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Materials Transactions, Vol. 46, No. 3 (2005) pp.

394 to 404 Special Issue on Fusion Blanket Structural Materials R&D in Japan #2005 The Japan Institute of Metals

OVERVIEW

Current Status of Reduced-Activation Ferritic/Martensitic Steels R&D for Fusion Energy


Akihiko Kimura
Institute of Advanced Energy, Kyoto University, Uji 611-0011, Japan
Reduced-activation ferritic/martensitic (RAF/M) steels have been considered to be the prime candidate for the fusion blanket structural material. The irradiation data obtained up to now indicates rather high feasibility of the steels for application to fusion reactors because of their high resistance to degradation of material performance caused by both the irradiation-induced displacement damage and transmutation helium atoms. The martensitic structure of RAF/M steels consists of a large number of lattice defects before the irradiation, which strongly retards the formation of displacement damage through absorption and annihilation of the point defects generated by irradiation. Transmutation helium can be also trapped at those defects in the martensitic structure so that the growth of helium bubbles at grain boundaries is suppressed. The major properties of the steels are well within our knowledge, and processing technologies are mostly developed for fusion application. RAF/M steels are now certainly ready to proceed to the next stage, that is, the construction of International Thermo-nuclear Experimental Reactor Test Blanket Modules (ITER-TBM). Oxide dispersion strengthening (ODS) steels have been developed for higher thermal eciency of fusion power plants. Recent irradiation experiments indicated that the steels were quite highly resistant to neutron irradiation embrittlement, showing hardening accompanied by no loss of ductility. High-Cr ODS steels whose chromium concentration was in the range from 14 to 19 mass% showed high resistance to corrosion in supercritical pressurized water. It is shown that the 14Cr-ODS steel is susceptible to neither hydrogen nor helium embrittlement. A combined utilization of ODS steels with RAF/M steels will be eective to realize fusion power early at a reasonable thermal eciency. (Received November 22, 2004; Accepted January 27, 2005) Keywords: reduced activation ferritic/martensitic steel, oxide dispersion strengthening steel, irradiation embrittlement, helium eects, fusion blanket structural material

1.

Introduction

Reduced-activation ferritic/martensitic (RAF/M) steels have been considered to be the prime candidate for structural material of the fusion power demonstration plant (DEMO) reactor design and beyond,19) where neutron irradiation embrittlement and transmutation helium-induced embrittlement are expected to be the critical issues for reactor operation. Among the various candidates for fusion blanket structural material, RAF/M steels have shown rather high resistance to the degradation of material performance caused by neutron irradiation15,1012) and/or helium implantation.15,1316) The superiority of RAF/M steels to the other candidates in the material performance under a fusion environment is considered to attribute to the high trapping capacity of defects and helium atoms in the martensitic structure that contains a large number of trapping sites, such as dislocations, lath boundaries, precipitates and carbides, and prevent the defects and helium atoms from aggregating into defect and/or helium clusters which cause a degradation of structural material.16) Japanese major candidate RAF/M steels, F82H17) and JLF-1,18) have been developed from the 9Cr-1Mo heat resisting steel by replacing several alloy elements to reduce

the residual radioactivity induced by fusion neutrons. The chemical compositions and heat treatment conditions are listed in Table 1.19,20) JLF-1 was developed by Japanese universities, while F82H was developed by the Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute and Japan Steel Engineering Holding, Inc. The microstructures of both of the steels are of tempered martensite. Chromium levels were chosen to minimize irradiation hardening.5) The chemical compositions were determined to keep the mechanical properties at unirradiated condition within the similar levels of those of commercial 9Cr-1MoNbV steel without changing heat treatment specications. As an International Energy Association (IEA) collaborative work of surveillance test of material performance of RAF/M steels, plates, tungsten-inert-gas (TIG) welded plates and electron-beam (EB) welded ones were prepared from two 5-ton F82H ingots, and distributed to the participating organizations in the world. Little diculty was found in the fabrication of RAF/M steels in an industrial large quantity. A mock-up of blanket structure was successfully fabricated using a hot-isostatic pressing (HIP) technique.8) Distribution of the material with a good traceability enabled to compare the data obtained by dierent organizations. The IEA heat F82H has become a reference material

Table 1 mass% F82H JLF-1 C 0.09 0.1

Chemical compositions and heat treatment conditions of the Japanese RAF/M Steels. Si 0.1 0.2 Mn 0.21 0.45 Cr 7.46 9 V 0.15 0.25 W 1.96 2 N 0.006 0.05 Ta 0.023 0.07

Heat Treatment F82H: Normalization; 1040 C for 38 min, Tempering; 750 C for 1 h JLF-1: Normalization; 1050 C for 1 h, Tempering; 780 C for 1 h

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in many organizations. JLF-1 has also been tested in the Japan-US collaborative research on fusion materials for understanding radiation eect mechanism of RAF/M steels. Basic property data of Japanese RAF/M steels before and after irradiation have been thus accumulated through the eorts of many organizations in the world, and they are now being compiled into a database.20) The inuence of ferromagnetism on plasma operation has often been worried about. Recent operation tests of the JFT2M facility with F82H plates in it showed no deteriorating eects on plasma but reduction of the toroidal eld ripple.21) Since high-temperature strength of the RAF/M steels is limited, many eorts have been made to increase the strength for highly thermal-ecient blanket system. One of the eective methods is to design the RAF/M steel-blanket in combination with oxide dispersion strengthening (ODS) ferritic/martensitic steels, which have a remarkably higher strength than RAF/M steels. Recent irradiation experiments clearly showed that 9Cr and 12Cr-ODS steels, which have been developed for the fuel cladding of fast breeder reactor (FBRs),2225) were highly resistant to irradiation embrittlement at temperatures between 573 and 773 K up to 5 and 15 dpa, respectively.26) The ODS steels never showed irradiation-induced reduction of tensile elongation, which was generally observed in the other metallic materials. The ODS steels developed for FBR fuel cladding material contain 9% or 12% chromium. It is well known that the corrosion resistance in high-temperature water is reduced signicantly by decreasing chromium concentration below 13%. Thus, for ODS ferritic/martensitic steels, the most critical issue for the application to water-cooling system is to improve their corrosion resistance.27,28) As for the hydrogen embrittlement of ferritic/martensitic steels, it was reported that in the reduced-activation 9Cr martensitic steels, several mass ppm of hydrogen caused a considerable reduction in the tensile ductility accompanied by a change in the fracture mode from ductile fracture to intergranular or cleavage brittle fracture.29,30) However, little attention has been paid to the hydrogen eects on ODS steels, so far. As ODS steels have been manufactured by hot extrusion processing, they will have an anisotropy in the mechanical properties due to elongated grains parallel to the extruded direction.31) Transmutation helium sometimes causes severe embrittlement in materials. Helium-induced embrittlement is considered to be due to helium bubbles, namely helium-vacancy clusters, formed at grain boundaries. In the temperature range where a single vacancy is almost immobile, transmutation helium is trapped by a single vacancy and helium bubbles are not formed. At higher temperatures, however, vacancies and helium atoms become mobile and aggregate into helium bubbles.13,16) In this paper, the performance of RAF/M steels under fusion relevant environment is overviewed, and it is demonstrated that the steels are most promising for fusion blanket structural material towards early realization of DEMO reactors. Current status of ODS steels R&D to increase the thermal eciency of power reactors is also shown.

2.

Performance Under Fusion Relevant Environment

Ferritic/martensitic (9Cr or 12Cr) steels have been successfully used for fast-breeder-reactor (FBR) core components to a damage level of 100 displacement per atom (dpa) that corresponds to a wall loading of 10 MW(annual)/ m2 . This is very encouraging for the application of RAF/M steels to the fusion core components. The response of the Japanese RAF/M steels to irradiation has been studied using ssion reactors and ion accelerators within the framework of domestic programs and international collaborations, which include collaborations in the IEA RAM/S steel working group and Japan-US bilateral collaboration programs. 2.1 Irradiation hardening 2.1.1 Neutron dose and irradiation temperature dependence The dependence of irradiation-induced hardening on neutron dose and irradiation temperature of Japanese RAF/ M steels is shown in Fig. 1, which indicates irradiation hardening appears to saturate at a dose that depends on irradiation temperature. The tensile tests were carried out at room temperature. Below 700 K, irradiation induces hardening that turns to softening above 700 K. At 648 K, irradiation hardening is saturated at 10 dpa where the y 110 MPa. At above 733 K, irradiation softening occurs and appears to saturate at 30 dpa where the y 170 MPa. At below 648 K, hardening becomes large even at low neutron doses. Especially, the hardening observed in F82H is much more signicant than a modied JLF-1 steel, which is considered to be due to the dierences in the Cr concentration (7.6% for F82H and 9% for mod. JLF-1) and heat treatment con-

800 Irradiation Hardening, y / MPa 600


(523 543K, HFIR, F82H)

Tested at RT Cross -head speed = 0.5 mm/min

400
543K, ATR

Mod. JLF-1 F82H JLF-1Ni


648K, FFTF 673

200

573K, HFIR 703K, FFTF

0 -200 0 20 dpa
733 873K, FFTF

40

60

Fig. 1 The dependence of irradiation hardening of mod. JLF-1 steel (circles) and F82H (squares) on the neutron dose (dpa).7) The irradiation temperatures and facilities are shown in the gure. A signicant irradiation hardening was observed for F82H but not for mod. JLF-1 steel.

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120

He-implanted (580appm) 0.223dpa, < 423K, Hv

100 HV Increase in HV, 80 60 JMTR, 0.15dpa, 493K, Hv

40 40 20 PAS, Intensity, I 2 0 As-irr. 400 500 600 20 0 700 800 900

Fig. 2 TEM micrograph of mod. JLF-1 steel irradiated with neutrons up to 13 dpa at 646 K. The dislocation loops were observed from {100} direction, indicating the presence of the loops with the Burgers vector of both ah100i and 1=2ah111i.

Annealing Temperature, T / K
Fig. 3 Recovery behavior of the hardening (closed) and PAS intensity of the long lifetime component (open) during isochronal annealing for 30 min. in the neutron irradiated (triangles) and helium-implanted (circles) RAF/M steel. There is no correlation between the recovery behavior of the hardening and the number density of microvoids measured by PAS.

ditions.9) It was reported that softening was due to irradiationinduced recovery of the martensitic structure,6) and hardening was mainly due to interstitial dislocation loops and partly due to small precipitates of (Cr, Fe)23 C6 , M6 C and (Ta, W)C induced by irradiation.3234) Figure 2 shows the TEM micrograph of modied JLF-1 steel irradiated with neutrons up to 13 dpa at 646 K, showing dislocation loops observed from {100} direction, indicating presence of the loops with the Burgers vector of ah100i and 1=2ah111i. Fine (Cr, Fe)23 C6 carbides were also observed along lath boundaries and in the matrix. The investigation of saturation neutron dose and stress level at a low temperature below 523 K would be necessary to understand the detail of hardening mechanism. Whichever irradiation induces hardening or softening, the RAF/M steels suer irradiation embrittlement, namely, an increase in ductile-brittle transition temperature (DBTT) and reduction of upper shelf energy (USE), which will be discussed in the next session. As for the contribution of microvoids to irradiation hardening, positron annihilation spectrometry (PAS) studies showed that they were ineectual in the hardening of RAF/ M steels. Figure 3 shows the annealing behavior of irradiation hardening and intensity of long lifetime component (300400 ps) of PAS in the neutron irradiated (triangles) and helium implanted (circles) RAF/M steel, indicating that no correlation was observed between the recovery stage of hardening and the number density of microvoids. It is considered that microvoids are not the main factor controlling irradiation hardening of RAF/M steels.35) 2.1.2 Correlation between y -DBTT As shown in Fig. 4, there is a linear relationship between irradiation hardening, y , and shift in DBTT, DBTT, in neutron-irradiated ferritic/martensitic steels at various irradiation conditions.6) The fracture mode was not changed by irradiation. The irradiation hardening was measured by tensile tests at room temperature except for (c) and (e). The shift in DBTT was normalized into that for 1/3 size Charpy V-notch specimens following the previous work.36) This trend suggests that irradiation embrittlement is controlled by

300
Irr. Temp., Test Temp.
: 9Cr-2W : 9Cr-1Mo : 9Cr-2W (He) : 9Cr-2W-1Ni

250

Shift in DBTT (K)

200

150

(1) JMTR/363K, 0.006dpa: RT (2) MOTA/663K, 22dpa: RT (3) MOTA/663K, 35dpa: RT (4) MOTA/733K, 24dpa: RT (5) MOTA/683K, 36dpa: RT (a) JMTR/493K, 0.15dpa: RT (b) EBRII/663K, 26dpa: RT (c) MOTA/638K, 7dpa: 638K (d) HFIR/323K, 5dpa: RT (e) HFIR/673K, 40dpa: 673K (f) ATR/543K, 2.2dpa: RT
(d)
(b)

( e)

9Cr-1Mo-(Ni)

1w%Ni added 9Cr-2W (f)

100
(f)
( c) (b)

50

(5) 9Cr-2W (4)

(3) (2) (1) ( a)

120, 580 appm He-implanted

0 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500

Irradiation Hardening, y / MPa


Fig. 4 Relation between the irradiation hardening and shift in DBTT of neutron irradiated RAF/M steels and 9Cr-1Mo steel.6) The irradiation hardening was measured by tensile tests at room temperature except for (c) and (e). The shift in DBTT was normalized into that for 1/3 size Charpy V-notch specimens following the previous work.36)

so called hardening-mechanism, and the similar fracture mechanism with that of unirradiated steel plays a role in the fracture process of the irradiated ones. Irradiation-induced softening is also accompanied by DBTT shift. It is expected that the fracture stress was reduced by a high-temperature (>700 K) irradiation that caused a growth of the carbides. As for neutron dose dependence, the DBTT shift is saturated at 10 dpa when the irradiation temperature is

Intensity, I2 (%)

60

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300 Shift in DBTT (K) 250 200 9Cr-1Mo 150 100 50 0 0 10 9Cr-2W
733K (softening) Neutron Irradiated at 656-693K (hardening)

JMTR 0.12dpa, 563K 1.5mmCVN JLF-1

F82H

High Purity Ferritic Alloy (HPF)

HPF + n-B (16 appmHe) HPF + 10-B (80 appmHe) 150 200 DBTT (K)
Fig. 6 The shift in DBTT of each material caused by neutron irradiation.45) Open and closed symbols are of the DBTT before and after the irradiation. No enhancement of the embrittlement was recognized for HPF alloy by the 80 appm of helium generation in the 10-B doped steel. JLF-1 showed better impact properties than F82H.

20

30 dpa

40

50
250

Fig. 5 The dependence of the shift in DBTT of a 9Cr-1Mo steel and a 9Cr2W reduced activation ferritic/martensitic (RAF/M) steel on the neutron dose (dpa).7) The irradiation temperatures are in the range between 656 and 693 K in which the irradiation caused hardening more or less. The irradiation embrittlement is signicantly reduced by the substitution of Mo and Ni with W and V, respectively.

between 656 and 693 K, as shown in Fig. 5, which is similar to the trend of irradiation hardening. It was found that irradiation embrittlement was reduced very much by substituting molybdenum and nickel with tungsten and vanadium, respectively. Microstructural observations revealed that the signicant irradiation embrittlement was due to (Ni, Mo) silicides induced by neutron irradiation.37) It is of notice that the relation between y -DBTT of a RAF/M steel implanted with 580 appm of helium is almost same with that of the steels without helium.38) This suggests that the DBTT of helium-implanted steel is reasonably interpreted in terms of not helium embrittlement but displacement damage-induced embrittlement where helium implantation simply plays a role of atomic displacement. Helium issues will be discussed in section 2.2. 2.1.3 Varying-temperature irradiation eects Since irradiation hardening remarkably depends on irradiation temperature, varying-temperature irradiation eects were investigated for a RAF/M steel. Two sets of temperature combination was selected, namely, 498/613 K and 633/793 K, because there were two important critical temperatures for RAF/M steels: the vacancies become mobile by dissociating from vacancy-carbon complexes at around 520 K, and irradiation hardening turns to softening above 700 K. Eight-cycles of 0.5 dpa of varying-temperature irradiation was performed in the HFIR. The tensile properties were compared with those irradiated at a constant temperatures of 613 K and 793 K, and the results showed no signicant eect of varying temperature irradiation on the tensile behavior, although small enhancement of the hardening was observed for the 498/613 K irradiation. This indicates that the irradiation hardening of the RAF/M steel is not aected by the pre-irradiation at a lower temperature and the nal irradiation temperature determines the irradiation hardening of the RAF/M steel. Eect of one cycle varying-temperature irradiation was

investigated using the JMTR where the irradiation capsule was removed on the way of the irradiation.35) Elevation of irradiation temperature from 493 to 693 K caused almost full recovery of the hardening, while PAS measurement indicated that microvoids still exists with an increase in the number density. This again clearly indicates that microvoids are not the main factor controlling irradiation hardening as mentioned in section 2.1.1. 2.1.4 Fatigue properties Fatigue properties of RAF/M steels before irradiation are almost similar to those of non-reduced activation commercial 9Cr-1MoVNb steels.20) One of the matters of interest is the irradiation-induced mechanism change of fatigue damage. Post-irradiation fatigue tests were performed for F82H at room temperature.39) Irradiation was carried out in the JMTR to 3.8 dpa at 523 K. Neutron irradiation did not cause any changes in fatigue life, except for the results with smallest plastic strain range of 0.04%. The number of cycles to failure decreased to one seventh that of the unirradiated specimen at the strain range. Based on the observations of fracture surface, it was suggested that the reduction might be attributed to channel deformation under cyclic loading. 2.2 Eects of helium on irradiation embrittlement Another main concern is transmutation helium eect on the y and DBTT. Although helium might cause further degradation, no dierence was observed in the relationship of y -DBTT between fast neutron irradiation and He ion implantation, as shown in Fig. 4,6,38) indicating that the observed embrittlement is interpreted in terms of hardeningmechanism in both cases. Previous works on helium eects are introduced as follows. 2.2.1 Boron-10 technique Utilizing nuclear transmutation reaction, 10 B(n; )7 Li, helium eects were often investigated for fusion structural materials in previous works. In order to detect helium eects

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1000 Mod. JLF-1 Tensile Stress, / MPa 800 600 no Ni 400 200 0 0 1.0 Absorbed Energy, E / J 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 543K, 2.2dpa 0 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 no Ni 1% Ni irr. unirr. 543K, 2.2dpa Tested at R.T. 5 10 Elongation / % 15 20 no Ni 1% Ni

Test Temperature, T / K
Fig. 7 Eects of nickel addition on the irradiation hardening and shift in DBTT of the RAF/M steel. The addition of 1 mass% nickel enhanced the hardening and shift in DBTT as much as two times of the steel without nickel addition. Microstructural examinations revealed that a higher density of smaller dot structures were induced by irradiation in the nickel doped steel.

on F82H, the DBTT shift induced by neutron irradiation was compared for the F82H steels that contain either natural boron that consists of about 20% of boron-10 and 80% of boron-11, or boron-10 so as to vary the amount of transmutation helium.40) Since the DBTT was larger in the steel containing boron-10, they concluded that transmutation helium enhanced irradiation embrittlement of the steel. On the contrary, the reverse results were obtained for the DBTT of high purity ferritic (HPF) alloys, as shown in Fig. 6, in which open and closed symbols are of the DBTT of each material before and after irradiation, respectively. The discrepancy between the above two can be explained in terms of dierence in the nitrogen concentration between the materials they used. The nitrogen concentration in F82H and HPF alloy is 0.015 and <0:001 mass ppm, respectively. Since boron nitrides are thermally stable, many nitrogen atoms are in the form of boron nitrides before the irradiation. After the transmutation, boron nitrides decompose into lithium and nitrogen atoms, which have a potential to cause embrittlement of the steels. Although boron-10 technique is convenient to produce helium in the materials, the following eects should be taken into account: 1) distribution of helium atoms, 2) disappearance of boron atoms, 3) production of lithium atoms, 4) helium/dpa ratio. 2.2.2 Ni addition technique In this case, helium is produced by two-step nuclear

reaction, 58 Ni(n; )59 Ni (n; )56 Fe, and relatively large amount of nickel (12 mass%) is added to steels. A comparison of the DBTTs of the steels with and without addition of nickel resulted in a larger DBTT in the steel added with nickel, and it was interpreted in terms of heliumenhanced ductility loss.41) Bulge deformation behavior was compared among the steels added with 58 Ni, 60 Ni and both by means of shear punch test method, and showing no signicant dierence in the deformation behavior among the steels.42) Since helium is not produced from 60 Ni, the change in the deformation behavior of the steel added with and without 60 Ni directly reects the eect of nickel addition itself. Neutron irradiation eects on RAF/M steels with and without nickel addition were investigated, and it was found that the steel added with 1 mass% nickel showed two times larger irradiation hardening and DBTT shift than the steel without nickel addition, as shown in Fig. 7.43) Examinations by TEM revealed that the size and number density of dislocation loops were smaller and higher in the steel added with nickel, indicating that the large irradiation hardening observed in the nickel added steel is due to increase in the number density of dislocation loops. It is expected that ironnickel dumbbell is more stable and enhances to form smaller dislocation loops in a high density, which induce larger hardening. Helium eects on fracture behavior can be extracted by comparing fracture behavior between the steels with addition of 58 Ni and 60 Ni. 2.2.3 Eects of helium implantation Eects of helium implantation on DBTT were investigated for a RAF/M steel by means of small punch (SP) test technique.13,14,38) Homogeneous implantation with helium by using an energy degrader at a temperature below 423 K resulted in a shift in SP-DBTT. The shift becomes larger with increasing helium or displacement damage. Hardness measurements revealed that helium implantation-induced hardening was well interpreted in terms of displacement damage, and the hardening was not enhanced by helium itself. Transmission electron microscope examinations revealed that no helium bubbles were formed in as-implanted specimens but many helium bubbles exist in the specimen after post-implantation annealing to 873 K. As for the fracture mode at lower temperatures, helium-induced intergranular fracture was not observed for the steel implanted with 580 appm of helium and annealed to 873 K. Helium trapping by dislocations was investigated by means of thermal helium desorption spectroscopy (THDS) in pure iron bombarded at room temperature with collimated, mass-analyzed beams of mono-energetic He ions.44,45) Prior to helium implantations, the specimens were plastically deformed by rolling at room temperature, followed by annealing at various annealing conditions. It was shown by the THDS that the plastic deformation-induced peak becomes small with the recovery of dislocation by the annealing. The THDS of a RAF/M steel also showed the same peak at the same temperature region. It is suggested that in RAF/M steels, the dislocations eciently trap helium and retard the diusion of helium atoms to and growth of helium bubbles at grain boundaries. Another possible trapping site is lath boundaries in the martensitic structure.

Current Status of Reduced-Activation Ferritic/Martensitic Steels R&D for Fusion Energy

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5 4 Swelling (%) 3 2 1 0 9Cr Ferritics FFTF 695K 12Cr Ferritics FFTF 695K SUS316-Ti 773K by D.S. Gelles A. Kimura

2.4 Compatibility It is well known that the susceptibility to environmentally assisted cracking in high-temperature water is relatively low for 912% Cr martensitic steels. On the other hand, it has been indicated that irradiation hardening often increases the susceptibility to IASCC of austenitic stainless steel.47) Slow strain rate test (SSRT) in high-temperature water environments was carried out for irradiated F82H specimens to 2 dpa in JMTR at 523 K. Almost no indication of environmentally assisted cracking was detected.
250

50

100 dpa

150

200

Fig. 8 The dose dependence of the swelling of various steels. Swelling resistance is much larger in ferritic steels than in austenitic steel.46) The peak irradiation temperature for swelling is around 695 and 773 K for the ferritic and austenitic steel, respectively.

2.3 Swelling Figure 8 shows the swelling behavior of RAF/M steels46) as well as an austenitic stainless steel. This indicates that the swelling of the RAF/M steels are much smaller than that of the austenitic stainless steel. It was reported32) that, the swelling becomes maximally at the irradiation temperature of around 700 K in the RAF/M steels, reecting that the peak position of the average void size is located around 700 K. Below 700 K the defect clusters, such as voids and loops are stable. With decreasing irradiation temperature from 700 K, void size and density appear to decrease. However, it is expected that the ne scale microvoids as well as dislocation loops are probably missed by TEM observation. At temperatures above 700 K, the defect clusters no longer thermally stable, which means the generated point defects annihilate through the absorption by dislocation or V -I pair annihilation. The absorption of point defects to the dislocations causes the recovery of dislocation or martensite structure, resulting in irradiation softening. Figure 9 summarizes irradiation hardening and swelling behavior of the RAF/M steel.

2.5 Tensile properties of joints Post irradiation tensile tests have been performed on TIG weld joint and HIP bonded specimens of F82H. TIG joint specimens irradiated to 5 dpa at 573 K and 773 K exhibited almost similar tensile properties with base metal specimens, although hardening by irradiation for joint specimen at 573 K was slightly smaller.48) It has been reported that HIP process at 1313 K for 5 h with 150 MPa hydrostatic pressure successfully produced joints with strength comparable to base metal.49) According to the tensile test results of HIP joint tensile specimens irradiated in JMTR to 1.5 dpa at 523 K, both strength and elongation of HIPed specimens were comparable to those of base metal specimens.50) 3. Steel Design Towards High Thermal Eciency

Radiation-induced softening that limits the highest operation temperature is critical for RAF/M steels toward high thermal eciency. Many eorts to improve the hightemperature strength have been made via: 1) alloying control,5153) 2) ODS steel development.24,28) The formation of helium bubbles at elevated temperatures is another concern, although the previous ion-irradiation experiments suggest that RAF/M steels have a much better resistance to helium bubble-induced embrittlement than the austenitic steels. 3.1 Alloy design5153) Based on the experimental results obtained in the Japan-

Experimental Results Laves-P M 23C6 (L) Softening MC (M) M 23C6 (L) M 23C6 (S) Hardening Ni addition Void Size Swelling No Voids No Loops Voids & Loops Void Density Microvoids Invisible Precipitates and/or Loops Swelling,etc 873 773 673 573 473 373 Irradiation Temperature

Elemental Processes

Void Swelling

Dissociation of C-V complexes Fe3 C precipitation

(+)

()

Carbon Migration to C-V pairs

(K)

Fig. 9

Summary of neutron irradiation hardening and swelling behavior of RAF/M steel.4)

400

A. Kimura Table 2 The chemical compositions of ODS steels. (a) First generation of ODS steels: 9Cr-ODS steels for in core structural material of FBR. (b) Second generation of ODS steels: high-Cr ODS steels for water-cooling systems. mass% (a) 1st Generation 12Cr-ODS 9Cr-ODS(1) 9Cr-ODS(2) 9Cr-ODS(3) (b) 2nd Generation 19Cr (K1) 13Cr-4Al (K2) 16Cr-4Al (K3) 19Cr-4Al (K4) 22Cr-4Al (K5) 0.05 0.04 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.041 0.033 0.033 0.039 0.039 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.07 <0:005 <0:005 <0:005 <0:005 <0:005 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 18.37 13.64 16.00 18.85 22.05 0.29 1.65 1.82 1.83 1.80 <0:01 4.12 4.59 4.61 4.55 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.27 0.014 0.009 0.006 0.005 0.005 0.29 0.30 0.29 0.29 0.28 0.368 0.381 0.368 0.368 0.356 0.02 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.05 0.05 0.006 0.005 0.046 0.044 0.01 0.01 11.97 9.00 9.11 8.84 2.02 1.95 1.95 1.91 0.30 0.20 0.18 0.29 0.010 0.013 0.017 0.010 0.19 0.29 0.35 0.24 0.37 0.44 C Si Mn P S Cr W Al Ti N Y Y2 O3

US collaboration, modications of steel alloy compositions were conceived for JLF-1: 1) an intended addition of boron, 2) reduction of nitrogen concentration, 3) an increase in tantalum concentration and 4) titanium addition. Transmutation helium from natural boron, which was generally added in the steel for the purpose for increasing hardenability, was veried to induce no embrittlement in the RAF/M steel. Boron can be added to increase hardenability of the steels for production of large size of ingot. Nitrogen was reduced for the sake of reduction of radioactivity. The role of tantalum in precipitation hardening is characteristic. It is shown that the size of (Ta,Ti) carbide observed by replica technique in a RAF/M steel after FFTF/MOTA irradiation at 693 K up to 33 dpa is ranging from 10 to 200 nm. The ne carbides are considered to be formed by the irradiation, since only large carbides (100200 nm) were observed before the irradiation. It is expected that the ne tantalum carbides are benet to improve high-temperature strength with keeping ductility at low temperatures. Addition of titanium reduces void swelling. Although the DBTT of the RAF/M steel that contained no boron was increased by the titanium addition, a simultaneous addition of titanium and boron to the steel showed no remarkable degradation of ductility by neutron irradiation.10) 3.2 ODS steels R&D 3.2.1 Improvement of corrosion resistance Corrosion rate in a super critical pressurized water (SCPW) (783 K, 25 MPa) was measured for several kinds of the ODS steels by means of weight loss and/or gain measurement. Nine ODS steels were investigated: a 12CrODS steel, three 9Cr-ODS steels and ve high-chromium ODS steels of which the titanium and yttrium concentrations were partly changed.27) The chemical compositions were shown in Table 2. The details of the fabrication process of the ODS steels were given in the previous paper.2225) Figure 10 shows the dependence of mass gain on the corrosion test period for each steel. Mass gain of the 12CrODS steel of the rst generation of ODS steels is almost the same as that of a ferritic/martensitic steel, and about one order of magnitude larger than that of SUS316 that contains 18% of chromium. In comparison with the rst generation of 12Cr-ODS steels, the second generation of high-Cr ODS steels showed high corrosion resistance.27,28) Furthermore, an

0.03 Mass gain, W / kg m -2 0.025 0.02 0.015 0.01 0.005 0 0

SCPW, 783K, 25MPa 12Cr-ODS 19Cr-ODS 14Cr-4Al-ODS 19Cr-4Al-ODS FMS SUS316

100 200 300 400 500 600 Corrosion time, t / h

Fig. 10 Corrosion behavior of several steels in the SCPW (783 K, 25 MPa).27,28) Increasing Cr concentration to above 14 mass% and an addition of 4 mass% Al improved corrosion resistance as high as SUS316 stainless steel. The 12Cr-ODS steel showed similar corrosion behavior with that of RAF/M steel (12Cr steel).

increase of chromium and an addition of aluminum at the same time resulted in further suppression of corrosion. It shows that addition of chromium over 14 mass% and aluminum (4.5 mass%) are very eective in suppressing corrosion in SCPW. This is considered to be due to the formation of Al2 O3 or delaying the formation of Fe2 O3 .54,55) Since increasing Cr concentration often causes aging embrittlement due to decomposition to Cr-rich secondary phases, impact fracture tests were also carried out for the thermally aged high-Cr ODS steels. Figure 11 shows that the DBTT shift occurred in 22Cr-ODS steels after aging at 773 K for 100 h.27) Almost no change was observed for the impact properties of 14 and 16Cr-ODS steels after the aging, while the 22Cr-ODS steel was signicantly embrittled. The DBTT of 19Cr-4Al-ODS steel is lower than that of 19Cr-ODS steel by about 30 K, indicating that the addition of aluminum is also eective in improving the impact property.56,57) The improvement of Charpy properties by the addition of Al is considered to be due to diminishing anisotropy in the tensile

Current Status of Reduced-Activation Ferritic/Martensitic Steels R&D for Fusion Energy

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1.0 0.9 Absorbed Energy, E / J 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 Temperature, T / K
Fig. 11 Eects of thermal aging at 773 K for 100 h on the impact properties of ODS steels with dierent concentration of chromium.27) Almost no eect was observed for 14Cr and 16Cr-ODS steels, while 22CrODS steel showed a signicant aging embrittlement. Small specimens of 1.5 mm square rod with a sharp V-notch were used for the impact test.

14Cr-4Al 16Cr-4Al

22Cr-4Al

Hydrogen Concentration (mass.ppm)

As-received 773K 100h

Current Density, I / (A m2)0.5

Hydrogen Concentration, CL / m-3


Fig. 12 Hydrogen concentration measured by TDS after cathodic charging to 19Cr-ODS steel (closed squares) and RAF/M steel (closed circles).59) Following the hydrogen trapping model,6164) the amount of trapped hydrogen was calculated and shown as dotted lines in the gure.

properties, which showed almost similar ductility in both the axial and radial direction of extruded bar. The mechanism diminishing anisotropy by the addition of Al is not fully understood yet. It is expected that the addition of Al causes the increasing and decreasing the size and density of yittria through the formation of alumina. 3.2.2 Hydrogen embrittlement In order to evaluate susceptibility to hydrogen embrittlement, tensile tests were carried out for ODS steels after and/ or during hydrogen charging in an electrolyte of 1 N H2 SO4 with an addition of a recombination poison.58) Miniaturized tensile specimens (gauge: l 5 mm, w 1:2 mm, t 0:25 mm) were sampled from the extruded rod so that the axis direction is parallel to longitudinal (L) or transverse (T)direction with respect to the extruded direction. Hydrogen charging caused a reduction of tensile elongation, which became large with increasing charging current density or hydrogen concentration.59) The hydrogen concentrations in 14Cr-ODS and 9Cr-2W steel, which were measured by TDS analysis, were shown in Fig. 12 as a function of cathodic current density as well as the calculation results following to McNabb & Foster trapping model.6164) According to the previous research, the critical hydrogen concentration required to induce cracking of martensitic steels is reported as a several mass ppm,30) and our analysis results of 9Cr ferritic/martensitic steels revealed that the critical concentration, which corresponded to the current density of 4 A/m2 , is also in the range of 1$2 mass ppm. On the contrary, hydrogen concentration in 14CrODS steel is much higher than that of the RAF steels at the same charging condition, and critical hydrogen concentration for the 14Cr-ODS was in the range of 10$12 mass ppm that was almost 10 times higher concentration than the 9Cr ferritic/martensitic steels. When hydrogen atoms are introduced into the specimen by cathodic charging, they are considered to be dissolved in solution and/or trapped at various kinds of trapping sites such as vacancies, alloy

elements, grain boundaries, second-phase particles and dislocations etc. However, these trapping sites have dierent binding strength.22) Among them usually grain boundaries and second-phase particles have relatively strong binding energies in the range from 60 to 90 kJ/mol. Although the binding energy of hydrogen to yttria is not known, it could be large because of high anity between yttrium and hydrogen, 130 kJ/mol. Hence, it is considered that the high concentration of hydrogen in ODS steel is attributed to the high density of hydrogen trapping sites such as grain boundaries and oxide/matrix interfaces, because the ODS steel has a very ne size of grain, and a high number density of yittria particles.60) 3.2.3 Helium trapping behavior Typical examples of the thermal desorption spectrum of a RAF/M steel (broken line) and the ODS martensitic steelsFC (dotted line) and NT (solid line) are shown in Fig. 13 after bombardment of 8 keV helium up to 2 1019 and 2 1020 He /m2 .65) Generally, there were six main peaks in the THDS of each the steel. It is of notice that the peak IV was only observed in the ODS steels and not in the RAF steels. This trend became more signicant with increasing the amount of helium implantation. The peak position appeared to be independent of amount of helium. The Peak IV was not observed even in the 12Cr-ODS steel. Since the 12Cr-ODS steel also contains a high density of oxide particles, the peak IV is not directly attributed to the oxide particles. In RAF/M steels, the martensite phase becomes unstable above 873 K, while the martensite phase in the 9Cr-ODS steels is much more stable than that in RAF/M steels under neutron irradiation.66) Therefore, it is considered that the peak IV is due to helium desorption from the -phase in which the defects still remain and play a role in trapping helium. Finally, in the ODS steels, the fraction of helium desorption by bubble migration mechanism was smaller than in the

402
(x10 -3 ) -3

A. Kimura

(x10

) 2 x 10
20

10
2 x 10
19

He /m

8keV

He /m

Desorbed Fraction of Helium ,(Desorbed Helium)/(Total Retention)

8 8 6
JLF1 JLF1

VI
9CrODS(FC)

6 9CrODS(FC)
9CrODS(NT)

IV

9CrODS(NT)

V
4

2 I

II

III
2

necessary to construct the DEMO blanket.6769) For the designing and licensing of ITER-TBM, design criteria compatible with the irradiation-induced property changes of the materials should be prepared. Designing and licensing of ITER-TBM using RAF/M steels are expected to be highly promising but still required to perform irradiation experiments with 14 MeV neutrons using IFMIF to conrm several key issues. IFMIF will provide the best simulation of fusion environment for testing materials and components. Component tests in IFMIF will be followed by the operation of the ITER-TBM, where the blanket system performances will be veried as an integral system including coolant, tritium breeder and neutron multiplier in real fusion irradiation conditions. Expected future progress in RAF/M steels toward and beyond DEMO Judging upon the basis of knowledge so far obtained, RAF/M steels can be employed up to a uence level corresponding to the peak DEMO wall loading (1015 MWa/m2 ) at temperatures below 773 K.8) DEMO will have to demonstrate, however, that fusion is an attractive option in many aspects, such as energy conversion eciency and environmental safety. Note that higher operating temperature and less exchange frequency of the blanket should lead to higher eciency and reduction of nuclear waste disposal. ODS steels27) are quite promising for high-temperature operation of the blanket system with a high potential in resistance to irradiation and corrosion. Application of ODS steels to blanket structural components provides a larger design tolerance and a higher energy conversion eciency. A combined utilization of ODS steels with RAF/M steels will be eective to realize fusion power with a reasonable thermal eciency.8) For this purpose, development of joining technology of these materials is necessary. 5. Summary 4.2

0 300

700

1100

1500

300

700

1100

1500

Temperature, T / K

Temperature, T / K

Fig. 13 THDS of 9Cr-ODS steels and JLF-1.66) The peak IV was only observed for the 9Cr-ODS steels. In the ODS steels, the fraction of helium desorption by bubble migration mechanism was smaller than JLF-1.

RAF/M steel. This suggests that the bubble formation and growth were suppressed in the 9Cr-ODS steels. 4. Materials Development Road Map to DEMO and Beyond

The Japanese RAF/M steels R&D road map toward DEMO (Fig. 14) is consistent with the scheduled operation of ITER test blanket and DEMO. Important steps include high-dose irradiation experiments in ssion reactors, such as the High Flux Isotope Reactor (HFIR) at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), 14 MeV neutron irradiation tests in the International Fusion Materials Irradiation Facility (IFMIF) and application to ITER-TBM to provide an adequate database of RAF/M steels for the design of DEMO. 4.1 Toward the ITER test blanket module The verication of fusion blanket designing technology by the operation of ITER-test blanket module (TBM) are

1) The US/Japan collaboration has been eective in accumulating irradiation database and in understanding the mechanism of irradiation eects of RAF/M steels. The irradiation data obtained so far indicates rather high

2005 DEMO / PROTO ITER (Ferritic Steel R&D) Construction

2020 Design Operation ITER TBM Construction Operation

2040

(tests in components) Combined utilization of RAF/M steel and ODSS toward commercial reactor

RAFS Database (fast realization: Thermal Efficiency=34%) ODS steel R&D (high performance: Thermal Efficiency.= 47%) Attained an excellent creep property (973K/10k hr, 120MPa)

IFMIF (Engineering verification, 14MeV n-effects, Helium effect) (Irradiation)

Fission reactor (Irradiation database, modeling irradiation effects)


Fig. 14 The RAF/M steel R&D road map toward DEMO.8)

Current Status of Reduced-Activation Ferritic/Martensitic Steels R&D for Fusion Energy

403

feasibility of the steels for application to fusion reactors, because of their high resistance to degradation of material performance by both the displacement damage and transmutation helium. 2) The martensitic structure of RAF/M steels consists of a large number of lattice defects before the irradiation, which strongly reinforce the resistance to displacement damage through absorption and annihilation of the point defects generated by the irradiation. Transmutation helium can be trapped at those defects in the martensitic structure so that the formation of helium clusters at grain boundaries is suppressed. The martensitic structure of the RAF/M steels is considered to be appropriate for fusion structural material. 3) The critical issue of the RAF/M steels is, therefore, to increase the phase stability of the martensitic structure during high-temperature irradiation. Since high-temperature performance is a measure of phase stability, many eorts to improve high-temperature strength have been made. 4) The 9 and 12Cr-ODS steels showed almost similar corrosion behavior with the ferritic/martensitic steel in a SCPW. However, increasing chromium (>14 mass%) and addition of aluminum (4.5 mass%) are very eective to suppress the corrosion in SCPW. Addition of aluminum improves the Charpy impact property of the high-Cr ODS steels. 5) The critical hydrogen concentration required to induce brittle fracture in ODS steels is in the range of 1012 mass ppm that is almost one order of magnitude higher value than that of 9Cr ferritic/martensitic steels. The high capacity of hydrogen trapping in ODS steels is considered to be due to very ne size of grain and yittria in the steel. 6) In 9Cr-ODS steels, the fraction of helium desorption by bubble migration mechanism was smaller than that in RAF/ M steel. This suggests that the bubble formation and growth were suppressed in the ODS steels. 7) The verication of fusion blanket designing technology by the operation of ITER-TBM is necessary to construct the DEMO blanket. Designing and licensing of ITER-TBM using RAF/M steels are expected to be highly promising but still required to perform irradiation experiments with 14 MeV neutrons using the IFMIF to conrm several key issues. 8) Application of ODS steels to blanket structural components provides a larger design tolerance and a higher energy conversion eciency. A combined utilization of ODS steels with RAF/M steels will be eective to realize fusion power with a reasonable thermal eciency. Acknowledgements The author wishes to sincerely thank Dr. Taro Morimura, ULVAC Inc. and Dr. Ryuta Kasada, Kyoto University, for their vital eorts to perform neutron irradiation experiments. The author would like to express his appreciation to Prof. Katsunori Abe, Tohoku University, Prof. Akira Kohyama, Kyoto University, and Prof. Shiro Ishino, Tokai University, for giving opportunities to participate in the Japan-US collaborations on Fusion Materials, such as FFTF/ MOTA and JUPITER programs. The author is very grateful to Mr. Minoru Narui and Prof. Hideki Matsui, Tohoku University, for their substantial support for carrying out post-

irradiation experiments at the hot laboratories. Helium implantation study was done under the collaborative research with Prof. Akira Hasegawa, Tohoku University. The author thanks to Dr. Shiro Jitsukawa and his sta, the Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute, for their collaboration on the Japanese RAF/M steels. The author wishes to thank Dr. Shigeharu Ukai, the Japan Nuclear Cycle Development Institute, Dr. Masayuki Fujiwara, KOBELCO, Inc., Dr. JooSuk Lee, Korean Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, and Mr. Hang-Sik Cho, Graduate School of Energy Science, Kyoto University, for their collaboration of ODS steels R&D. REFERENCES
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