states of
consciousness of the self. Transpersonal communication thus includes communication
experiences which transcend the self and limitations of space and time dimensions
(Venter, 1995:88; 1994:158). She (Venter, 1994:161) indicates that meditation is a
significant practice to stimulate knowledge and understanding of transcendent and
altered states of consciousness.

Weinhold and Elliott (1979:1) define transpersonal communication as the ability of the
individual to establish and maintain contact with his/her inner core. Moreover,
Weinhold and Elliott (1979:1) state, effective interpersonal communication helps build
an atmosphere of trust and connectedness with other people. Effective intrapersonal
communication enables you to establish contact with and utilize your inner thoughts,
feelings, and experiences. It is against this development of inner and outer trust and
contact that the important and central role of transpersonal communication is reflected
in the juxtaposition of interpersonal communication, intrapersonal communication and
transpersonal communication.

They (Weinhold & Elliott, 1979:1) explain that transpersonal communication involves
the use of skills and understanding to aid the individual to become aware of his or her
essential unity and connectedness with all life. This sense and awareness of
connectedness with everything in the universe are experienced at an individuals inner
core. The expanded contact with the full range of human experiences in the individual
and others rests upon the foundation of effective interpersonal and intrapersonal
communication. Transpersonal communication researchers thus have it as their goal to
expand existing forms of communication to include aspects of human functioning that
have, until recently, been somewhat neglected.

One of the processes of transpersonal communication is the harmony of opposites. It
focuses on unity rather than separateness to allow the harmonisation of opposites like
interpersonal communication and intrapersonal communication, higher and lower self,
and objective and subjective extremities (Weinhold & Elliott, 1979:3). The
establishment of harmony is the result of the resolution of conflict between opposites,
and is expressed in the creation of the transpersonal self. At the highest level of
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transpersonal communication there ceases to be a reality within and reality without
(Weinhold & Elliott, 1979:115).
2.4.4 COMMENTARY: TRANSPERSONAL AND MYSTICAL PERSPECTIVES
The transpersonal level of the psyche and transpersonal communication both relate to the
collective unconscious as postulated in section 2.3.1 on depth psychology. Moreover, the
question of a unitary reality could also be argued from two perspectives: a transcendent,
out there locality of God and reality; or an immanent, right here locality of God and
reality (Thurston & Fazel, 1992:37). The implication is that one perspective would
favour evolution and a transcendent process to reach at-one-ment with God or
consciousness as such. The other perspective would favour an involutionary process of
awareness to be reunited with consciousness as-such or with God. Both perspectives
seem to be relevant to the scope of this study.

Similar to their appraisal in depth psychology, symbols are considered as reflecting
substantial inherent structures, which may range from personally constructed thought
forms to archetypes. Symbols, conveying meaning, seemingly point towards a unitary
and transcendent reality and soulfulness present in all humankind, including the peoples
from Ancient Africa and the East.
2.5 AFRICAN PERSPECTIVES
The following section will consider selected perspectives representing ancient times of
the most southern and most northern locations of the African continent, namely the San
and the Ancient Egyptian, and also the more recent African. Lewis-Williams and
Dowsons (1989, 2000) postulation of universal entopic images painted by San
shamans or medicine men during trance or altered states of consciousness establishes
the need to explore the San religion and also cosmology. Moreover, Sandner (1997:3)
states that J ung realised that despite their apparent differences, both shamanism and
analytical psychology focused on the healing and growth, hence individuation, of the
psyche. Consequently, it is assumed that an exploration of the symbolic representations
of the shamanic San falls within the scope of this study.

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Although it is questionable to group the Ancient Egyptians under an African
perspective, the following exploration will attempt to illustrate various similarities in
transpersonal worldviews and cosmologies between these cultures as represented
through symbolic expression.
2.5.1 SAN PERSPECTIVE
Lewis-Williams and Dowson (2000:8) explain that the San, who historically generally
occupied the most southern parts of Africa, belongs to the so-called Khoisan group of
people, which comprises the Khoikhoi (or Khoekhoe) and the San or Bushmen. The
word Bushmen is a translation of the Dutch Boschjesmans and was applied in the
seventeenth century to all the Khoisan groups. The word San was used by the Nama
Khoikhoi people for all Bushman groups and is currently the preferred name for
Bushmen by most anthropologists and archaeologists in academic journals and books.

Modern research has shown that the San, although at stages linked to Asian populations
and even to the lost tribes of Israel, are unquestionably African in origin. Their skeletal
remains can be traced back to the Later Stone Age, or to about 10 000 years ago, and
studies of the genetic characteristics of the Khoisan and the Negroid people imply that
they have much in common (Lewis-Williams & Dowson, 2000:9). Although researchers
identified various language groups of the Khoisan, Lewis-Williams and Dowson
(2000:11, 12) indicate that their way of life, beliefs, myths and specifically religious
practices were to all intents and purposes, universal. At the centre of this universal
foundation are relations with the spirit world, the great trance dance, and the activities
of shamans. These aspects of the San are generally derived from their rock paintings
(pictographs) and engravings (petroglyphs) found in various regions of Southern Africa.

Contemporary interpretation of their art is mainly based on two important sources. One
source is 12, 000 pages of largely unpublished texts amassed by Bleek and Lloyd from
1874 onwards (Lewis-Williams, 2004:136-138). Bleek, a German linguist and his
assistant, Lucy Lloyd, recorded the interpretations and explanations of the rock art from
a /Xam San man by the name of Di!kwain (the exclamation and slash marks represent
the various click characteristics of the San languages) (Lewis-Williams, 2004:136-
138). It is important to note that the /Xam language is extinct and, consequently, most
of the information related to the San cosmology is taken from Lewis-Williams and
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Dowsons (1989; 2003) interpretations and accounts. Lewis-Williams is a Professor
Emeritus and Senior Mentor in the Rock Art Research Institute, University of the
Witwatersrand, J ohannesburg, and Dowson was an archaeologist at the same institution.

Another major source used by Lewis-Williams and Dowson to interpret and relay the
Drakensberg San rock art (referred to as southern rock art), according to Lewis-
Williams (2003:19), is derived from Orpen, an Irish immigrant who worked in the
Orange Free State as a surveyor and politician. In 1854, he was sent on an expedition to
improve relations with Moshoehoe, the leader of the then Basutoland, now known as
Lesotho. During the expedition, Orpen used an expert guide, Qing, a San hunter who
relayed many of the San myths and meanings of rock paintings to him which he
meticulously recorded.

For the San, according to Lewis-Williams and Dowson (2000:14), religion is and was
part of the fabric of everyday existence; no clear distinction is drawn between sacred
and secular. They (Lewis-Williams & Dowson, 2000:13) assert that the most
important southern San (/Xam) spiritual being was /Kaggen, the trickster-deity, who
created all things, and appears in numerous myths in various animal and human forms,
for example, as the praying mantis, a bull eland, a hare, a louse, a snake, a vulture or as
an ordinary San, hunting and fighting. /Kaggen also gave an electric energy or
!gi:ten(plural) or !gi:xa (singular) to the San which roughly translates to full of
supernatural potency/electricity. The first syllable of the word, !gi:, means
supernatural potency - a kind of electricity that /Kaggen, the /Xam trickster-deity,
gave to humankind and that resides in the great animals, especially the eland, the
largest of all African antelope (Lewis-Williams, 2004:138). The second syllable, xa,
means full of. A !gi:xa was thus a person or shaman who was filled with supernatural
potency.

The group of modern San, the !Kung of the Kalahari, and other San groups, believe in
two gods: one who lives in the east and one who lives in the west. Like the southern
San, however, they believe in spirits of the dead, but not as part of ancestor worship.
These spirits are generally vaguely identified and are believed to bring sickness and
death. So-called medicine people or shamans, protect and heal everyone from the
spirits and sickness by performing a medicine dance, a ritual accepted as the general
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framework in which San rock art should be understood (Lewis-Williams & Dowson,
2000:30). Lewis-Williams and Dowson (2000:30) explain that the word Shaman is, a
Tungus word from central Asia which has been accepted in the anthropological
literature to mean someone in a hunter-gatherer society who enters a trance in order to
heal people, foretell the future, control the weather, ensure good hunting, and so forth.

Consequently, both paintings and engravings were closely associated with the activities
of San medicine people, or shamans. These activities include the trance dance, dreams,
and special curing which are for the San a sort of trans-cosmological travel which
involves a medicine, or a healing. Only a few people may be present at a curing
trance dance but the great dance, the central religious ritual of the San, involved all
people - men, women, children and visitors (Lewis-Williams, 2004:139). Lewis-
Williams (2004:139) indicates that the San do not use hallucinogens, rather an altered
state of consciousness is induced by intense concentration, audio-driving, prolonged
rhythmic movement, and hyperventilation (swift, shallow breathing).

Though dreams may happen at any time, the central religious experiences are
consciously approached through the avenue of trance. Consequently, it was the task of
San shamans to activate their supernatural potency to cause it to boil up their spines
until it explodes in their heads and takes them off to the spirit realms (Lewis-Williams,
2004:139). Interestingly, this experience of a supernatural potency or energy that is
experienced during altered states of consciousness is also described by numerous
present-day persons who, for example meditate or who had near-death experiences.
Hawkins (2002:12), an orthomolecular psychiatrist, explained a radiant energy, and
universal love and connectedness he experienced after a near-death experience.
Similarly, Mutwa (in Larson, 1996:13), a Zulu sangoma or shaman, explains the
concept of the umbilini, the Zulu version of meditation, the feeling of a hot coiled
snake ascending up your spine and bursting through the top of your head.

Lewis-Williams (2004:144) proposes that the San notions of the cosmos, as depicted in
painted and engraved imagery, although they appear mostly realistic, are metaphors
which show signs of having been processed by the human mind as it shifted back and
forth along the spectrum of consciousness. Moreover, their art and its interpretations
illustrate how metaphor, mind, image, society and cosmos coalesce.
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The San cosmology and religion are built around the belief in a tiered universe. As with
all shamanistic peoples, according to Lewis-Williams (2004:144), the San believes in a
realm above and another below the surface of the world on which they live. Moreover,
the San believe in a spiritual realm that is inhabited by God, members of his family, his
vast herds of animals, spirits of the dead (who shoot arrows of illness and disease at the
people), and strange monsters. The underworld was experienced as being both
underground and underwater with sensations depicted and described, for example, as
though passing through a tunnel, flying through the air and drowning.

Lewis-Williams (2004:145) argues that San depictions of shamanic experiences relay
the origin of universally held notions of a tiered cosmos and that they are part of the
in-built experiences of the full spectrum of human consciousness. Moreover, despite
the differences in meaning of the various San images, most of the images refer
explicitly to the spirit world and were part of, and built into, the tiered cosmos. They
spoke primarily of the cosmos and the special people who had the ability to traverse it.
They are, after all, inscribed on the veil between the material and the spiritual
realms.
2.5.2 ANCIENT EGYPTIAN PERSPECTIVE
The Egyptian historian and priest, Manetho, divided the rulers of Egypt into thirty
dynasties (or families). Subsequently, historians of ancient Egypt refined and grouped
dynasties into periods and kingdoms, including the predynastic (5000-3150 BC),
protodynastic (3150-3000 BC) and archaic (3030-2663 BC) periods (periods represent
socio-cultural and political similarities); and the old, middle, and new kingdoms, which
coincided with the main periods of Egypts development (Dodson, 2001:36, 132-133;
Goodenough, 1997:18). Each dynasty and period consists of various kings or pharaohs,
and the words king and pharaoh are largely interchangeable. Pharaoh was a title for
the king, though originally it meant the great house in which the king lived
(Goodenough, 1997:18). Despite a multiplicity of approaches and perspectives that is
evident in the various dynasties, most Egyptologists agree that the roots of Egyptian
religion may reflect archaic and primeval times.

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The following exploration of Ancient Egyptian mythology and symbolism mainly
relates to constructs derived from hieroglyphs of The Pyramid and Coffin Texts, and
The Egyptian Book of the Dead. The Book of the Dead is a title commonly given to a
collection of hieroglyphic funerary texts which the ancient Egyptian scribes composed
for the benefit of the dead (Budge, 1960:x).

Lehner (1991:115) states that it is difficult to date The Book of the Dead, because of
fragmentary evidence and numerous changes known to have been made. However,
Budge (1960) indicates that certain parts of the text date back to the predynastic period.
Of importance to this study is that contemporary knowledge of The Book of the Dead
indicates that mostly all the dynastic Egyptians believed in the following divisions of
the Self summarised from Lehner (1991:115-116):
Khat - the physical body of an individual considered as a whole;
Ab - the heart, the source of life, good and evil, and the conscience. It was the heart
that was weighed before Osiris (the Egyptian god of the underworld) to determine if
the individual was justified and worthy of entrance to heaven or the afterlife;
Ka - translated double that was an ethereal alter ego which could leave the body in
the tomb and inhabit any statue of the deceased. This life-form could also enjoy life
with the gods in heaven;
Ba - the heart-soul, which could assume material and non-material forms. It enjoyed
eternal existence, and could unite with or leave the body at will. It was for the Ka
and Ba that food offerings were left in the tomb, so they would not have to scavenge
among the living for food.
Khaibit - associated with the Ba, the shadow that could also leave the body at will
and travel wherever it pleased;
Sekhem the vital force or life-force of the individual. It was believed to have
dwelled in heaven with the Khu. (It is a term translators find difficult to define);
Khu - the spirit-soul, the immortal part of humankind which went to heaven as soon
as the body died;
Sahu - the lasting, incorruptible spirit-body which incorporated all the ethereal
elements of humankind within it; and
Ren - the name of an individual, believed to dwell in Heaven. The Egyptians were
very careful to preserve their names because they believed that one existed only as
long as ones name was preserved.
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According to Budge (1960:81), the whole man consisted of a natural body, a Spirit-
body, a heart, a double, a Heart-soul, a shadow, a Spirit-soul, and a name. All these
were, however, bound together inseparably, and the welfare of any single one of them
concerned the welfare of all.

Each of these components is represented by a hieroglyphic sign or combinations of
signs, and in turn, each hieroglyphic sign is, the trace of a being, a thing, or the world
the gods wished to bring into existence (Meeks & Meeks, 1999:6). The literal meaning
of a hieroglyph is divine word. In and of themselves, they constituted a body of
divine knowledge that had been handed down to men (Meeks & Meeks, 1999:5).

Egyptian cosmology is intertwined with mythological and symbolic representations of
gods (referred to as neters or principles) as explained by Forman and Quirke (1996:8)
the beginning of the Egyptian world was a void called Nun, an expanse as undefined
and undifferentiated as the waters. Nun, or the void and infinity, was also referred to
as the Primeval Ocean (Meeks & Meeks, 1999:14; Van Auken, 1999:6; Rundle
Clarke, 1978:29). Life and goodness were the twin spirits of this first life, which was
identified by the Egyptians as the natural source of energy, light and warmth, the sun, or
Ra, the sun god. Out of this original matter, also called Atum the all or
undifferentiated, a son and daughter of the sun, a male and female principle, were
produced. The male being was referred to as Shu, the dry air, and the female being
Tefnet, the moist (Meeks & Meeks, 1999:5).

This first couple (Shu and Tefnet) then produced a second creation, the earth-god
Geb and the sky-goddess Nut. These gods were kept apart by Shu, the air, but they,
with the intervention of Thoth, god of wisdom, united and yielded a fourth generation
of two gods, the good Osiris and the anarchic Seth, and two goddesses Isis as sister-wife
to Osiris and Nephthys as sister-wife to Seth. Nut, Neftet and Isis can be seen as the
personification of the anima (the woman within man as formulated by J ung) and Shu,
Osiris as the personification of the animus (the man within woman), and Seth as the
personification of the shadow (Meeks & Meeks, 1999:5).

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After rebellion by humankind, the creator Ra withdrew to heaven and the kingship on
earth passed from Shu to Geb to the perfect Osiris. In jealousy, Seth slew his brother,
but Isis revived him through her healing power to bear a son Horus. Mirroring the move
of Ra, Osiris descended to the underworld to rule the dead, while Isis nurtured Horus
until he was old enough to challenge Seth and win back the kingship. The triumph of
Horus, declared true of voice in his legal battle with Seth, became similarly the
hallmark of a triumph over death, whereby the name of each deceased man and woman
was followed by the phrase true of voice, justified, and specifically declared by the
tribunal to be free from evil (Meeks & Meeks, 1999:5).

Each male god had a consort and signified an aspect of nature or a state of being. The
myth seems to reflect the scheming, almost destructive side of the anima but a healing
wholeness is achieved when the anima and animus are brought into balance in a
legitimate fashion (Lehner, 1991:116). The creation myth or legend, then, presents an
archetypal parallel to the modern story of the soul.

The mythological development of the gods during the dynastic periods (4,000 BC until
525 BC) is seen in The Book of the Dead, which divided the land of Am Tuat (the
underworld), or the kingdom of Osiris, into regions or sections, sometimes seven in
number. Each of these represented a gate, or a way, which had to be followed and
passed through by utilising certain knowledge which pertained to each gate. Passing all
of the gates was necessary if one hoped to reach the City of God. Each region was
called an Arit or Mansion, and in turn, each Arit had a gatekeeper and a herald.
The gatekeeper kept watch and announced the arrival of the traveller, whereas the
herald asked the name of the traveller and interviewed him/her, reporting all the answers
given by the traveller to his companions. To gain admission to the seven Arits, the
soul (traveller) had to state the names of the gatekeeper and herald of each Arit, and
recite a ritual formula to convince them of his/her good faith (Budge, 1960:268-269).
This process of gaining acceptance into the City of God in the underworld (Am Tuat)
through the gates (Arits) of the various regions could be viewed as a reflection of the
processes and functions of individuation and transcendence as postulated by J ung and
will be discussed in a subsequent chapter.

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Rundle Clarke (1978:26) states that the ancient Egyptians used their myths to convey
insights into the workings of nature and the ultimately indescribable realities of the soul.
This is evident in the above-mentioned exploration of the creation myth and the
evolution of the gods. Moreover, Egyptian Gods are nearer the stark archetypes of the
unconscious mind than the Greek ones and, in a sense; they are more intellectual too,
for they are expressing ideas (Rundle Clarke, 1978:12). Although the Egyptian
religion is viewed as polytheistic, Budge (1960) points out that it should not be viewed
as a matter of a single or several god/s, but a single nature observed and manifested in
several principles, and hence deities.

Additionally, Egyptian myths, as expressed through hieroglyphic depictions, should be
appreciated for their religious and metaphysical penetration. The myths reflect that the
ancient Egyptians were an immensely able and deeply God conscious people, concerned
with the same great themes that are familiar to us in Greek and Christian literature
(Rundle Clarke, 1978:27).

To the ancient Egyptians there was no dichotomy; the gods were everywhere, the king
was the essential priest and all acts were played out against a background of divine
patterns. Gods, men, animals, plants and physical phenomena all belonged to the same
great order. There were no distinct realms of being and conception; germination,
sickness or chemical changes were just as much god-directed as the motions of the stars
or the beginnings of the world (Rundle Clarke, 1978:28).

Additionally, in Egyptian religion, there was a theology rooted in ritual, and
consequently, one cannot be considered without the other. For example, the shrine of
the god was the Horizon, the land of glorious light beyond the dawn horizon where
the gods dwelt. The temple was an image of the universe as it now exists and, at the
same time, the land on which it stood was the Primeval Mound which arose from the
waters of the Primordial Ocean at creation (Rundle Clarke, 1978:29).

Rundle Clarke (1978:30) is of the opinion that it is vital to the understanding of the
spirit of Egyptian religion that the symbolism should be considered as twofold. For
example, the rite was celebrated to ensure that divine grace should flow out into the
affairs of humankind, but it also represented the repetition of some mythical
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occurrences in the time of the gods (for example, Ra, Osiris, Isis and Horus). A
ceremony was meaningless without its mythical and theological references, and these
were provided in the prayers, litanies and hymns that accompanied the actions.
Although nothing definite is known about this early and ancient religion, it was
seemingly a collective concept, concerned with the prosperity of the community in
terms of fertility and success in war and hunting. Ceremonies were also devoted
particularly to the cult of the dead or ancestor worship (for example the cults of Isis,
Hathor, and Horus), and had a special regard for the moon and stars (Rundle Clarke,
1978:31).

In recent years, Egyptian art is usually considered as all symbolic, ranging from the
architectural arrangements and decoration to the adornments of the pharaohs. Egyptian
architecture, for example, represents a kind of mythical landscape where carefully
detailed aspects were ascribed with inherent meaning. For example, columns, capitals,
walls, window-lattices, drainage outlets, gateways, screens and shrines all had
significant traditional shapes with decorations indicative of mythical or theological
schemes. All had a deeper meaning, which elaborated the two-fold meaning of myth
and everyday existence as mentioned above (Ozaniec, 1994:20).

Many Egyptians were (and still are) deeply aware that their myths and symbols
expressed intuitions about the nature of God, humanity and the universe and that there
could only be partial answers to the major metaphysical and spiritual problems
(Ozaniec, 1994:20; West, 1993; Rundle Clark, 1978; Schwaller de Lubicz, 1978). The
difficult and perhaps insoluble questions that have bedeviled Christian theology are also
encountered in the literature of Ancient Egypt. These include: the rival claims of the
immanent and transcendent concepts of God; the paradox about the uncreated Creator;
the origin of evil; the male and female sides of the divine; or whether God exists in
time. Such problems were already worrying the minds of men thousands of years before
Christ (Rundle Clarke, 1978:30).
2.5.3 RECENT AFRICAN PERSPECTIVES
Knowledge of the African psyche is obtained mainly from anthropologists, philosophers
and theologians who have studied their worldviews, values, norms and cultures. Apart
from a few cross-cultural investigations that focused mainly on cognitive functioning,
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J ung was, according to Meyer et al (1997:591), the only psychologist who tried to study
the psyche of the African person. Moreover, according to Mutwa (in Larsen, 1996), few
people have bothered to study the African people carefully. Consequently, there can be
no clear picture of what they really think, believe in, hope for and why.

The most widely cited classification scheme for African philosophy, and hence
ontology and epistemology, identifies four trends; namely ethno-philosophy,
philosophical sagacity, nationalist-ideological, and critical or professional philosophy
(Oraku cited in Higgs & Smith, 2002:108). Ethno-philosophy views African philosophy
as communal thought and relies on myths, legends, traditions, and other cultural forms.
Most of the discussed in the following sections could be categorised as ethno-
philosophy.

One of the main problems associated with African cosmology and views regarding the
human psyche, is the fact that African philosophy is not a monolithic body of
knowledge and is essentially pluralistic in nature (Higgs & Smith, 2002:99). However,
notwithstanding this pluralism, and also the fact that Africans currently find themselves
somewhere on a continuum between a traditional and modern, Western way of life, as
well as tremendous geographical and human diversity, Sow and Gyekeye (1980; 1987;
cited in Meyer et al, 1997:616) respectively assert that within this diversity there is a
unity among the traditional cultures of Africa. They (Sow 1980 & Gyekeye 1987 cited
in Meyer et al, 1997:616) are of the opinion that there is an inclusive African
perspective that can be distinguished from a Western and Eastern perspective.

This unity is described by Sow (1980 quoted in Meyer et al, 1997:616) as a unity that
is evident in the realm of spirituality as well as in that of representation and expression
from works of art to behaviours manifested in everyday life. The distinctive African
character and its principles are derived from and encapsulated in symbols and myth,
merging into one the universe and the society in which the African person/personality is
formed, as well as from a collective ritual (permitting precise location of the individual
in relation to his environment and the course of his development).

In addition to this underlying unity amongst all Africans, their view of humankind and
cosmology is founded on a holistic and anthropocentric ontology. Humans form an
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indivisible whole with the cosmos and therefore a unity with God and nature (Meyer et
al, 1997:617; Mutwa in Larsen, 1996:18). Knappert (1995:227) asserts that although all
the nations from Africa may be perceived as having an extremely diverse cosmology,
they all believe in the soul and its immortality.

Mbiti (1990:35) states that the African view of the universe is profoundly religious,
Africans see it as a religious universe, and treat it as such. This assertion is echoed
by Imbo (1998). Moreover, it is generally believed throughout Africa that The Creator
or God, referred to as Unkulunkulu by Mutwa (in Larsen, 1996:35), created the
universe, which consists of both visible and invisible realities. According to African
belief, creation never stops and is never-ending and eternal. This unendingness or
eternity is symbolised as circles which are used in rituals, in art, in rock paintings, and
as decorations on stools and domestic utensils. Mbiti (1990:37) states that the
unendingness is also symbolised by drawings of a snake curled round - sometimes
with its tail in its mouth.

Humanity, the most important and privileged, is placed at the centre of this continuing
creative process. Human beings, who live on the earth, are the centre of the universe
(Mbiti, 1990:37). Moreover, humanity is likened to a mediating priest of the universe;
awakening, linking and communicating with the universe and with God, its Creator.

According to Mbiti (1990:350), in many African societies the universe is divisible into
two, the visible or the earth, and the invisible parts or the heavens and sky. Some
African cultures maintain that the universe exists in the form of an interrelated three-tier
creation, namely: the heavens, the earth and the underworld, which lies below it. It is
generally held that the heavenly universe is not empty but that it has its own population,
teeming with its own kinds of life. This means that it is more or less the counterpart of
the earth, even though what goes on there is invisible to us (Mbiti, 1990:36).

Symbolically, the earth is regarded as a living being, and is called Mother earth, the
goddess earth, or the divinity of the earth. Mutwa (in Larsen, 1996:35) calls her the
first goddess of human shape Ninhavanhu-Ma or Ma as the Imperfect Undying
One, the one who is looked on as the mother of the universe, while the heavenly part is
the father. Mbiti (1990:34) maintains that some African myths portray the heavens (or
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sky) and the earth as united as they once were in a distant past. This union is portrayed
as a place where the earth and sky seem to touch each other at the end of the horizon.

In accord with the above-mentioned assertions, Sow (1980 cited in Meyer et al,
1997:617) explains that within the above-mentioned indivisible unity or cosmic whole,
three African cosmic orders or realities can theoretically be distinguished namely the
macro, meso and micro-cosmos.

The macro-cosmos is the domain within which God, the ancestors and the spirits of
certain elected deceased people are encountered. This is also the order in which the
religious existence that enfolds the full humanness of traditional Africans is grounded
(Sow cited in Meyer et al, 1997:617). Originally, according to various African myths,
there was no division between God and his people with whom He resided in daily life.
However, God transcended everyday living and the ancestors now act as intervening
mediums between God and his people.

The meso-cosmos is the order where coincidence and the forces of malignant spirits and
sorcerers are active. The meso-cosmos is situated in the world of individual and
collective imagination, and involves the living reality (animals and humans) as well as
the natural physical reality (that is forests, bushes, trees and rivers) (Meyer et al,
1997:618). Sow (1980 cited in Meyer et al, 1997:619) refers to this level as the
structured collective imaginary since it gives form to the desires, fears, anxieties and
hope for success in daily existence. It also explains that, from an African perspective,
human behaviour is the outcome of external agents and not intrapsychic or interpersonal
dynamics. Individuals cannot therefore hold themselves responsible or accountable for
their own behaviour because the causes of all behaviour and events are ascribed to
external supernatural beings or powers (Meyer et al, 1997:619).

The micro-cosmos is the domain of the individual person in his or her everyday
collective existence, which is influenced by the macro-cosmos and meso-cosmos.
According to Nobles (1991 cited in Meyer et al, 1997:619), the European ethos rests on
the principle of individual survival enshrined in the theory of evolution, or the survival
of the fittest, and on the divine commandment of J udaeo-Christian order to control and
rule nature. In contrast to this, the traditional African ethos rests on the survival of the
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community (tribe) and a union with nature. Mbiti (1990:106) states that the identity of
the traditional African is totally embedded in his or her collective existence. He explains
that whatever happens to the whole group happens to the individual, thus I am, because
we are; and since we are therefore I am. This is the cardinal point in the understanding
of the African view of man. Imbo (1998:55) who quotes proverbs from Sotho reinforces
this statement: Motho ke motho ka batho and Xhosa: Umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu,
meaning, man is man by his fellowmen.

This apparent negation by Africans of a unique individual identity is partly shared by
Eastern perspectives in which the emphasis is on the transcendence of an ego or unique
identity, and by the post-modern views that eliminate or underplay the ego-identity.
What is interesting, however, is that traditional Africans, for all their emphasis on the
collective, use individual names unique to the individual, and not collective family
names (Mbiti, 1990). Mbiti (1990:115) elaborates on this as follows: Some names
describe the personality of the individual, or his character, or some key events in his
life. There is no stop to the giving of names in African societies, so that a person can
acquire a sizeable collection of names by the time he becomes an old man. The name is
the person, and many names are often descriptive of the individual.

According to Meyer et al (1997:622), the cognitive functioning of Africans is closely
interwoven with their collective way of life, and in comparison with the analytical and
discursive way of the Westerner can be typified as intuitive by participation. This
participatory nature of Africans may also be reflected in the construct of Black
Consciousness. Although it may be perceived as a socio-political reaction to years of
oppression under the apartheid regime, the following statement by Biko (1987:91)
indirectly reflects an expression of underlying unity and brotherhood: Black
consciousness is an attitude of mind and a way of life, the most positive call to emanate
from the black world for a long time. Its essence is the realisation by the black man of
the need to rally togetherThe philosophy of Black Consciousness therefore expresses
group pride and the determination of the black to rise and attain the envisaged self.

Biko (1987:93) adds that a Black Consciousness should include the realisation that
African religion in essence is no different from, for example, Christianity. Africans
believe in one God whom they serve in every activity from beer-drinking to cultural
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activities. We believe in the inherent goodness of man hence, we took it for granted
that all people at death joined the community of the saints and therefore merited our
respect (Biko, 1987:93).

Pasteur and Toldson (1982 quoted in Meyer et al, 1997:625) state Westerners would do
well to adopt features of the traditional African way of life in order to attain optimal
mental health: And it is Africa, and the people of Africa, to which we must turn for
modes of living, models of therapy, models of learning and instruction that allow for an
enduring fulfilment and satisfaction, models that vibrate with natures pulse rhythm.
2.6 EASTERN PERSPECTIVES
The prospect of an increase in globalisation and a resultant enhanced cultural contact
necessitate a mutual understanding and knowledge of the life and worldviews of the
East (Meyer et al, 1997:591). According to Meyer et al (1997:591), the only early
personality theorists in psychology whose work showed evidence of an Eastern
influence were William J ames, Carl J ung and Abraham Maslow. However, Westerners
are increasingly realising that they cannot claim to possess universal truths about human
functioning where there is an Eastern or African perspective that has as much claim to
the truth as does the West. Nabar and Tumkur (1997:x) write there are indeed more
things under our heaven and earth that could be dreamed of in a contemporary Western
perspective. A similar sentiment holds true for communication studies.

Meyer et al (1997:591) assert that the most important difference between a Western and
Eastern view of the psyche lies in their epistemological and ontological points of view.
Western psychology has a philosophical and scientific tradition strongly embedded
within the positivist and empirical paradigm of humankind. It can therefore be typified
as scientific, analytical and reductionistic, with the goal of analysing, predicting and
controlling human behaviour. Eastern psychology, typified as intuitive and integrating,
is imbued with a religious and metaphysical tradition, with subjective observation and
direct experience as its paradigm. The major aim of an Eastern view of humankind is to
acquire knowledge of the soul and how to set it free through self-realisation (Paranjpe,
1984; Ho 1988 cited in Meyer et al, 1997:591).

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Atwood and Maltin (quoted in Meyer et al, 1997:591) state, the highest aim is to
become aware of the unity and mutual interrelation of all things, to transcend the notion
of an isolated individual self, and to identify themselves with the ultimate reality ... The
cosmos is seen as one inseparable reality - forever in motion, alive, organic: spiritual
and material at the same time. The two basic themes of this conception are the unity and
interrelation of all phenomena and the intrinsically dynamic nature of the universe.

The following discussion provides only a selective overview of a broad Eastern
perspective, a detailed discussion of the diverse branches within the Eastern perspective
lies beyond its scope. Attention will be given to the non-dualistic Vedanta interpretation
of philosophical texts of the Upanishads dating back to 2000 BC and the Bhagavad-
Gita by the Eastern philosopher Sankara (788-820) which represents Hinduism or
Santana Dharma (eternal teaching). Additionally, Buddhism, which represents both
Indian and Chinese perspectives, will be described.

Since the focus of this chapter is to explore a diversity of views regarding reality,
specifically, reference to a unitary reality, the exploration will be limited to views
relating to such a construct and not the multifarious components of a worldview.
2.6.1 HINDUISM
Two major religious movements may be identified from texts on Eastern philosophy.
The first movement or Vedic Hinduism was described as the religion of Indias Aryan
invaders (1500-800 BC) which included the notion of brahman or sacrificial power
controlled by priests. The term Vedic is derived from the Rig Veda (also referred to as
Veda) or sacred texts of these Aryan invaders written between 1500-800 BC. The Rig
Veda is the book of Mantra (Sanskrit for the word of God) and is built around a science
of sound which comprehends the meaning and power of each letter of the Sanskrit
alphabet (Frawley, 1990:140). Although Koeller, (1998) indicates that the Rig Veda was
supposedly written by the Aryans who entered the Indus Valley toward the end of the
Harappan civilisation, Frawley [sa] is of the opinion that the long held premise of an
Aryan invasion is being questioned in recent times.

Frawley (1990:140) states that the Rig Veda is probably the most universal and
comprehensive of ancient Indian teachings, but has been reduced to a polytheistic
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interpretation, though it frequently states the unity of truth and the identity of one god
with all the gods. He (Frawley, 1990:22) describes Veda as a spiritual science based on
synthesis and integration. For example, each god or goddess can be any or all the gods.
The concepts of monotheism, polytheism, pantheism and monism are all woven
together. Moreover, the spiritual scientific systems have an integral structure and a
unified worldview.

The Rig Veda is composed of ten books (called mandalas in Sanskrit). The ninth book is
the Soma and is the oldest. Each hymn of the Soma is dedicated to a certain deity
(devata) and these Vedic deities have various levels of meaning. They represent an
intuitive symbology which transcends the limited constructs of the intellectual mind.
For example, Agni is the god of consciousness, awareness and mindfulness with the
sacred fire as his symbol. Aditi is the goddess of Infinite Oneness and Wholeness.
Moreover, each of the gods has a consort, for example, Indra and Indrani, Varuna and
Varunani. The trinity of later Hinduism, namely Brahma the creator, Vishnu the
maintainer and Shiva the destroyer is covertly present in the Rig Veda. Brahma is
Brihaspati, also called Brahmanaspati, the priest of the gods, Vishnu is an important
form of the sun god, and later all forms of the sun god were merged into him (Frawley,
1990:33-34).

Each god or goddess represents certain divine qualities and are present as the guiding
forces, both in nature and in the human psyche. Hence, they are largely a personification
of ideas and truthful perceptions, hence, the great archetypes of the Divine Mind. The
god Mitra, for example, whose name literally means friend, represents friendship and its
importance in life as a divine or spiritual quality (Frawley, 1990:35).

Brahmanism (1000-300 BC) was a reform movement within Hinduism which de-
emphasised priestly sacrificial rites and emphasised the notion of the Atman-Brahman
(Self-God). This concept will be explained in a subsequent paragraph. The Vedanta
represents one of Bramanisms formal schools of emancipation which draws heavily on
the Upanishads (108 philosophical Brahmanic texts which emphasise the doctrine of the
Atman-Brahman). It is composed of two main sub schools, one of which includes
Sankaras Advaita Vedanta (monistic Vedanta). It was ostensibly established or
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developed in reaction to the Vedas or sacrificial priests, since Vedanta literally means
end of the Vedas (Frawley, 1990).

Paranjpe and Rear (1988, 1990 cited in Meyer et al, 1997:595) state that it is impossible
to separate the view of the psyche or soul and the worldview inherent in Sankaras non-
dualistic (Advaita) approach. It proposes a single fundamental reality, Brahman, which
is indescribable, omnipresent and without form or feature. This reality transfuses and
transcends the phenomenal world, or the world of objects, which humans know and
experience through their senses and sometimes erroneously accept as the only and true
reality. Isherwood (1963:9) states that Brahman is existence itself, consciousness itself,
or Ananda in Sanskrit, which could be translated as bliss.

This unified and single reality or Brahman can be known and experienced through a
trans-cognitive state of consciousness of the real Self or Atman, which is essentially the
same as, and part of the formless, single Brahman (Hiriyanna, 2000:22). Isherwood
(1965:10) describes the Atman as the Brahman-within-the-creature or the immanent
one. However, Atman and Brahman are essentially one, hence Atman-Brahman as
mentioned above. Additionally, the transcendent, formless and featureless Brahman is
experienced through the ordinary senses and reason of the jiva (the changing self aspect
of the individual which is part of the Atman) through which the phenomenal world is
known (Meyer et al, 1997:594). Paranjpe (1988 quoted in Meyer et al, 1997:594)
characterises the Vedantic approach as a combination of a monistic ontology with a
dualistic epistemology - in other words a single reality that can be known in two ways.
This relates to Frawleys (1990:14) explanation that the Vedic science consists of theory
or wisdom (Veda and Vedanta) and practice and application (Yoga). Although it has
two components, they are interrelated and each branch tends or strives towards the same
universality. Isherwood (1965:10) explains that the aim of life is to realise an essential
nature or Atman, and hence re-unite with the one underlying Reality, Brahman
(Hiriyanna, 2000:23).

According to Paranjpe (1984 cited in Meyer et al, 1997:597), Vedanta distinguishes
four psychological functions in addition to sensory and motor functions:
Mind (manas), which is manifested in the cognitive functions of analysis
differentiation and integration;
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Intellect (buddhi), the volitional activities involved in planning a particular course
of action;
Ego (ahamkara, aham) which manifests as self-consciousness in determining ones
own identity; and
Psyche (citta), which is involved in the memory traces of activities and experiences
of the past. It is therefore a store of karma (lawful influences that determine
behaviour) from the past, which is important in explaining the behaviour of the
present. However, Swami Prabhavananda (in Isherwood, 1965:44) refers to chitta
as the mind with manas, buddhi, and aham as its components.

Isherwood (1965:15) explains that, according to the Vedantic approach, the individual
may be in one of four states of consciousness, namely wakefulness, dreaming, deep
sleep and the Fourth State (turiya), which is also called the trance state. Atman (ones
real self) and Brahman (the ultimate reality) are experienced only in the higher Fourth
State of consciousness. The higher Fourth State of consciousness is not commonly
experienced and is difficult to describe, since its nature is generally expressed in
metaphors or verse. The experience of oneness of the Atman with Brahman is called
Samadhi, mystical union or transcendental consciousness.

In accord with these descriptions, Chopra (1989:167) explains that ancient Indian
rishis (individuals who could enter the fourth dimension or state) and sadhus (holy
men) contemplated an ultimate unified reality and used a subjective approach called
Yoga (the Sanskrit word for union) to enter such a unified reality. Hence, where
Einsteins quest for a unified field theory was a theoretical one, the rishis declared that
a unified theory was an experience and not a mental construct. The Indian terms turiya
(fourth) and para (beyond) alludes to a transcendent state beyond the three states of
waking, sleeping and dreaming (Chopra, 1989:170; Sharma, 1975:66).

According to Chopra (1989:173, 174), Veda represents the entire transcendental
awareness and experience that is universal and can be had by anyone. This concept is
seemingly similar to J ungs construct of the unus mundus or unitary world that is
accessible through symbols of the collective unconscious. Paradoxically, the Vedic
seers or rishis held that humans are not only onlookers peering into the unified field,
they are the unified field.
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An aspect that forms an inherent part of the Hindu tradition is that of karma or the law
of karma and reincarnation. The underpinning premise of karma is that all change is
regulated and determined by essential, pre-existing forces locked upon inescapable,
necessary outcomes. Unlike the causal laws of Newton which apply exclusively to
natural scientific phenomena, the law of karma applies to the moral as well as to the
natural sphere. According to this law, each person has to bear the consequences of his or
her good and bad deeds - in other words, we reap what we sow (Frawley, 1990:84).

Karma, in the Vedic view, refers to the fact that all life is a ritual; that is, all life is a
repeated action which produces certain subtle results. In turn, these results determine
our future condition and the state of the world we live in. Each action has a certain
effect which determines who we are and what we will become. Additionally, the law of
karma means that the other is also ourselves, and hence, whatever we do to others, we
do to ourselves. Our karmas are all linked to collective as well as individual karma. Yet,
even if we balance our individual karma, we cannot change the collective karma or the
nature of the world (Frawley, 1990:84).

A Hindu construct that relates to J ung and Freuds libido or psychic energy is the
kundalini, which has become a relatively familiar term today. Kundalini works with the
seed energy of the subtle body, which is aroused through a coordination of posture,
breath and mantra (sound), along with certain visualisations. The kundalini itself is
looked upon as a deity; the goddess, or the high priestess who leads us into the divine
realms of our higher nature (Frawley, 1990:133).
2.6.2 BUDDHISM
Buddhism has its sources in the philosophical, religious and psychological insights of
Gautama, the Buddha (563-483 BC). Buddha literally means the enlightened one
which variously refers to Siddhartha Gautama or any enlightened person. These insights
formed the various branches of theoretical and practical Buddhism. Buddhism stresses
the movement of the individual through different states of consciousness from the
mundane and physical sensations to the supreme and sublime, and ultimately,
transcendence and release in nirvana (Hiriyanna, 2000:22; Meyer et al, 1997:603).

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The view of humankind and worldview underlying the perspective are the outcome of
an empirical approach based on direct extrospective and introspective observation. It is
opposed to any metaphysical speculations that do not revolve around the basic problems
of being human (Meyer et al, 1997:603-604). Individual meditation and contemplation
are viewed as experiential and essential to transformation.

Additionally, in Buddhism the self is described as a process rather than a given and
fixed state of being. For example, the illusion of a self is created by combining the
parts of the body, thoughts, sensations, desires and memories. These processes are,
however, all changeable and ephemeral and the only real continuity is that of evolving
consciousness. Each successive moment of consciousness is shaped by the previous one
and will, in turn, be shaped by the next. The self is therefore like a river that has a
constant form, which creates the illusion of a unique identity, but in reality its content is
constantly changing and not one of the drops of water in the river is the same as it was a
moment earlier (Meyer et al, 1997:604). The Buddhist view of the identity of the
individual is I-as-process rather than I-as-identity with consciousness as the starting
point. The subject (I or ego) owes its existence entirely to the process - a view also to be
found in some of the post-modern theories of human functioning (Meyer et al,
1997:604).

The essence of Buddhism is described by Boeree (2002) as the Four Noble Truths, the
eight fold way and the middle path. The four noble truths include:
Life is suffering. Suffering is perhaps the most common translation for the Sanskrit
word duhkha, which can be translated as imperfect, stressful, or filled with
anguish. Contributing to the anguish is anitya - the fact that all things are
impermanent, including all living beings. Furthermore, there is the concept of
anatman - literally, "no soul". Anatman means that all things are interconnected
and interdependent, implying that nothing, including ourselves, has a separate
existence.
Suffering is due to attachment. Attachment is a common translation for the word
trishna, which literally means thirst and is also translated as desire, clinging,
greed, craving, or lust. Because the world and we are imperfect, impermanent, and
not separate, we are forever clinging to things, each other, and ourselves, in a
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mistaken effort at permanence. Besides trishna, there is dvesha, which means
avoidance or hatred. Hatred implies its own kind of clinging.
Attachment can be overcome. Not fully understanding the impermanence of things
is what leads us to cling in the first place. Perhaps the most misunderstood term in
Buddhism is the one, which refers to the overcoming of attachment: nirvana. It
literally means, blowing out, but is often used to refer to either a Buddhist heaven
or complete nothingness. However, it refers to the letting go of clinging, hatred, and
ignorance, and the full acceptance of imperfection, impermanence, and
interconnectedness.
There is a path for accomplishing this. The path, called dharma, which Buddha
called the middle way is understood as meaning the middle way between such
competing philosophies as materialism and idealism, or hedonism and asceticism.
This path or middle way is elaborated as the eightfold path which, according to
Boeree (2002), includes the Right view, Right aspiration (these two are referred to
as praja, or wisdom), Right speech, Right action, Right livelihood (these three are
referred to as shila, or morality), Right effort, Right mindfulness and Right
concentration. The last three are known as samadhi, or meditation. Meditation
should be done in such a way to realise a true understanding of imperfection,
impermanence, and non-separateness progressively.

Constructs closely related to J ungs postulation of the individuation and transcendent
functions are samsara or the Wheel of Life (reincarnation) and imperfect existence,
and nirvana or releasing the individual from the wheel of life (Boeree, 2002).

Certain concepts and ideas in Buddhism are interpreted by most Buddhists as
metaphorical and mythological. These concepts are similar to certain Western concepts
and include heavens and hells, ghosts and angels, the trinity, the saints and the origin of
this world or Mount Meru (Boeree, 2002). Each of these concepts is also represented by
symbolic versions and interpretations. For example, the realms of form and
formlessness are in samsara, imperfect existence, and therefore governed by karma and
its fruits (vipaka). The world extends around Mount Meru. Above the peak is the realm
of the Buddha fields (or heavens). On the upper slopes you find the gods. The titans live
on the lower slopes. Animals and humans live on the plains around the mountain.
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Hungry ghosts live on or just below the surface. And hell is deep under the earth. All
this is surrounded by a great ocean (Boeree, 2002).
2.6.3 COMMENTARY: AFRICAN, EASTERN AND ANCIENT EGYPTIAN
PERSPECTIVES
Noticeably, despite the vast and diverse genres and epics explored, there is a frequent
and recurrent grand theme of a unitary reality emerging from the exploration. Moreover,
image, symbol and myth persistently play central roles in the portrayal of both ancient
and contemporary representations of such a unitary reality. The axiomatic assumptions
inherent in, for example, creation myths and religious and transpersonal descriptions in
the African and Eastern and ancient Egyptian rendering of the human soul or psyche
and their juxtapositions with the construct of the Self and archetypes will be addressed
in the final chapter of this study.

The preceding sections focussed on the philosophical, psychological and cultural origins
and appearance of archetypal theories and consequently their manifestation in the social
sciences. In keeping with the integrative and inclusive aim of this chapter, it is in
addition essential to explore the recount of the construct in the physical sciences,
specifically in quantum physics since a convergence of unitary constructs has been
alluded to by various quantum physicists in preceding sections.
2.7 QUANTUM PHYSICS
Einstein proposed the general theory of relativity in formulating the unified field theory
in which the field is continuous and indivisible (Bohm, 1983:125). From this
description of reality, various authors have postulated a new unity and cohesion
between science and mysticism. Bohm (1983:174) states that the unified field theory
gave a concrete description of the particle as being derived from an unbroken and
undivided totality of existence. Zukav (1980:272) states that the so-called new physics
and the new frontiers of theoretical physics appear to address questions regarding an
undivided totality of everything.

Quantum field theory, (the term quantum is derived from Plancks (1900) theory of
quanta the plural of quantum) was the first theory to merge relativity and quantum
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theory (Zukav, 1980:219). According to quantum physics, humanitys consciousness is
intimately connected with reality; hence, mind and matter are not separate but
connected. For example, Goswami (1993:3-4) postulates that quantum objects, which
are waves that are simultaneously present in various places, may be observable in one
place because of human consciousness acting as the agent that focuses the waves. This
is referred to the collapse of the wave. Consciousness is hence the agency that affects
quantum objects to make their behaviour sensible (Goswami, 1993:3-4).

Quantum theory hence indicates that atomic phenomena can only clearly be understood
as links in a chain of processes, the end of which lies in the consciousness of the
observer (Capra, 1992:332). Moreover, the explicit inclusion of human consciousness
may be an essential aspect of future theories of matter. Human beings are seen as the
living proof of cosmic intelligence; in us, the universe repeats over and over again its
ability to produce forms through which it becomes consciously aware of itself (Capra,
1992:332).

Capra (1992:337-338) indicates that the physicist and the mystic arrive at the same
conclusions, one starting from the inner realm, the other from the outer world. The
conclusions are the awareness of the unity of all events and things, and of humanity and
its consciousness as an integral part of this unity. The harmony between the physicists
and mystics views confirms the ancient Indian wisdom that Brahman, the ultimate
reality without, is identical to Atman, the reality within.

In accord with the above-mentioned statements, Wolf (1993:xv) asserts that the
universe is self-aware, and that it is consciousness itself that creates the physical
world. He states that the objective reality out there, independent of consciousness
(which says, for example, that a thing cannot be in two or more places at the same time),
is an illusion of our thinking. This assertion is supported by Kaufman (2002:2) who
proposes a unified reality theory as opposed to a unified field force. This unified reality
theory is a manifestation of a singular or unitary absolute existence which has
consciousness as an attribute thats intrinsic to its nature (Kaufman, 2002:3). Human
consciousness is part of this unified reality through the process of self-relational
expression of the unitary absolute existence. This relates to the following statement by
Goswami (1993:188).
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Goswami (1993:188) explains: The self of self-reference and the consciousness of the
original consciousness make what we call self-consciousness. The self (the I) is not a
thing but a relationship between consciousness and the immediate environment. In a
conscious experience, the world appears to be divided into subject and object(s)
(Goswami, 1993:199). Primary awareness of I-am-ness is called the quantum self;
and consciousness identifies with the emergent self-reference of its quantum self, in
which unity between subject and object still exists. In the quantum theory of self, the
Atman (The Ultimate) is seen as the quantum self, ...the unconditioned universal
subject with which consciousness identifies. The division between object and subject
produces the dominant experience of ego, I-am-This (Goswami, 1993:205).

Goswami (1993:207) also explains that when we are dreaming or are under hypnosis,
the secondary experiences of awareness of the ego are absent and hence, the normal
inhibitions against collapsing repressed mental states are weakened. Additionally,
dreams and hypnosis are useful for bringing the unconscious to conscious awareness.

Transpersonal experiences, such as peak experiences (experiences of ultimate being and
connectedness), are explained in quantum theory by nonlocality, which is the
communication or propagation of influence without local signs (Goswami, 1993:204).
Paranormal experiences such as telepathy and nonlocal synchronicity (such as
simultaneous scientific discoveries) provide examples of nonlocality, which quantum
theory explains as the direct experiences of the quantum modality of the self. This
phenomenon of instantaneous wave/particle communication which occurs nonlocally
and is faster than the speed of light is also described as superluminal communication
(Bauman, 2002:51). Bauman (2002:75) explains that quantum theory, superluminal
communication, and the collective unconscious are all interconnected: Understanding
the basic tenets of quantum theory, with or without a religious background, can bolster
acceptance of this realm of collective knowledge. He (Bauman, 2002:75) proposes that
superluminal quantum connectedness (superluminal communication) explains
previously unexplained phenomena, including the collective unconscious.
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2.8 MEMETICS
A very alternative and maverick construct that possibly relates to the J ungian archetypal
structure and a unitary reality is that of a meme and its collective study, memetics,
proposed by Dawkins (1976), an evolutionary biologist. Dawkins (1976) suggests that
all life everywhere in the universe must evolve by the differential survival of slightly
inaccurate self-replicating entities. Examples of memes are tunes, ideas, catch-phrases,
clothes, fashions, and ways of making pots or of building arches. Just as genes
propagate themselves in the gene pool by leaping from body to body via sperm or eggs,
so memes propagate themselves in the meme pool by leaping from brain to brain via a
process which, in the broad sense, can be called imitation. If a scientist hears, or reads
about, a good idea, he passes it on to his colleagues and students (Dawkins, 1976:192).
Blackmore (1996) indicates that a meme as an analogy to a gene is an idea which
mutates and is inherited like a gene and spreads like a virus.

A meme could thus be explained as a contagious information pattern that replicates by
parasitically infecting human minds and altering their behaviour, causing them to
propagate the pattern. Individual slogans, catch-phrases, melodies, icons, inventions,
and fashions are typical memes. An idea or information pattern is not a meme until it
causes someone to replicate it by repeating it to someone else. All transmitted
knowledge is memetic (Grant, 1990). Seemingly, the process of replication may be
compared and equated with communication.

A concept related to memes is the meme-complex or m-plex or a set of mutually-
assisting memes which have co-evolved a symbiotic relationship. Religious and
political dogmas, social movements, artistic styles, traditions and customs, chain letters,
paradigms, and languages are meme-complexes (Grant, 1990). The meme additionally
evolves and propagates within an ideosphere which could be compared to the
biosphere which is the realm of biological evolution.

Dawkins (1989:192) explains that, for example, the idea of God originated from an
unknown source, but exits in the global cultural pool. However, its mutation is credited
to the spoken and written word, aided by great music and great art. The survival value
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of the god meme in the meme pool results from its great psychological appeal. It
provides a superficially plausible answer to deep and troubling questions of whether
God exists, if only in the form of a meme with high survival value, or infective power in
the environment provided by human culture (Dawkins, 1989:192).

This researcher is of the opinion that Dawkins has formulated the theory of memetics in
response to observations of symbolic patterns repeating themselves. Doubtful of the
possibility of inherent patterns in the mind, the theory of infectious thoughts or memes
was consequently proposed. However, recent research indicates that J ung and his
predecessors anticipation of innate mental patterns or archetypes in the human mind
may not have been as incredible as they have been assessed in the past.
2.9 CURRENT STANDING OF ARCHETYPAL THEORY
Maloney (1999:101) states that for years, archetype or archetypal theory remained
somewhat removed from mainstream psychological investigation, partly because it
holds that the human mind is not a blank slate at birth (J ung, 1958, 1976). For the past
thirty years, however, a wealth of experimental results has shown the mind to be
innately structured.

Dehaene-Lambert (1994 cited in Maloney, 1999:102), for example, states that linguistic
research describes infants as having sophisticated, physiologically based, linguistic
competencies well before these are productively useful. Gazzaniga (1989 cited in
Maloney, 1999:102) asserts that neurological research shows that the human brains
innate structure affects its function. Additionally, artificial neural network research,
which uses computer models of known neurological structure and function, shows that
initial structure is required for complex functions (Rumelhart 1989 cited in Maloney,
1999:102).

Cosmides (1995 quoted in Maloney, 1999:102) explains that evolutionary psychology
indicates a richly structured mind of proximate psychological algorithms that promote
behaviour serving an ultimate adaptive advantage. Maloney (1999:102) concludes that
a full range of disciplines relevant to contemporary psychology show the mind to be
innately structured.

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Research hence indicates that innate structures of the mind relate to human functioning
as J ung postulated. For example, Edelman (1993 cited in Maloney, 1999:102) shows
that in artificial neural network research once a neurologically modelled system is
given a value, the systems behaviour tends to converge in the direction favoured by
the intrinsic value system. In addition, neurophysiologic research shows that
subjective experience is shaped by endogenous expectations (Freeman cited in
Maloney, 1999:102). One is reminded of what J ung (quoted in Van Eenwyk, 1997:116)
said, I call all conscious contents images, since they are reflections of processes in the
brain.

Maloney (1999:102) asserts that the complementarities of empirical research on innate
mental structure and archetype theory afford a more comprehensive approach to the
study of innate mental structure. Important wider implications of innate mental
structure are questions of how they produce human functioning, constitute inherited
information or a form of innate knowledge, and shape subjective experience. According
to Maloney (1999:102), archetypal theory provides a powerful perspective in
understanding subjective experience, and the ways in which innate structure manifests
itself in dreams, psychotic experiences, mythology, folktales, religious experience and
creativity among others. Additionally, archetype theory is particularly salient since,
according to Maloney (1999:102), innate knowledge can no longer be dismissed as
fanciful; rather, its presence is supported by a wealth of applicable empirical
research.

Despite the aforementioned assertions, ongoing research and debates relentlessly return
to the basic question of innate structures, albeit from different angles. For example,
Knox (2004:1) challenges the view that mental contents can be innate and offers instead
a developmental model in which mental contents emerge from the interaction of genes,
brain and environment. Knox (2004:1) proposes that the formation of image schemas
represent steps in this developmental model and the pinnacle of this capacity is achieved
in the emergence of a reflective function, in which mind is represented to itself.

Knox (2004:2) additionally asserts, The human mind can never be fully understood by
fragmenting it into the building blocks out of which it is constructed. The siren call of
reductionism emerged most powerfully in the extremes of behaviourism, in which the
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representational world of the human mind is seen as playing no significant role at all in
the scientific study of human life. It was indeed the death of mind. According to Knox
(2004:3), one should guard against a tendency in neuroscience and cognitive science to
run the risk of reducing the mind only to its component parts and consequently
fragmenting the symbolic into underlying concrete parts like behaviourism did.
Alternatively, Knox (2004:3) argues that the brain does not have to be studied at the
expense of the mind; both areas of research can enrich understanding of the mental
world by linking mind and brain, without giving in to the danger of entropy.

A developmental account of archetypes, according to Knox (2004:6), lends
considerable scientific support to the key role archetypes play in psychic functioning
and as a crucial source of symbolic imagery, but at the same time identifies archetypes
as emergent structures resulting from a developmental interaction between genes and
environment that is unique for each person. Archetypes are hence not hard-wired
collections of universal imagery waiting to be released by the right environmental
trigger. Moreover, archetypes are not genetic codes containing blueprints of complex
information or biological entities that also contain symbolic meaning.

According to Knox (2004:6), these assertions are corroborated by authors of a book
called Rethinking Innateness where they assert that innate blueprints have never been
discovered. Moreover, such blueprints are not logically possible, since there is simply
not enough space in the genome to contain a full and complete description of the adult
(Elman, Bates, J ohnson, Karmiloff-Smith, Parisi & Plunkett quoted in Knox, 2004:5).
Elman et al (quoted in Knox, 2004:6) furthermore explains that the recently completed
map of the human genome offers conclusive evidence for the accuracy of these
comments. Instead of the 100,000 or more genes that scientists expected to find, there
are no more than about 30,000 in the human genetic code. Hence, it would be
impossible for the complexity of a human being, both body and mind, to be stored as a
blueprint of information in such a small number of genes.

Alternatively, Knox (2004:7) proposes that the earliest psychic concepts to develop are
the image schemas which are experienced in non-verbal and embodied ways, rather than
as pre-existing fully-fledged symbolic meanings waiting to be activated. The
emergence of archetypes out of the earliest stages of psychic development forms the
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foundation for the development of core meanings as we gradually construct mental
models of the world around us, organizing day-to-day experience into patterns which
can then guide our future expectations of life in all its aspects, including our
expectations of relationships (Knox, 2004:16).

The analysis of the activation of image schemas, or archetypes, may provide the first
step towards the gradual emergence of the capacity to symbolise. Knox (2004:15) hence
proposes a gradual process of emergence with the activation of the archetypes as the
first step in the process. Knox (2004:16) explains that the creation of narrative
competence, the ability to connect past and present experiences together into a
meaningful story is the next stage in this process. Additionally, at the highest levels of
psychic complexity, the achievement of a reflective function emerges and forms the
basis for the creation of new patterns of meaning and relationship in analysis. Each
emergent step, which also represents a higher level of symbolic complexity, is both
embedded in and governed by the previous step. Furthermore, rules govern each
successive step which is also shaped by environmental influences directing and shaping
each individuals developmental potential. Knox (2004:16) is of the opinion that an
account of this interaction and the forms that it takes is a major task for analytical
psychology and psychoanalysis in the 21
st
century. A systemic and developmental
model will be incorporated in this study in a subsequent chapter.

Knox (2004:10) furthermore asserts that symbolic understanding is a constant two-way
process in which implicit and explicit patterns are interpreted and reinterpreted. This
process, according to Knox (2004:11), is encapsulated in J ungs construct of the
transcendent function. This function will be explored in detail in a subsequent chapter.
2.10 COMMENTS AND SUMMARY
J udging by the core concepts extrapolated from the exploration of an extensive range of
perspectives and disciplines in the preceding sections of this chapter, the notion of a
unitary reality is apparently a widely accepted and applied construct. Consequently,
despite the fact that it may be deemed as romantic, idealistic or mythical, apparently, it
has a universal appeal and a widespread influence in, for example, art, religion,
philosophy, psychology and even quantum physics. Furthermore, an implied need for
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wholeness is expressed and represented in images and symbols found in myths, dreams,
architecture, religion and art.

These assertions are echoed in various other cultures and religions including some not
specified in the preceding exploration. For example, Haeri (1989:1) states that in
essence and origin all humanity is one and that one adamic self is the pillar of all
Islamic teachings stated in the Quran, the Prophetic traditions and the masters and
saints.

Specifically assumptions derived from depth psychology regarding transpersonal or
collective and archetypal forces, or archetypes in the depths of an embedded psyche
which spontaneously generates mythico-religious symbolism directly relate to the scope
of the study. Moreover, the statement that the psyches personal and transpersonal poles
meet in the seat of meaningful experience or soul, represented by a shifting interactive
field of subjective and objective activities between the sender and the receiver of it,
has implications for intrapsychic communication which need further investigation.

The statement by Aerts et al (1994:10) that in the distant past, worldviews have been
primarily cosmocentric, where most philosophical elucidation was aimed at
establishing connections between humanity and the cosmos, a bias still present in many
non-western cultures, is noticeable in the African and Eastern perspectives. Laughlin
and Troop (2001:711) refer to these traditional cosmologies as mythopoetic systems
where the societys entire corpus of sacred cosmological symbolism or mythopoeia is
interconnected within the context of the unity of cosmic understanding.

Moreover, the synthesis of the scientific and philosophical, and Eastern and Western
worlds is evident in the numinous explanations of a tiered human consciousness and
cosmos reflected in almost all perspectives explored. The explanations include the
awareness of the unity of all events and things, and of humanity and its consciousness
as an integral part of this unity. This implies that every axiomatic system which loses
sight of its interconnectedness is incomplete, and will provide an explanation only to a
certain point. Therefore, the human mind will always keep looking for deeper
explanations, as exhibited, for example, by Plato (428-348 BC).

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An important implication of a unitary reality is that humanity can only be understood as
a whole, signifying that science and spiritual and transpersonal elucidation need not
exclude one another. Both can provide irreducible contributions to the construction of
worldviews and paradigms, and the realities they portray. Unfortunately, though, the
chasm that exists between mythos and logos, or art and science, is difficult to bridge
since myth, art and the humanities are historically and scientifically perceived as
inferior.

Image, myth and symbol appear to be primarily described as the language of the
unconscious which is familiar, but not always comprehensible. Moreover, they convey
mundane and profound, transpersonal meaning, and seemingly reflect inherent mental
structures referred to as archetypes of the collective unconscious. The nature of these
ubiquitous mental structures, hence archetypes, their symbolic expression and
relationship to communication studies will be explored in the next chapter.
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