TheUniversity of New South Wales

School of Civil & Environmental Engineering

1
Soil Mechanics - CVEN2201
By Arman Khoshghalb
Stresses in soil
Soil Mechanics
Stress in Soils
Stresses in Soil
Sources of stresses in soil:
Self weight of soil
Due to the total unit weight of the soil (g
t
)
Surcharges
Uniform surcharges
Due to relatively wide foundations, embankments, etc.
Non-uniform loads
Due to tall buildings, etc.
2
When soil is dry There is only one constituent (air phase
usually does not carry any load) similar to solid
mechanics
Stresses in Dry Soil
z
q
s
v
s
h
s
v
=g
d
z +q
s
h
=K
o
sv
s
v s
h
Variation of stresses with depth:
z
K
o
=Coefficient of lateral earth pressure at rest
3
Stresses in Layered Soil
s
v
s
h
s
v
=g
d1
z
1
+g
d2
z
2
+q
q
s
h
=K
o2
sv
z
1
z
2
g
d1
, K
o1
g
d2
, K
o2
s
v s
h
z
4
TheUniversity of New South Wales
School of Civil & Environmental Engineering
2
Soil Mechanics - CVEN2201
By Arman Khoshghalb
Stresses in soil
Example
s
v
s
h
1m
1m
Calculate the vertical and horizontal stresses at a
point 2m below the ground surface:
g
d1
=16 kN/m
3
K
o1
=0.6
g
d2
=20 kN/m
3
K
o2
=0.3
0
16
36
s
v
s
h
(kPa)
0
9.6
10.8
4.8
z
s
v s
h
5
Stresses in Saturated Soil
Effective stress concept:
Total stress at any depth is due to the
weigh of whatever is lying above that
level.
The total stress can be divided in two
parts:
A portion is carried by water in the
continuous void space. This portion is
called pore water pressure (or neutral
stress) and acts with equal intensity in all
around.
The rest of the total stress is carried be
the soil solids at their points of contact.
This portion is called effective stress.
The principle of effective stress:
z
g
t
WT
6
Stresses in Saturated Soil
u
u
u
u
s
s
s
s
s
Soil under pressure:
7
Effective stress concept
Is the effective stress really the
same as the grain-to-grain
contact stress?
Answer: NO!
So, what is the physical meaning
of effective stress?
Vertical equilibrium:
P
1(v)
to P
n(v)
: vertical components of the
contact forces
a
s
: Cross sectional area occupied by
solid-to-solid contacts.
z
A wavy line is passing only
through the point of
contacts of the solid
particles.
P
1
P
2
P
3
P
4
P
5
Cross sectional area =A
h
w
8
TheUniversity of New South Wales
School of Civil & Environmental Engineering
3
Soil Mechanics - CVEN2201
By Arman Khoshghalb
Stresses in soil
Effective stress concept
z
A wavy line is passing only
through the point of
contacts of the solid
particles.
P
1
P
2
P
3
P
4
P
5
Cross sectional area =A
h
w
The effective stress is not really the same
as the grain-to-grain contact stress!
Rather it is the sum of the vertical
components of the contact forces
divided by the total area:
in practical
problems :
W
9
Effective stress concept
z
A wavy line is passing only
through the point of
contacts of the solid
particles.
P
1
P
2
P
3
P
4
P
5
Cross sectional area =A
h
w
The effective stress cannot be measured, it
can only be calculated!
To calculate the effective stress, first
calculate the total stress and pore water
pressure, and then find the effective
stress using the principle of effective
stress:
For the case shown in the figure:
The effective stress at any point in thesoil
is independent of the depth of water
above the submerged soils.
W
10
Effective stress concept
Water cannot transmit any shear stress
Soils fail in shear
The effective stresses in a
soil mass control the
engineering properties (e.g.
shear strength and volume
change behaviour) of the
mass.
11
A note on the effective stress
The effective stress is not really the grain-to-grain contact stress in
granular soils. Its physical meaning is even more complicated in
fine-grainedcohesive soils.
Question: Given the above fact, Is it OK to use it in engineering
practice?
Answer:
Although it is not exactly the grain-to-grain contact stress, it
correlates with it.
Experimental evidence has shown that the principle of
effective stress is an excellent approximation to reality and it is
extremely useful for understanding soil behaviour, interpreting
laboratory test results and making engineering design
calculations.
The bottom line:
The concept works and that is why we use it.
12
TheUniversity of New South Wales
School of Civil & Environmental Engineering
4
Soil Mechanics - CVEN2201
By Arman Khoshghalb
Stresses in soil
Effective stress concept
The principle of
effective stress is the
single most important
concept in geotechnical
engineering.
13
Stresses in Saturated Soil
Effective stress is a tensor quantity with different
components
Vertical effective stress (one we have talked about so far):
s
v
=s
v
- u
Effective
stress
Total
stress
Pore water pressure =g
w
z
w
or measured by piezometer
s
h
=K
o
s
v
Coefficient of earth pressure
A property of the soil skeleton
s
h
=s
h
+u
Horizontal effective stress at any point depends on vertical
EFFECTIVE stress and coefficient of lateral earth pressure:
14
Stresses in Saturated Soil
Calculate the effective stresses at a point 4m
below the ground surface. WT is at the surface.
4m
s
v
s
h
g
sat
=18 kN/m
3
K
o
=0.4
s
v
=g
sat
z
=18 4 =72 kPa
u =g
w
z
w =9.8 4 =39.2 kPa
s
v
=s - u
=72 - 39.2 =32.8 kPa
s
h
=K
o
s
v
=0.4 32.8 =13.1 kPa
s
h
=s
h
+u =13.1+39.2 =52.3 kPa
15
Stresses in Saturated Soil
4m
s
v
s
h
g
sat
=18 kN/m
3
K
o
=0.4
s
t
52.3 72
32.8
13.1
u =39.2 kPa
u =39.2 kPa
Calculate the effective stresses at a point 4m
below the ground surface. WT is at the surface.
The difference between a total stress
Mohr circle and an effective stress
Mohr circle is pore pressure, u.
16
TheUniversity of New South Wales
School of Civil & Environmental Engineering
5
Soil Mechanics - CVEN2201
By Arman Khoshghalb
Stresses in soil
Stresses in Saturated Soil
4m
s
v
s
h
g
sat
=18 kN/m
3
K
o
=0.4
s
v
u
z
s
v
Variation of stresses with depth:
17 Autumn 2012 Stresses inSoils 18
Stresses in Saturated Soil
Ground water table:
Steady state elevation at which
the pore water pressure is
equal to zero.
It is not really a table!
Below the ground water table
the soil is saturated.
Depending on the grain size of
the soil above the groundwater
table, the soil may be saturated
because of capillarity, or it may
be unsaturated.
WT
Autumn 2012 Stresses inSoils 19
Stresses in Saturated Soil
Capillary tension:
z
u
+
u
-
Water rises above the water
table due to tension between soil
particles and water (water
surface tension).
Water is hangingon the soil
particles pulling the grains
together suction (capillary
pressure) negative pore water
pressure increase in effective
stress.
WT
Autumn 2012 Stresses inSoils 20
Stresses in Saturated Soil
The height of capillary rise depends on pore sizes and their
distributions in the soils.
Terzaghi suggestion (based on capillary tube analogy):
Height of capillary
rise (m)
Empirical coefficient
~0.03
(0.01-0.05)
Void ratio
Effective grain
size (mm)

c
=
C
c
10
TheUniversity of New South Wales
School of Civil & Environmental Engineering
6
Soil Mechanics - CVEN2201
By Arman Khoshghalb
Stresses in soil
Autumn 2012 Stresses inSoils 21
For simplicity, we assume that S
r
is 100% in capillary zone
For sands and gravels, assumed zero if not known Dry
above the water table.
Good example of capillary effect: sand castles.
Stresses in Saturated Soil
WT
h
c
z
u
+
z=0
Pore water pressure in
capillary zone (capillary
pressure) =g
w
. z (negative)
Soil type Height of capillary rise
Gravel ~0
Sand 0 3 m
Silt 2 12 m
Clay >10 m
0.5m
0.5m
1.0m
2.0m
g
dry
=15 kN/m
3
g
t
=17.2 kN/m
3
g
sat
=16.2 kN/m
3
g
sat
=18.4 kN/m
3
WT
s
v
(kPa)
0
7.5
16.1
32.3
69.1
u
(kPa)
0
0
0
9.8
29.4
s
v
(kPa)
0
7.5
16.1
22.5
39.7
z
s
v
u
s
v
22
Example 2
Variation of stresses
with depth?
Gravel
Effects of WT Fluctuation
Example 3:
A thick saturated clay deposit has initially a ground
water level 1m below the surface. Due to groundwater
extraction from an underlying aquifer the regional
ground water level is lowered by 2m. Calculate the
change in the vertical effective stress at depth z>3m.
The unit weight of the clay, g, is constant with depth.
Initial GWL Lowered GWL
s
v
g z g z
u g
w
( z-1 ) g
w
( z-3 )
s
v
z (g - g
w
) +g
w
z (g - g
w
) +3g
w
23
Calculate the change in the vertical effective stress
at a point 5m below a river bed when the water
level in the river rises from 1m above the bed to
10m above the bed, due to a flood. The saturated
unit weight of soil is 20kN/m
3
.
Example 4
24
TheUniversity of New South Wales
School of Civil & Environmental Engineering
7
Soil Mechanics - CVEN2201
By Arman Khoshghalb
Stresses in soil
Example 5
25
A 10 m deep layer of coarse sand overlays
bedrock. The water table is located 2 m below
the surface. The sand has the following
properties:
e=0.7 and K
o
=0.5.
Assuming that the soil particles have a specific
gravity G
s
=2.7, calculate the effective stress
at a depth 5 m below the surface.
Calculate the stresses on a plane making an
angle 30
o
with the horizontal.
Application of any load at ground level
increases the total stresses in the soil.
For settlement calculations, we need to know
the change of vertical stress (o
z
or o

) with
depth in the soil due to surface loads (q).
Methods:
If one-dimensional loading:
If three-dimensional loading:
2:1 Method
Theory of elasticity
2012 Stresses inSoils 26
STRESS DISTRIBUTION
o
z
=q
2012 Stresses inSoils 27
One dimensional loading
If the dimensions of the loaded area are significantly
greater that the thickness of the soil layer, then one-
dimensional loading is assumed
the stress increase at any depth is equal to the applied
stress at the surface:
This assumption is not valid near the edge of end of the
loading area.
o
z
=q
2012 Stresses inSoils 28
One dimensional loading
q per unit area
Ds
z
z
Ds
z
=q
TheUniversity of New South Wales
School of Civil & Environmental Engineering
8
Soil Mechanics - CVEN2201
By Arman Khoshghalb
Stresses in soil
2012 Stresses inSoils 29
The width of the loaded area is equal or less than the
thickness of the soil layer three dimensional loading
2:1 method
Theory of elasticity
2:1 method: the simplest method to find o
z
It computes the average stress increase at each depth.
It is popular because it is simple, quick and easy to use.
Empirical approach based on the assumption that the area
over which the load acts increases in a systematic way
with depth with a 2 vertical : 1 horizontal slope.
The same vertical force is spread over an increasingly
larger area.
STRESS DISTRIBUTION
2012 Stresses inSoils
30
2:1 method
Assumption: the area over which the load acts increases with
depth with a 2v:1h slope.
For uniformly loaded rectangle:
q per unit area
B
B+z
1
2
z
o
z
=
qBI
B +z I +z
2:1 method
Assumption: the area over which
the load acts increases with depth
with a 2v:1h slope.
For strip footing:
2012 Stresses inSoils
31
q per unit area

B
B+z
1
2
z
o
z
=
qB 1
B +z 1
2012 Stresses inSoils 32
The width of the loaded area is equal or less than the
thickness of the soil layer three dimensional loading
2:1 method
Theory of elasticity
Solutions based on the theory of elasticity:
As long as the added stresses are well below failure.
Around 25% to 30% error
Boussinesq (1885)
For homogeneous, elastic and isotropic medium
Westergaard(1938)
Mainly for layered soils
STRESS DISTRIBUTION
TheUniversity of New South Wales
School of Civil & Environmental Engineering
9
Soil Mechanics - CVEN2201
By Arman Khoshghalb
Stresses in soil
2012 Stresses inSoils 33
Elastic Solutions
Point load:
Q
Ds
z
z
r
R
o
z
=
Sz
2
2n r
2
+z
2
5
2
,
=

z
2
N
B
o
z
=

nz
2
1
1+2
r
z
2
3
2
,
=

z
2
N
w
Boussinesqs solution
Westergaards solution
Equations have also been derived for
radial, tangential and shear stresses.
We only consider increase in vertical
stress here since it is the important one
for settlement calculations.
Elastic Solutions
Point load:
Elastic Solutions
In practice we rarely have loads that can be accurately
modeled as point load Engineering loads act on areas.
Solutions for different loaded areas can be developed by
integration of a point load over the area.
For any type of loading areas, equations and charts have
been developed based on both Boussinesqs theory and
Westergaards theory.
only the equations and charts based on the Boussinesqs
theory are presented here, similar equations and charts based
on the Westergaards theory are also available and can be
found in most advanced textbooks on soil mechanics.
2012 Stresses inSoils 36
Line load
Like a point load, rarely used!
Ds
z
z
x
R
q per unit length
y
z
x
o
z
=
2qz
3
nR
4
TheUniversity of New South Wales
School of Civil & Environmental Engineering
10
Soil Mechanics - CVEN2201
By Arman Khoshghalb
Stresses in soil
q per unit area
Ds
z
y
z
a
b
37
Strip loading
a is always positive and in radians.
cgrcc
n
180
=RoJion
b is negative under loaded area and
positive otherwise.
q per unit area
Ds
z
z
r
38
Uniformly loaded circle
2012 Stresses inSoils 39
Uniformly loaded circle
q per unit area
Ds
z
z
B=mz
40
Uniformly loaded Rectangle
Ds
z
=q I
r
I
r
obtained from Fadums chart.
m & n are interchangeable.
Under the corner of the loaded area
m =
B
z
n =
L
z
TheUniversity of New South Wales
School of Civil & Environmental Engineering
11
Soil Mechanics - CVEN2201
By Arman Khoshghalb
Stresses in soil
10
1 0.1 0.01
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
I
r
m
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
2.0
0.1
0.5
0.3
1.4

n
mz
z
Fadums Chart
41
Elastic Solutions
a
d c
b
o
Uniformly loaded Rectangle:
Stress at other point under the rectangle can be
obtained by superposition of the effects.
Ds
z
=q (I
1
+I
2
+I
3
+I
4
)
a
d c
b
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
Ds
z
=q (I
1
- I
2
- I
3
+I
4
)
o
42
Newmarks Chart
Stress under arbitrary shape:
Influencevalue=0.005
O Q
z
43
Newmarks Chart
Stress under arbitrary shape:
Newmarks chart (influence chart):
Procedure:
Draw the loaded area to the scale z shown on the
chart;
Overlay the loaded area on the chart so that the
point of interest is located at the origin of the chart;
Count the number of squares N located within the
loaded area;
The increase in vertical stress at the point of interest
is calculated as:
Ds
z
=q N (influence factor)
q is the pressure applied on the loaded area.
44
TheUniversity of New South Wales
School of Civil & Environmental Engineering
12
Soil Mechanics - CVEN2201
By Arman Khoshghalb
Stresses in soil
2012 Stresses inSoils 45
For strip footing is deeper in the soil
Stress varies in vertical as well as
horizontal directions
Stress isobar Elastic Solutions
The increase in vertical stress, found from the equations and charts
provided, must be added to the existing in situ overburden effective
stress, since the elastic solutions consider the half-space to be
weightless.
The Boussinesq and Westergaard theories give different results
Which theory should you use?
Answer: it is not that important which one you use! Both theories
are based on assumptions which are far from reality.
Although the assumptions of the Westergaard theory probably are
closer to reality for a layered soil deposit, Boussinesqs solution is
usually preferred in geotechnical engineering problems.
The 2:1 method is used as often in practice as the solutions from
the theory of elasticity.
Example 6
a
d c
b
1
2
3
4
o
2m
3m
2m 3m
47
Calculate the increase in vertical stress at a depth of
2m below point o due to the rectangular loading
shown in the opposite figure, using:
1- Boussinesq theory
2- Influence chart
3- 2:1 method.
The applied pressure over
the rectangle is 100kPa.
Example 7
Calculate the increase in vertical stress at a
depth of 1.5m below point o due to the
rectangular loading shown. The applied
pressure over the rectangle is 100kPa.
1m
2m
1m
10m
a
d c
b
o
48
TheUniversity of New South Wales
School of Civil & Environmental Engineering
13
Soil Mechanics - CVEN2201
By Arman Khoshghalb
Stresses in soil
2012 Stresses inSoils 49
Example 8
A strip footing 4m wide carries a uniform pressure of
250 kN/m
2
on the surface of a deposit of sand. The
water table is at the surface. The saturated unit
weight of the sand is 20 kN/m
3
. Determine the
effective vertical stress at a point 3m below the
centre of the footing before and after the application
of the pressure.