UNIT II: Mechanical Measurements (Screw thread, Gears, Circularity and Surface finish Measurements) ME 302: Mechanical Measurements

and Instrumentation Course Instructor: Satadru Kashyap satadru@tezu.ernet.in Tezpur University Intranet: Uploaded E-course Material Department of Mechanical Engineering Tezpur University

SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Screw Threads
Lead: The axial distance advanced by the screw in one revolution Pitch: distance between the corresponding points on two adjacent threads in the same axial plane. pitch = lead / no. of thread starts. Minor diameter Major diameter Pitch/Effective diameter Helix angle Flank angle Height / Depth of thread External thread Internal thread Axis of the thread

SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Screw Thread types

Buttress Thread (unequal flank angles)

Whitworth thread has an included angle of 55 between the flanks and equal radii at crest and root. (standard nuts, bolts and pipe work.)

Metric Threads: clearance at crest and root so that contact between mating threads takes place only on the flanks (included angle of 60). Knuckle Thread

SATADRU KASHYAP
Metric Threads (Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Screw Thread Measurement

Measuring Elements of a screw thread: measure the following: 1. Major diameter

2. Minor diameter
3. Effective or pitch diameter 4. Pitch 5. Thread angle and form.

SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Screw Thread Measurement

Measurement of Minor Diameter: Floating carriage micrometer Applicable for most threads. Vee-pieces - various sizes having suitable radii at the edge. Standard kept between the micrometer anvils with the help of V- pieces. The fiducial indicator anvil - maintain constant pressure. The diameter (standard cylinder) known d1 by V-pieces in position r1. Fix the position of fiducial indicator anvil, the standard cylinder is replaced by screw. The reading is now taken for screw thread in position r2. Minor diameter, d = d1+ (r2 r1)

SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Screw Thread Measurement

Measurement of Major Diameter: checked by the use of micrometer or vernier calipers. The major diameter is measured by bench micrometer (Figure). Measurements made at constant pressure. Fixed anvil is replaced by fiducial indicator. Standard cylinder (approx. equal to major diameter) held between anvils. Micrometer readings noted. Cylinder is replaced by threaded work pieces and the readings are noted (same process as minor diameter). Major diameter = d1 + (r2 r1)

SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Screw Thread Measurement

Measurement of Effective/Pitch Diameter:

Two Wire Method: - place two wires or rods of identical diameter between the flanks of the thread, - measure the distance over the outside of these wires. The effective diameter E = T + P T = Dimension under wires = M 2d
- wires of hardened steel to sustain the wear and tear. - They are given a high degree of accuracy and finish by lapping. T can also be determined - place wires over a standard cylinder of diameter (S) greater than the diameter under the wires and noting the reading R1 and then taking reading with over the gauge wires, say R2. Then T = S - (R1 - R2)
SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Screw Thread Measurement

Measurement of Effective/Pitch Diameter:
Two Wire Method (contd.): P - depends upon the diameter of wire (d) and pitch of the thread (p). - constant value (to be added to the diameter under the wires to get the effective diameter). e.g. P = 0.9605p 1.1657d (Whitworth thread) and P=0.866pd (metric thread). In Figure, since BC lies on the effective diameter line
=

1 1 = 2 2 = 2 2 = = = [ 1] 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 = = = = 2 4 2 2 2 2 = = [ 1] 4 2 2 2

, = 2 ; Hence = =

- 1]

3 wire method: two wires on one side help in aligning the micrometer square to the thread while the third placed on the other side permits taking of readings.
SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Screw Thread Measurement

Determination of Best Wire: For effective diameter, always best wire to be used. The wire diameter, such that, - the wire touches the thread on flank portion only.

Effective diameter can be measured with any wire having any diameter, which makes contact on the true flank of the thread; BUT
The best wire size for the given screw thread, is a wire having it's diameter, such that it would contact the screw thread exactly on the pitch diameter point (shown in the Figure).

SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Screw Thread Measurement

Determination of Best Wire:
At D the wire touching the flank of thread lies on the pitch line or the effective diameter line.

In the Figure, OC and OD perpendicular to CG and DG at point C and D which lies on pitch line.

Metric thread = 60: db= (p/2) Sec(60/2)=0.577p

Whitworth thread = 55; db = (p/2) Sec(55/2) = 0.5636p

SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Tool Makers Microscope

- optical measuring machine used for external and internal length measurements as well as measurements on screw threads, profiles, curvatures and angles.

The main parts of the instrument are:

1. Rotatable table 2. Swingable head 3. Projection screen 4. Objective lens 5. Measuring stage 6. Ocular 7. Micrometers 8. Prism. Working: Test piece illuminated by light passing through it. Illumination - lower side of work piece - objective lens - prism (deflects the light) - ocular - projection screen. Objective lens (1X, 1.5X, 3X and 5X) So, total magnification of 10X, 15X, 30X and 50X achieved with an ocular of 10X. The direction of illumination can be tilted with respect to the work piece by tilting the measuring head and the whole optical system (screw thread measurement)
SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Tool Makers Microscope

The scale value of this microscope: 0.01 mm for length measurement. 3' for angle measurement with rotatable table. 1' for angle measurement with angle measuring ocular. Applications:

(1) Finding the relative position of various points on work by measuring the travel necessary to bring a second point to the position previously occupied by first.
(2) Measurement of angles by using a protractor eyepiece. (3) Comparison of thread forms with master profiles engraved in the eyepiece and measurement of pitch and effective diameter. (4) Comparison of an enlarged, projected image with a scale tracing fixed to the projection screen.
SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Roundness and Circularity

M/C parts can be out of roundness - clamping distortion, presence of dirt and chips on clamping surfaces, heat and vibration etc. Circularity: characteristic form of the entire periphery of a plane (one plane only). Roundness: condition of a surface of revolution (cylinder, cone or sphere) where all points on surface intersected by any plane perpendicular to common axis or passing through a common center are equidistant from the axis. It is geometric form of a body of revolution in all three dimensions. Distortion may cause breakdown of lubricant film, press fitted parts may collapse under high load, sealed fits may start leaking. Lack of roundness in bush bearings - wobbling of the shafts. Roller/ball bearings loose efficiency and make noise due to roundness errors.

SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Roundness and Circularity

Errors of circularity at a cross section

Ovality: This error occurs when there is a difference between the diameters.
Error = Maximum diameter - Minimum diameter = Major axis - Minor axis Lobbing: In this case, the diameter measured at any two position remains constant. Say D1but still it is not exactly equal to the original diameter D. Irregularities of no specific form: In this case, the variation in the diameter occurs due to irregular surface profile.

SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Roundness Measurement by Polar Graph

dial indicator is placed above the work piece (WP) - divided into 12 equal parts. The WP held in a V-block dial indicator touches it at position 1. It is rotated from position 2 12. Variation in surface profile noted by the dial indicator. Procedure repeated 3 times (higher accuracy average) Polar Plot: Circle of dia. = 4 X maximum reading drawn and divided into 12 equal parts. Inside big circle, draw a small concentric circle of dia. (say 0.5times of work piece). Values of WP readings plotted & joined (to get actual profile) between small & big circle. Error = (Error measured from the polar graph / K); where K = constant ; value depends on the shape and work piece and angle of V-blocks; obtained from a standard chart.

SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Roundness Measurement by Polar Graph

Limitations of the method: V-block angle influences the circularity error (e). It may be possible that indicator shows no variation or e or 2 e or 3 e for different V block angles. Position of instrument (measurement taken from top or bottom). Number of lobes on WP (elliptical, triangular, quadrilateral etc). Instrument position (plunger) and point of contact of WP with V-block --- same vertical plane. A leaf spring inserted between indicator plunger and WP surface --- else circularity readings might be affected by surface roughness. K determination from standard chart Angle of V-blocks WP shape Top Elliptical Quadrilateral 0 0.1 60 Bottom 2 2 Top 1 0.415 90 Bottom 1 2.4 Top 1.38 1.01 108 Bottom 0.62 2.01 Top 1.58 0.38 120 Bottom 0.42 1

And so on for different shapes

SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Roundness Measurement
Intrinsic Datum System:

simple but they do not give the exact image of the work piece.
Reference is the point on the work piece itself (hence the name intrinsic) and all the variations in readings are taken with respect to that point. They do not require expensive tooling for the tests and used for roundness testing.

SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Roundness Measurement
Extrinsic Datum System:

Slightly difficult but highly accurate.

They give the true image of the work piece. The reference used is a member of checking/measuring instruments. Expensive as they require the magnification and recording system and used for roundness testing where high accuracy is needed.

SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Surface Finish
SF - determines the deviations from the nominal surface w.r.t drawing. SF obtained by - turning, milling, shaping, planning and grinding, show marked variations when compared with each other. SF - judged by degree of smoothness. (visual inspection); - fails to differentiate between surface produced by same machining operation but under different cutting conditions. Hence, quantitative evaluation is required. Surface Roughness (surface texture): They are series of regularly repeated deviations in the form of a wave, with a ratio of pitch to height. produced by the trace of an edged cutting tool and plastic flow of the metal. height of the irregularities measured in microns; width is measured in mm. If surface too rough - wear particles larger - act as abrasives - wear continues at high rate. If surface too smooth - initial wear slow. Factors affecting surface roughness are: Type of coolant used Cutting parameters such as feed, speed and depth of cut Type of machining Rigidity of the system (fixtures, cutting tool, WP etc.) Vibrations Material of tool and work piece.
SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Surface Finish
Any material machined by conventional machining process cannot be finished perfectly. The surface generated will have some irregularities:
First Order: irregularities developed due to the inaccuracies in the machine tool such as lack of straightness of guide ways, on which tool post is moving.

Second Order: irregularities developed due to the vibrations and rigidity of m/c tools.
Third Order: irregularities due to the cutting parameters (cutting speed, feed, depth of cut). Fourth Order: irregularities developed due to the rupture of the material during the separation of the chip from the already finished surface of the work piece.

SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Surface Finish
C.L.A Index (Ra): Centre line Average Index
To calculate the value of Ra, from a graph it is necessary to have a mean line. Mean line divide the profile so that, Area above the line = Area below the line. A suitable length L is selected which is called Sampling Length for the given surface. The average height Ha is calculated as follows:

Ha = (Summation of all area above and below the line / Sampling length) = (A / L) Ha = (A / L) = [(A1+A2+A3)+(B1+ B2)] / L

SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Surface Finish
R.M.S Average (Root Mean Square Number):
Geometrical average of the ordinates of the profile about the mean line. Mean/Centre line = Sum of areas above the line = Sum of areas below the line. If n measurements are made from the mean line above and below the points on the surface profile denoted by Yi . Then R.M.S value is

Hrms = ( Yi2 / n)

SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Surface Finish Measurements

Representation of Surface Roughness:
machining method is milling, sampling length is 3mm. Direction of lay is perpendicular to the surface, machining allowance is 1mm and Representation will be as shown in Figure (b).

SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Surface Finish Measurements

Indication of Surface Roughness The value or values defining the principal criterion of roughness are added to the symbols

a- surface roughness value

Roughness a obtained Roughness a obtained by by any production removal of material by process machining Roughness a shall be obtained without removal of any material

If it is necessary to impose maximum and minimum limits of the principal criterion of surface roughness, both values shall be shown

maximum limit (a1) ;minimum limit (a2).

SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Surface Finish Measurements

SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Surface Finish Measurements

Mechanical Methods using Stylus:
A stylus (fine to follow the tiny surface deviations) is lightly pressed on the specimen and is moved along the surface. Simultaneously, recordings made - vertical and horizontal displacements.

In some instruments record stylus movement on a chart - surface contour (2D / 3D).
Datum for the up and down movement - provided by stylus skids. Vertical magnifications - very high to record small values (microns), Horizontal magnifications - low (mm). Stylus - light beam, a jet of air, or a condenser plate; most commonly, diamond having a cone and a spherical tip of 0.0005 in or 0.0001 inch is used. Diamond can be formed into above shape and stays that way with uniformity (hard material). Difficult to confine the light beam, air jet, or condenser plate to a small enough size to be able to follow the surface irregularities.

SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Surface Finish Measurements

Tomlinson Surface Recorder:
Construction and working: The tip of the diamond probe has a radius of about 2 microns. lever is attached to a vertical cylinder on one end and a diamond needle supporting a smoked glass.

Surface irregularities detected by the probe magnified by vertical cylinder on to the needle/glass combination. Magnification = lever length /dia. of vertical cylinder.

The record obtained on the small glass is further magnified by optical projection.

SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Surface Finish Measurements

Tomlinson Surface Recorder:
Advantages: simple. low cost. gives reliable results. Disadvantages: delicate and requires great care. slow in operation. not suitable for rapid and continues use on the shop floor.

SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Surface Finish Measurements

The Talysurf Surface Roughness Tester: Construction and working: (operates on electrical principles). The measuring head is fitted with the probe and the skid. Motion of the measuring head - given by Gear Box. The unit can be moved vertically over guide ways (hand wheel & lead screw). The diamond probe (radius ~ 2 m) and gear box (give max travel of 12 mm) to it. The averaging meter & pen recorder - provides graphical record.

SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Surface Finish Measurements

The Talysurf Surface Roughness tester: Construction and working: The arm carrying the stylus forms an armature (pivoted - center of E-shaped arm). Two legs of E-shaped arm two induction coils carrying an A.C. current. A small air gap is left between the armature and outer limbs of E-shaped arm. movement of stylus changes air gap of primary and secondary coils. This modulates the carrier wave. After amplification, modulated carrier wave demodulated and separated out to get the information on surface roughness.

SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Gear
Gear is a mechanical drive which transmits power through toothed wheel. Accuracy prime importance in manufacturing test and measure the gears precisely. Proper inspection concentrate on raw materials, check the machining of blanks, heat treatment and the finishing of teeth. Gear blank - tested for dimensional accuracy (face width, bore, outside diameter), and eccentricity, tooth thickness. Precise gears - tip radius, shape of root provided and surface finish are also measured. Types of gears 1. Spur gear 2. Spiral gear 3. Helical gears 4. Bevel gears 5. Worm and Worm wheel 6. Rack and Pinion etc.

SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Gear Terminology
Pitch circle diameter(PCD): diameter of a circle which will produce the same motion as the toothed gear wheel.
Pitch circle: imaginary circle of gear that rolls without slipping over the circle of its mating gear.

Addendum (A) = (1/Pd) = m.

Dedendum circle (or) Root circle Pressure angle (a): angle made by the line of action with the common tangent to the pitch circles of mating gears. Module (m): ratio of PCD to no. of teeth (D/T) Circular pitch: distance measured along circumference of pitch circle from a point on one tooth to the corresponding point on the next tooth (Pc = D/T = m) Diametral Pitch: number of tooth of the gear per mm of pitch circle diameter. (Pd= T/D)
SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Gear Measurements
Measurement of gear tooth thickness: Gear tooth Vernier: Tooth thickness varies from the tip to base circle of the tooth Instrument must be capable of measuring the tooth thickness at a specified position. Only possible fixed position available for measurement. Tooth thickness - generally measured at pitch circle (pitch line thickness) of tooth. The gear tooth in the vernier has two vernier scales set for the width w of the tooth & the height h from the top (at which w occurs).

SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Gear Measurements

SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Gear Measurements

SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Gear Measurements
Constant chord method for measuring tooth thickness:

SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Gear Measurements
Constant chord method for measuring tooth thickness:

SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Gear Measurements
Base Tangent Method: David brown comparator: tangent

consists of a fixed and movable anvil.

of vernier calliper

limited movement micrometer on the moving anvil side. base tangent is adjusted by setting the fixed anvil at a desired place with a locking ring. The number of teeth over which measurement is to be made is obtained from a gear handbook.

SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Gear Measurements
Gear Testing Machine: Composite gear checking tooth-tooth variation and total composite variation. Parkinsons Gear Tester: principle - standard gear (fixed vertical spindle) and gear to be tested (spindle on a sliding carriage). Both gears maintained in mesh by spring pressure. As gears are rotated, movement of the sliding carriage is indicated by a dial indicator. It is used to detect (i) poor tooth form (worn or inaccurate cutting tool) (ii) pitch circle eccentricity (inaccurate centering of the gear blank prior to tooth cutting).

SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Gear Measurements
Gear Tooth Profile Measurement: Toolmaker`s microscope: Gear tooth profile can be inspected on the screen of toolmaker`s microscope connected to a profile projector. Measuring gear tooth profile is projected on the projector`s screen, and then standard involute profile is also projected on the same screen. Compare measured and standard profile - deviations of the measured tooth profile . Method is good for gears with module < 1. When the width of the gear blank is large, it is necessary to give proper illumination so that the projected tooth should be free of shadow. In order to conduct test on successive teeth the gear blank must be properly clamped on the rotary table of toolmaker`s microscope. Advantages: This method can be used for small gears (module up to 1 mm). Method can also be used for measurement of tooth thickness, base pitch, space width etc. Limitation: Gear`s size limits this technique.
SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Gear Measurements
The Klingeluberg involute tester: gear tooth profile (an involute curve) Disc dia. = base circle dia. of gear under test. Gear mounted on same spindle as disc. Straight-edge contact the disc (move tangentially) - disc will be rotated without slip. Magnification lever fitted with a diamond stylus that contacts the tooth flank at the base circle is hinged at A. Movt. of stylus magnified (250X) through a lever and gear mechanism and then recorded.

SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)

Gear Measurements
The Klingeluberg involute tester: gear tooth profile (an involute curve) Due to the linear motion of the straight-edge and the rotational motion of the gear tested, the stylus, which will trace an involute curve, will slide over the tooth flank. If profile of flank - exactly involute, the lever will remain stationary. Then, recorded curve - straight line parallel to the direction of the motion of the flat surface. Irregularities in straightness of recorded line - errors in the gear tooth profile. Inclination of the recorded line to the direction of motion of the recording paper - the errors of the base circle.

SATADRU KASHYAP
(Mechanical Engineering, Tezpur University)

ME 302
(Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation)