MME/06/8201, LOTO OLUWASAYO I.

Contents
1.0 PRINCIPLE OF MATERIAL SELECTION .................................................................................................. 2 1.1 Material Selection for a New Design .............................................................................................. 2 1.2 Material Substitution for an Existing Design ................................................................................... 3 1.3 Design Limiting Properties ............................................................................................................. 4 1.4 Functions, Objectives, Constraints And Variables ........................................................................... 4 1.5 Process of Material Selection in relation to Design ......................................................................... 5 2.0 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISITICS OF MATERIALS ............................................................................ 5 2.1 TOOLS IN THE SELECTING PROCEDURE............................................................................................... 8 2.1.1Material Selection Chart........................................................................................................... 8 2.1.2 Material Indices .................................................................................................................... 11 3.0 CASE STUDIES .................................................................................................................................. 12 3.1 SPRINGS....................................................................................................................................... 12 3.2 Con-Rods For High-Performance Engines ..................................................................................... 19 3.3: THE AUTO COOLING FANS........................................................................................................... 23 3.4: Materials for Flywheels ............................................................................................................... 26 3.5: Brake Disc ................................................................................................................................... 30 3.6: Engine Cylinder ........................................................................................................................... 31 3.7: Automobile Exhaust System ........................................................................................................ 31 3.8: Automobile Chassis- Body in Weight ........................................................................................... 31 3.9: The Dash board ........................................................................................................................... 32 3.10: Automobile Engine block .......................................................................................................... 32 4.0 Conclusion: ...................................................................................................................................... 32 5.0 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................... 33

MME/06/8201, LOTO OLUWASAYO I. 1.0 PRINCIPLE OF MATERIAL SELECTION

The selection of the correct material for a design is a key step in the design process because it is the crucial decision that links computer calculations and lines on an engineering drawing with working design. The enormity of the decision task in selecting the right material is given by the fact that there are well over 100,000 engineering materials from which the material engineer has to choose. The importance of material selection in design has increased in recent years as material engineer are brought to the design process at an earlier stage and the importance given to manufacturing in the present day product design has reinforced the fact that materials and manufacturing are closely linked in determining final properties. Moreover the great activity in material science and research has created a variety of new materials and focused attention on competition between the six broad classes of materialsmaterials, polymers, elastomers, ceramics, glasses and composites. Thus the range of materials available to engineer is much larger than ever before. This present the opportunity for innovation in design by utilizing these materials in products that provides greater performance at lower cost. To achieve this requires a more rational process of material selection. An incorrect chosen material can lead not only to failure of the part but also to unnecessary cost. Selecting the best material for a part involves more than selecting a material that has the properties to provide the unnecessary performance in service; it is also intimately connected with the processing of the material into the finished product. Design proceeds from concept design to embodiment (configuration), to detail (parametric design) and the material process selection then becomes more detailed as the design progresses through this sequence.

1.1 Material Selection for a New Design

1. Define the functions that design must perform and translate to required material properties such as stiffness, strength, corrosion resistance, cost and availability of the material. 2. Define manufacturing requirement such as number of parts required, size, complexity of part, precision require and tolerance and the overall fabricability of the material.
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3. Do the initial screening process by comparing the needed properties and parameters with a large material property database to select a few materials that look promising. Several of the screening properties must be evaluated as it helps to check if the material can be evaluated further for a particular application. 4. Investigate the candidate materials in more detail particularly in terms of trade-offs in product performance, cost, fabricability and availability in the grades and sizes needed for the application. Here material indices and performance indices are employed leading to selection of a particular material. 5. Develop design data and/or design specification.

1.2 Material Substitution for an Existing Design

1. Characterize the currently used material in terms of performance, manufacturing requirements and cost. 2. Determine which characteristics must be improved for enhanced product function. Failure analysis role at this stage. 3. Search for alternative materials /and or manufacturing routes. Use of the idea of screening properties will be of advantage here. 4. Compile a short list of materials and processing routes and use these to estimate cost of manufactured parts. A useful tool here is value engineering, a problem solving methodology that focuses on identifying the key function(s) of a design so that unnecessary cost can be removed without compromising the quality of the design. 5. Evaluate the results in step (4) and make recommendation for a replacement material. Determine the critical properties with specification and testing as in step 5 of previous section. Generally, this process of material selection can be said to involve four (4) strategies: (a) Translation (b) Screening (c) Ranking (d) Documentation

Material selection is design-led as properties of a new material can suggest new product. Example is transistor from high purity silicon or the need for a new product can demand the
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development of new materials e.g. high temperature alloys for turbine technology and light weight composites for space technology.

1.3 Design Limiting Properties

There are some constraints that translate into limit on the property of the material to be chosen for a particular application. This means that, to achieve a desired level of performance, the values of the design-limiting properties must meet certain targets those that fail to do so are not suitable. For instance, in the design of power transmission lines electrical resistivity is design limiting; in the design of a camera lens, it is optical quality and refractive index.

1.4 Functions, Objectives, Constraints And Variables

Any engineering component has one or more functions: to support a load, to contain a pressure, to transmit heat and so forth. This must be achieved subject to constraints: that certain dimensions are fixed, that the component must carry the design loads without failure, the need to insulate against or to conduct heat or electricity that it can function in a certain range of temperature and in a given environment, and many more. In designing the component, the designer has one or more objectives: to make it as cheap as possible, perhaps, or as light, or as safe, or some combination of these. Certain parameters can be adjusted in order to optimize the objectivethe designer is free to vary dimensions that are not constrained by design requirements and, most importantly, free to choose the material for the component and the process to shape it. We refer to these as free variables. A constraint is an essential condition that must be met, usually expressed as a limit on a material or process attribute. An objective is a quantity for which an extreme value (a maximum or minimum) is sought, frequently cost, mass or volume, but there are others. In choosing materials for a super-light sprint bicycle, for example, the objective is to minimize mass, with an upper limit on cost, thus treating cost as a constraint. But in choosing materials for a cheap shopping bike the two are reversed: now the objective is to minimize cost with a (possible) upper limit on mass, thus treating it as a constraint. The outcome of the translation step is a list of the design-limiting properties and the constraints they must meet. The first step

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in relating design requirements to material properties is therefore a clear statement of function, constraints, objectives and free variables. Function: What does the component do? Constraints: What non-negotiable conditions must be met? Objective: What is to be maximized or minimized? Free variables: What parameters of the problem is the designer free to change

1.5 Process of Material Selection in relation to Design

A material selection usually involves one or two situations; a) Selecting a material for a new product or design b) Evaluation of an alternative material for an existing product or design. Such redesign effort is usually taken to reduce cost increase, reliability or improve performance. It is generally not possible to realize the full potential of substituting one material for another without considering its manufacturer characteristics. In other words, simple substitution of a new material without changing the design provides optimum utilization of the material.

2.0 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISITICS OF MATERIALS

The performance or functional characteristics of a material are expressed chiefly by physical, mechanical, thermal, electrical, magnetic and optical properties. Material properties are a link between the basic structure and composition of the material and the service performance of the component part. The performance of materials may be found satisfactory within certain limitations or conditions. However, beyond these conditions, the performance of materials may not be found satisfactory.

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One can list the major factors affecting the selection of materials as (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) (viii) Component shape Dimensional tolerance Mechanical properties Fabrication requirements Service requirements Cost of the material Cost of processing Availability of the material.

All these major factors have a complex effect on the selection of materials. The shape and size of a component has great effect on the choice of the processing unit which ultimately affects the choice of the material. To make it more clear, we consider an example, let the best possible production method is selected, under given conditions, it is die casting, obviously, now the choice of the material becomes limited, i.e. one can only choose materials with lower melting points, e.g. aluminum, zinc, magnesium and thermoplastics. There are some materials which can be finished to close tolerance while others cannot. Obviously, the required dimensional tolerance for finished components will, influence the choice of materials. To select a suitable material for specific conditions, all mechanical properties, e.g., hardness, strength, etc. guide us. Method of processing of the material also affects the properties of a component, e.g., forged components can be stronger than the casted components. Different types of working processes may also give different types of fiber structure. However, investment casting can provide precise dimensions at low cost in comparison to machine operations. Service requirements are dimensional stability, strength, toughness, heat resistance, corrosion resistance, fatigue and creep resistance, electrical and thermal conductivity etc. whereas fabrication requirements are castability, i.e., ease in casting a material, weldability-ease in welding the material, machinability-ease to machine a material, formability-ease to form a material, hardenability etc.

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In most of the cases, the cost of raw material accounts about 50 per-cent of the finished cost. Obviously, the cost of the material is a major factor which influences the choice of the material or process. We must note that the use of cheaper material will not always reduce the final cost of the component or product. Use of cheaper material may be associated with higher processing cost due to large number of operations to be performed and also more scrap. We can easily see that this sometimes makes the overall cost more than that of expensive raw material in combination with low processing cost due to lesser number of operations and lesser scrap. The type of material affects the detailed aspect of design and hence the choice of material as well as the process is selected at the early design state, e.g., whether the material is to be joined by spot welding, screws or rivets must be decided at the design state. In most of the industries, the processing cost (labour cost) and other costs such as overhead costs account for about 50% of the production cost. Overhead cost in automatic industries is much more than the other costs. If one can somehow reduce all such costs, the total production cost will automatically reduce. In comparison to conventional processes, sometimes injection moulding process is preferred because the conventional process involves many intermediate stages and several machining processes. One finds that the cost of production of a component by rolling or forging operations is twice as compared to the production by powered metallurgy process because the rolling or forging are followed by several machining operations for the same finish and tolerances. We may find that sometimes the availability of the material becomes a governing factor. When the desired material supply is limited, then a costly material which is available in ample quantity may be chosen. In the light of above factors, sometimes it may be the case that two or more than two materials are found suitable for a particular component or job. Sometimes, it may also happen that the above factors may oppose each other. This shows that there may no exact or true solution and one has to compromise in the final selection. One can compromise by taking into consideration the relative merits and demerits, cost of finished component and its life. Summarizing, we can say that the selection of material is a dynamic process and change in design may be progressive. Keeping in view, the availability and awareness of latest
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technological developments, one can always change the material from time to time. While making the selection of material amongst the available large range of different types of materials the wisest choice should be made keeping in view the above factors to achieve the efficient utilization of materials.
2.1 TOOLS IN THE SELECTING PROCEDURE

There are some tools that are employed in process of selecting a material which enables us to easily ascertain the best choice of material to be employed by comparing selected properties for a set or materials or relating the effect some functional parameters have on the overall cost of the material. Some of this tools will be discussed below.
2.1.1Material Selection Chart

Is a diagram with one (or a combination) of material properties plotted on each axis. It is a slice through a multi-dimensional material-property space. Figure 1 illustrates the concept. It shows, schematically, a chart with Young's modulus and density on the axes. The scales are logarithmic, and span a range so wide that all materials are included.

FIG 1: Material Selection Chart. The axes are modulus E and density . The logarithmic scales allow performance indices to be plotted as straight lines. Adapted from CES EDU 2008 version.

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When data for a given material class such as metals are plotted on these axes, it is found that they occupy a field which can be enclosed in a 'balloon'. Ceramics also occupy a field, and so do polymers, elastomers, composites, and so on. The fields may overlap, but are nonetheless distinct. Almost always, further information can be plotted onto the diagram. The longitudinal wave speed vl (essentially the speed of sound in the material) is plotted on figure

Because of the logarithmic scales, lines of constant wave speed form a family of parallel lines of slope 1. A more comprehensive E- chart is shown in figure 4. Individual materials or sub-classes, like steels or polypropylenes (PP) appear as little 'bubbles' which define the range of the property. All of the bubbles for one class of material are enclosed in a balloon: the metals-balloon, the polymers-balloon, and so on.

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Figure 2: A modulus-density chart illustrating the selection of materials with high values of M1 = E1/2/. Contours of constant E1/2/ appear as a family of lines of slope 2. Materials with M1 greater than a chosen value can be identified.

A Material Selection Chart with E and as axes can immediately be used to identify the subset of materials with the greatest value of M1 = E1/2/. Taking logs of both sides of equation ABOVE gives:

Each value of M1 therefore corresponds to a line on the chart with slope 2. The larger the value of M1, the higher lies the line. A line corresponding to M1 = 5.5 GPa1/2/(Mg/m3) is shown on figure 2. The materials which lie above it have exceptionally high values of M1. It can be seen that woods, engineering composites and some ceramics are the best choices for a light stiff beam with square cross-section. Why then, are light-weight structures, such as aircraft frames no longer made of wood? The answer lies in the cross-section shape of the beam, as illustrated in the following section.
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Another example of a materials selection chart would be a plot of yield strength (failure strength) y versus density which would allow selection of materials for light, strong structures. Charts with axes which are combinations of properties (axes of E / and y / , for instance), or which measure relative corrosion resistance or wear resistance can also be helpful.
2.1.2 Material Indices

The design of a mechanical component is specified by three things: the functional requirements (the need to carry loads, transmit heat, store elastic or thermal energy, etc), the geometry, and the properties of the material of which it is made, including its cost. The performance of the element can be described by an equation with the general form

, where p describes the aspect of performance of the component that is to be optimized: its mass, or volume, or cost, or life for example; and f( ) means 'a function of'. Optimum design can be considered to be selection of the material and geometry which maximize (or minimize) p. The optimization is subject to constraints, some of them imposed by the material properties. The three groups of parameters in equation above are said to be 'separable' when the equation can be written

where f1, f2 and f3 are functions. When the groups are separable, the optimum choice of material becomes independent of the design details. The optimum material is the same for all geometries G, and all values of the functional requirements F. Then the optimum material can be identified without solving the complete design problem, or even knowing all the details of F

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and G. This enables enormous simplification: the performance for all F and G is maximized by maximizing f3(M), which is called the 'performance index'. Following these principles of material selection, the task of selecting a material may be very cumbersome, however there is a simplification of the process by the use of already developed softwares which contain a database of most of the common materials encountered in process of selecting a material for a component or process. The most common and widely used is the CES selector developed by Ashby and Granta. It makes the selection process less cumbersome as different material properties can easily be compared over a wide range of material types. Depending on the functional requirements, objectives and constraints the best suitable material can be obtained. In the remaining aspect of this paper, we will look into some case studies explain the process of material selection.
3.0 CASE STUDIES

We are going to consider a typical automobile car component. An automobile car has a lot of component in the design therefore we will select some part for our studies. Generally, any automobile component design will want to minimize the weight of the car in order to reduce fuel consumption and invariably gas emissions. These are the basic considerations for design and there are various standards requirement and organizations that sees to environmental issues in the design. It should however be noted that each of the component study will be summarized so that we can discus at least ten of the parts in an automobile design. Hence, it only gives a basis of what we would expect in designing of such component parts. 3.1 SPRINGS
The best material for a spring is that which can store the greatest elastic potential energy per unit mass (or volume), without failing. In an automobile we have springs in the shock absorber (helical) and also in the valves and some other reciprocating part. Springs for vehicle suspensions must resist fatigue (the selection should then be made with the endurance limit, e, replacing the modulus of rupture, MOR).

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MME/06/8201, LOTO OLUWASAYO I. Valve springs for the engines must cope with elevated temperatures; here strength-at-temperature is needed. The performance indices derived below can be used to identify materials which satisfy the design specification summarized. Note that a generalized form of equation using MOR was used however parameters can be changed to determine other characteristics.

FIG 3: Springs have many shapes, but all perform the same function: that of storing elastic energy. FUNCTION OBJECTIVE Elastic Spring (a) Maximum stored elastic energy/unit volume (b) Maximum stored elastic energy/unit mass CONSTRAINTS No failure by yield, fatigue or fracture (whichever is more restrictive)
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Adequate toughness (Gc > 1 kJ/m2) Reasonable cost per unit weight (Cm < 100 GBP/kg) The primary function of a spring is that of storing elastic energy and releasing it again when required. The elastic energy stored per unit volume in a block of material stressed uniformly to a stress is:

where E is the Young's modulus. It is this that we wish to maximize. The spring will be damaged if the stress exceeds the yield stress or failure stress f. So the constraint is f. The maximum energy density is therefore:

Torsion bars and leaf springs are less efficient than axial springs because some of the material is not fully loaded: the material at the neutral axis, for instance, is not loaded at all. For solid torsion bars

and for leaf springs loaded in pure bending the maximum energy storage is

But, as these results show, this has no influence on the choice of material. The best material for springs, regardless of the way in which they are loaded, is that with the biggest value of

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If mass matters rather than volume, we must divide this by the density (giving energy stored per unit mass), and seek materials with high values of

The Selection The selection of materials for springs of minimum volume is shown in below. Here the modulus of rupture, MOR, has been used as the measure of the failure strength f. The chart shows MOR plotted against modulus, E. A family of lines of slope 1/2 link materials with equal values of M1 = f2/E. Those with the highest values of M1 lie towards the top left. The heavy line is one of the family. It is positioned at 10 MJ/m3 such that a small subset of materials is left exposed. They include high-strength steel (spring steel, in fact) lying near the top end of the line, and, at the other end, rubber. But certain other materials are suggested too: GFRP (now used for truck leaf springs), titanium alloys (good but expensive), glass fibers (used in galvanometers) and among polymers nylon (children's toys often have nylon springs). The procedure identifies a candidate from almost every material class: metals, glasses, polymers, elastomers and composites. A protective stage, limiting the values of the toughness Gc (Gc = KIC2 / E) and the cost Cm to the those listed in the design requirements, has been added .

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Figure 4: A chart of the modulus of rupture, MOR, against Young's modulus, E. The diagonal line shows M1.

Figure 5: A 'protective' chart of the toughness, Gc, against cost per unit weight, Cm. The box restricts the selection to materials with Gc > 1 kJ/m2 and Cm < 100 GBP/kg.

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MATERIAL

COMMENT

Spring Steel Ti Alloys CFRP GFRP

15 25 15 20 15 20 10 12

The traditional choice: easily formed and heat treated. Expensive, corrosion-resistant. Comparable in performance with steel; expensive. Almost as good as CFRP and much cheaper. Brittle in tension, but excellent if protected against damage; very low loss factor. The least good; cheap and easily shaped, but high loss factor. Better than spring steel; but high loss factor.

Glass fibers 30 60 Nylon Rubber 1.5 2.5 20 60

Materials for efficient springs of low volume Materials selection for light springs is shown in Figure 4. It is a chart of MOR/ against E/, where is the density. Lines of slope 1/2 now link materials with equal values of

. One is shown at the value M2 = 2 kJ/kg. Composites, because of their lower densities, are better than metals. Elastomers are better still (you can store almost 8 times more elastic energy per unit weight in a rubber band than in the best spring steel). Elastomeric springs are now widely used in aerospace because of their low weight and high reliability. Wood the traditional material for archery bows, now appears in the list.

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Figure 6: A chart of MOR/ against E/. The diagonal line is a contour of M2. The mechanical loss coefficient is important in springs which are loaded dynamically: polymers have high loss factors and therefore dissipate energy when they vibrate; metals, if strongly hardened, do not. Polymers, because they creep, are unsuitable for springs which carry a steady load, though they are good for catches and locating-springs which spend most of their time unstressed. Springs made from unprotected carbon-steel fail rapidly in a chemically corrosive environment. The least expensive solutions to this problem is to plate or polymercoat them to provide a corrosion barrier, but if the coating is damaged, failure can follow. The more expensive solution is to make the spring from an intrinsically corrosion-resistant material: stainless steel, copper alloys, nickel and cobalt alloys, titanium alloys, reinforced polymers, GFRP or CFRP. If high thermal or electrical conduction is required, copper-beryllium alloys are the best choice. But these are secondary selection-criteria. MATERIAL COMMENT

Spring Steel Ti Alloys GFRP

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Poor, because of high density.

23 48

Better than steel; corrosion-resistant; expensive. Better than steel; expensive.

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CFRP

35

Better than steel; less expensive than CFRP. Brittle in torsion, but excellent if protected. On a weight basis, wood makes good springs. As good as steel, but with a high loss factor. Outstanding; 10 times better than steel, but with high loss factor.

Glass fibers 10 30 Woods Nylon Rubber 12 1.5 2 20 50

Materials for efficient light springs In all other examples, we will not go into the detail as this.

3.2 Con-Rods For High-Performance Engines

A connecting rod in a high performance internal combustion engine is a critical component if it fails, catastrophe follows. Yet to minimize inertial forces and bearing loads, it must weigh as little as possible. This implies the use of light, strong materials, stressed near their limits. When cost, not performance, is the design goal, con-rods are made out of cast iron.

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A connecting rod must neither buckle elastically, nor fail by fatigue. The objective is to minimize its mass, m. FUNCTION OBJECTIVE Connecting rod for reciprocating engine Minimize weight

CONSTRAINTS Must not fail by fatigue, or buckling or fast fracture We seek materials for a connecting rod of minimum weight which will carry a peak load F without either buckling or failing by fatigue. The Model for the selection of the probable materials has been developed and plotted using the indices.

. Maximising this index minimizes the mass of the rod, while meeting the constraint that it must not buckle. The fatigue constraint requires that

, where e is the endurance limit of the material of which the con-rod is made. Using this to eliminate A second equation for the mass:

, containing the material index

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This defines a coupling constant which relates the two indices. It depends on the 'structural loading coefficient' F / 2, specified by the design. The optimum selection for large F / 2 differs from that for small F / 2. Using the coupling equation it is possible to select materials which simultaneously optimize both constraints. Materials with high values of both M1 and M2 are identified by creating a chart with these indices as axes. Materials near the top-right corner are attractive candidates. The optimum placing of the selection box depends on the value of the loading coefficient F / 2. Two examples are shown, one isolating the best subset when the loading coefficient is high, the other when it is low. The candidates include high-strength magnesium, aluminum and titanium alloys, ultra high-strength steels, and, best of all, CFRP (carbon-fiber reinforced polymers).

FIG 7: A chart with M1 and M2 as axes, constructed from the light alloys branch of the materials tree. The selection shows materials best for low values of the loading coefficient F / 2

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Figure 8: A chart with M1 and M2 as axes, constructed from the light alloys branch of the materials tree. The selection shows materials best for high values of the loading coefficient F / 2

MATERIAL

COMMENT
2

Beryllium alloys The ultimate choice for small F / CFRP and GFRP

Excellent performance; requires novel design and production methods

2

Materials for high-performance con-rods, small F/ MATERIAL CFRP and GFRP Titanium alloys Magnesium alloys Aluminum alloys COMMENT

Excellent performance; requires novel design and production methods The ultimate metallic choice for large F/
2

Cheaper than titanium; good performance

2

Not the best choice for extreme values of F/ values

2

but viable for intermediate

Materials for high-performance con-rods, large F /

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3.3 THE AUTO COOLING FANS

Automobile engines have a fan which cools the radiator when the forward motion of the car is insufficient to do the job. Commonly, the fan is driven by a belt from the main drive-shaft of the engine. The blades of the fan are subjected both to centrifugal forces and to bending moments caused by sudden acceleration of the motor. Most failures in the fan can be traced to defects (cracks in fan blades) which propagated under the accelerational loads. The radius, R, of the fan is determined by other considerations: flow rate of air, and the space into which it must fit. And the material of which it is made must be cheap. Any automaker who has survived to the present day has cut costs relentlessly on every component. But safety comes first. The fan must not fail.

A fan. It must not fail catastrophically during an over speed. FUNCTION OBJECTIVE Cooling fan Maximum resistance to propagation of a crack when engine is raced

CONSTRAINTS Radius R specified Must be cheap and easy to form The safe rotational velocity is maximized by selecting materials with large values of

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The material cost of the fan is

where Cm is the cost/kg of the material, its density and V the volume of material in the fan. The volume is essentially fixed by the radius R, which is a constraint on the selection. Thus the material cost is minimized by selecting materials with large values of the volume per unit cost:

. The selection must be balanced against the cost. Low cost fans can be made by die-casting a metal, or by injection-molding a polymer.

Figure 8: A chart of fracture toughness, KIC, against density, , using the Generic record subset, showing the index M1.

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Figure 9: A chart of volume/unit cost, M2, against forming method, using the Generic record subset.

The final selection requires judgment. If the fan is viewed as a safety-critical component, we do not choose cast iron, but instead select steel, aluminum, magnesium or filled polymers. MATERIAL Cast Iron Cast Mg Alloys Cast Al Alloys High density polyethylene (HDPE) Nylons Rigid PVCs Acrylobutadienestyrene (ABS), high impact GFRP (chopped fiber) CFRP (chopped fiber) Lay-up methods too expensive and slow. Press from chopped - fiber molding material. COMMENT Cheap and easy to cast Can be die-cast to final shape Can be die-cast to final shape Moldable and cheap

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3.4: Materials for Flywheels

Flywheels store energy. The energy can be recovered, either to smooth an intermittent power supply (as in reciprocating engines) or to drive something (a toy, a dynamo). Steam, gasoline and diesel engines have cast iron flywheels. There is varying diversity of material for choosing a flywheel. An efficient flywheel stores as much energy per unit weight as possible, without failing. Failure (were it to occur) is caused by centrifugal loading. When the centrifugal stress: reaches the tensile strength (or fatigue strength) the flywheel flies apart. One constraint is that this should not occur. In this case, and for the flywheel of an automobile engine we wish to maximize the energy stored per unit volume at a constant (specified) angular velocity. There is also a constraint on the outer radius, R, of the flywheel so that it will fit into a confined space.

Figure 9: A flywheel. Its angular velocity (and thus the kinetic energy it can store) is limited by its strength.

FUNCTION OBJECTIVE

Flywheel to store maximum kinetic Flywheel to run at constant (low) energy velocity Maximize kinetic energy per unit mass Maximize kinetic energy per unit volume Outer radius, R, fixed. Adequate toughness (>20 MPa m1/2)

CONSTRAINTS Must not burst. Adequate toughness (>20 MPa m1/2)

The Model have been derived and it follows that the best materials for efficient flywheels are those with high values of the performance index.

It has units of kJ/kg.

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To avoid failure due to fast fracture, the disc must also have adequate toughness. We achieve this by requiring that

A second selection stage has been performed limiting the selection to materials with KIC > 20 MPa m1/2 and Cm < 100 GBP/ kg. A more elegant way of exploring materials for efficient flywheels is shown in which combines both stages by using the compound property e/

Figure 10: A chart of endurance limit, e , against density, , showing one possible selection using the Generic record subset with the M1 index.

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A chart of endurance limit, e, against density, , showing the selection using the Generic record subset with the constraint M2 > 10 /m3. The best choices for efficient flywheels are unexpected ones: polymer-matrix composites reinforced with continuous fibers of carbon or glass; or, less surprisingly, high-strength titanium alloys. Recent designs use a filament-wound glass-fiber reinforced rotor, and can store around 150 kJ/kg; a 20 kg rotor then stores 3 MJ or 800 kW hours. The energy density in such a flywheel is considerable; its sudden release in a failure could be catastrophic. The disk must be surrounded by a burst-shield and precise quality control in manufacture is essential to avoid out-of-balance forces. This has been achieved in a number of glass-fiber energy-storage flywheels intended for use in trucks and buses, and as an energy reservoir for smoothing power flow in wind-power generation.

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Figure 10: A chart of fracture toughness, KIC plotted against material price, Cm, as protection against brittleness and excessive cost.

The choice for the constant-velocity flywheel is quite different. Lead is good; it is the best choice for small flywheels. Cast iron is less good, but cheaper. It is the standard material for larger flywheels and for automotive applications. Gold, platinum and uranium are better than either of these, but may be thought unsuitable for other reasons.

A chart of specific endurance limit, e /, against fracture toughness, KIC, showing the selection for efficient flywheels.
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MATERIAL Composites: CFRP Composites: GFRP Ti Alloys High steels

M1 (kJ/kg) 200 350 150 200 100 160 strength 100 150

COMMENT The best performance a good choice. Almost as good as CFRP and considerably cheaper Excellent choice. The best choice among metals marginally better than highstrength steels because of lower . All about equal in performance. Steel and Al alloys are cheaper than Mg and Ti alloys.

High strength Mg 80 100 alloys High strength Al- 80 100 alloys Materials for efficient flywheels MATERIAL M1 (kJ/kg) Lead alloys Cast irons 3 18 COMMENT High density makes these a good (and traditional) selection when performance is velocity-limited, not strength-limited

For the remaining part of this paper I will just make a mention of the part, the functional requirement, objectives, constraints and the alternative materials that can be used without going into the details.

3.5: Brake Disc

The automobile brake disc will be subjected to high temperature and it is required that it will be a material that withstand thermal stress, high frictional and abrasive resistance and also of minimum weight. Materials that compete for these are Gray cast iron, aluminum alloys, ceramics and composites. However, cost and formability may inhibit the use of composites, high s.g leading to higher fuel consumption will inhibit the use of cast iron, ceramics have lower thermal and shock resistance property. Hence, aluminium with lower strength but having light weight is a choice that can be manipulated by alloy additions to it.

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3.6: Engine Cylinder

It is required that material to be used for the engine cylinder be of light weight, maximum resistance to thermal stress and of high temperature property and also corrosion resistant to the fuel. Aluminium alloys, steels and carbon alloys have found to be of competing properties but it will be discovered that steels will be of most suitability.

3.7: Automobile Exhaust System

The exhaust system will convey gases, prevent fume from entering the car. It is therefore expected that it resist attack to hot and moist gases from the exhaust and be resistant to the atmosphere attack, water, the mud, road salt. It must also be readily available and of minimum cost. Welded low carbon steels with corrosion coating are of the initial design but alternative materials with better creep and corrosion resistant property have been developed. These are 11%Cr alloys, 17-20% Cr ferritic alloys and Austenitic Cr-Ni alloys.

3.8: Automobile Chassis- Body in Weight

The key technical design strategy for improving vehicle efficiency is by the reduction of vehicle mass. Steel has been the material choice till recent discoveries and applications of aluminum alloys and polymeric composites. The most desirable property is of high impact strength and low weight among other factors. Competing materials are high strength CFRP, GFRP composites and steel. Apart from the high strength of the design, considerations must also be made of the cost, easy formability, ease of repair, and other factors like environmental impact-recyclable, reusable or not. It should be noted that this is a generalization; however different grade of materials may be used depending on the area and the susceptibility to damage. For instance the engine front cover is more susceptible to damage by impact rather than the door frames.

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3.9: The Dash board

The automobile dashboard is covering for the electrical panels in the automobile system. Hence it is required that it is resistant to sunlight and UV rays at the same time minimal weight and prevention from the potentially dangerous heat from the engine compartment. Polymeric materials have found a lot of application in this area. However, the use of natural fibre reinforced plastic is finding more application. This is due to the design consideration of weight saving and environmental impact among other factors.

3.10: Automobile Engine block

Finally, I will look into the choice of material for the engine block. The major design considerations will include strength, stiffness, thermal conductivity, thermal resistance, fatigue resistance, density, manufacturability, wear resistance, corrosion resistance and the cost. Competing materials could include, aluminum alloys, steel alloys, magnesium alloys, titanium alloys, stainless steels, copper alloys and nickel alloys. Traditionally, grey cast iron has been used because of its good resistance to wear and low cost but the use of aluminum and magnesium alloys are finding application in recent years due to the low thermal expansion of the former and the high fatigue failure and ease of manufacture of the latter.
4.0 Conclusion:

It is now obvious that material selection process is very important in design of any component and requires some level of expertise and experience to make the best choice of materials. The areas covered in this paper especially part one to four are not standard report on the materials but based on some component factors.

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MME/06/8201, LOTO OLUWASAYO I. 5.0 REFERENCES

CES EDU Pack 2008 edition Michael Ashby et al ,Material Engineering and Processing Design, 2007,published by Elsvier. Journal on: Material selection in automobile body: Economic opportunity for polymer composite materials Dieter, Overview of Material selection Process. Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering 2010: Material Selection Method in Design of Automobile Brake Disc by M.A Maleque, S.Djuti and M.M Rahman. India Journal of Engineering and Material Science, Material Selection for Natural Fibre reinforced polymer composites using analytical hierarchical process.

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