AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD Background: The emergence of the Audio-lingual Method resulted from the increased attention to foreign language

teaching in the U.S. towards the end of the 1950s. The combination of structural linguistic theory, aural-oral procedures, and behaviourist psychology led to the Audiolingual Method, which was widely adopted for teaching foreign languages in North American colleges and universities. Theory of Language: Audiolingualism was derived from structural linguistic view (in which human culture is analysed as a system of signs). Linguists discovered new sound types and new patterns of linguistic, a new interest in phonetics, phonology, morphology, and syntax developed. According to a structural view, language has the following characteristics: (1) Elements in a language are produced in a structural way (with rules). (2) Language is learned by speech, not writing. Theory of Learning: A.M is based on behaviourism theory which suggests that humans could be trained through a system of reinforcement. This approach to language learning was similar to the direct method. Like the direct method, the audiolingual method advised that students should be taught without using the students' native language to explain new words or grammar in the target language. However, unlike the direct method, the audiolingual method didnt focus on teaching vocabulary. The meanings of the words can be learned only in a linguistic and cultural context. Behaviourism includes the following principles: Mistakes are bad and should be avoided, as they make bad habits. Good habits are formed by giving correct responses rather than by making mistakes. Language skills are learned more effectively if they are presented orally first, then in written form. Positive reinforcement helps students to develop correct habits. Goal: The goal of the Audio-Lingual Method is to develop target language skills without reference to the mother tongue. The ultimate goal, is to develop in the students the same types of abilities that native speaking have, to use it automatically. Objectives: learner must be able to do listening comprehension, accurate pronunciation, recognize the speech of symbols and have ability to reproduce these symbols. The Learner must develop the four macro skills. Activities: Drills and dialogues. Dialogues are used for repetition and memorization. Correct pronunciation, stress, rhythm, and intonation are emphasized. Specific grammatical patterns in the dialogue are selected and become the focus of drill and pattern-practice exercises. The use of drills and pattern practice is a distinctive feature of the Audiolingual Method. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Repetition. The student repeats an utterance aloud as soon as he has heard it. Inflection. One word in an utterance appears in another form when repeated. Replacement. One word in an utterance is replaced by another. Transformation. A sentence is transformed by being made negative or interrogative or through changes in tense, mood, voice, aspect, or modality. Integration. Two separate utterances are integrated into one.

Procedures: Student hears a model dialogue. Student repeats each line of the dialogue. Certain key words or phrases may be changed in the dialogue. Key structures from the dialogue serve the basic for pattern drills of different kinds. The student practices substitutions in the pattern drills. Role of teacher: The teachers role is central and active. The teacher controls the direction and pace of learning, and monitors and corrects the learner by giving him drills and tasks and choosing relevant situations to practice structures. Teacher has a teachers book that contains the structured sequence of lessons to be followed and the dialogues, drills, and other practice activities. A language laboratory may also be considered essential. It provides the opportunity for drill work and to receive controlled error-free practice of basic structures. Role of learner: Learners are viewed as organisms that can be directed by skilled training techniques. Learners respond to stimuli, and have little control over the content, pace, or style of learning. How error is seen: Mistakes are bad and should be avoided, as they make bad habits. Syllabus: It is a linguistic syllabus, which contains items of phonology, morphology, etc. Vocabulary items are usually specified in advance. The language skills order is: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE Background: it was developed by James Asher, and this method attemps to teach language through physical activity. It is based on the coordination of language and physical movement. In TPR, instructors give commands to students in the target language, and students respond with whole-body actions. Some principles: Grammar is taught inductively. Students are expected to subconsciously acquire the grammatical structure of the language through exposure to spoken language input, in addition to decoding the messages in the input to find their meaning. Meaning is more important than form. Speaking is delayed until comprehension skills are established.

The general objectives: to teach oral proficiency at a beginning level. The ultimate aim is to teach basic speaking skills Activities: TPR makes frequent use of realia (everyday objects brought into the classroom to enhance students' understanding of other cultures and real life situations.) Use of grammar-based drills in the imperative form. Command drills Role plays on everyday situations (at the restaurant, at the movies ) Slide presentations to provide a visual center for teachers narration, which is followed by commands or questions Reading and writing can also be introduced to further consolidate grammar and vocabulary and as follow ups

Procedures: Students sit in a semicircle around the teacher, the teacher ask them to be silent, listen to commands, and then do exactly what she/he does. The students respond with their bodies. The routine is repeated several times until the students request to try it without the teacher acting as a model. The students are invited but not pressured to change ROLES, now the teacher acts in response to the stude nts commands. Later, students perform different situations. At the end, students are invited to ask questions about anything that happened during the classroom experience. Role of the teacher: Its active and direct. The teacher is the director of a stage play in which the students are the actors. It is the teacher who decides what to teach, who models and presents the new materials, and who selects supporting materials for classroom use. Lesson plans should be detailed because the action is so fast-moving there is usually not time to create spontaneously. Role of the learner: listener and performer. They listen and respond physically to commands given by the teacher. Learners are required to respond both individually and collectively. Learners have little influence over the content of learning, since content is determined by the teacher, who must follow the imperativebased (sin el sujeto, parecido al bare infinitive) format for lessons. Syllabus: sentence-based syllabus, with grammatical and lexical criteria being primary items SILENT WAY Background: The Silent Way is a language teaching methodology which was devised by Caleb Gattegno in the 1960s. Theory: the method is built upon the hypothesis that inside the classroom the teacher should be as silent as possible, whereas the students/learners should be encouraged to produce as much language as possible, participate actively in class and in this way become autonomous learners. Silence is regarded as the best instrument for learning in the classroom, because in silence students concentrate on the task to be accomplished. In general, there are three basic theories on which Gattegnos work is founded: 1. Learning is regarded as a problem-solving, creative, discovering activity, in which the learner rather acts and participates actively than just being passive and doing nothing but listening to the teacher. If the learner is involved directly, he automatically benefits from the so called discovery learning. 2. The use of special physical objects such as coloured wooden rods or colour-coded wall charts facilitates learning. These physical objects provide physical foci for student learning and also create memorable images to facilitate student recall. 3. Learning is facilitated by involving the learners and letting them solve problems on their own with the help of the provided materials.

Objectives: The general goal of the Silent Way is to help beginning-level students gain basic fluency in the target language, with the ultimate aim that learners have near-native language proficiency and good pronunciation. Immediate goal: to provide the learner with a basic practical knowledge of grammar. Syllabus: a structural syllabus, with essons planned around grammatical items and related vocabulary. Activities: responses to commands, questions and visual cues constitute the basis for classroom activities. Error: Teachers can remain silent when a student makes a mistake to give them time to self-correct; they can also help students with their pronunciation by mouthing words without vocalizing, and by using certain hand gestures. When teachers do speak, they tend to say things only once so that students learn to focus their attention on them. The teacher: he/she is very much in control of what happens in the class. While the teacher uses mainly gestures and facial expressions to address the learners, his/her main task is the teaching of the language by letting the students express themselves on a variety of subjects and by making their own hypotheses about grammar, pronunciation, style, etc. The teacher's guidance, though silent, is very active. The learners: they are expected to participate in class actively. They should be willing to make mistakes, to test out the basic language elements via the usage of the materials provided and their motivation is solicited by the constant presentation of problems to be solved Materials: Coloured wooden rods (Cuisenaire rods) A set of wall charts, containing words of a 'functional vocabulary and some additional ones A rectangle chart A Fidel A pointer for use with the charts Tapes or discs Drawings or pictures

SUGGESTOPEDIA Background: It is a teaching method developed in the 1960's by the Bulgarian psychiatrist Georgi Lozanov. This method includes elements such as the use of relaxing music, art and the additional importance that is given to the learning environment as well as the authoritative behaviour of the teacher. Lozanov has claimed that by using this method a teacher's students can learn a language approximately three to five times as quickly as through conventional teaching methods. Principles:

The term 'Suggestopedia', derived from suggestion and pedagogy.

Authority The teacher becomes a figure of authority by displaying self-confidence, acting ability and a highly positive attitude. Infantilization

Suggestopedia aims to establish a teacher -student relation like that of parent to child . The student is supposed to engage in role-plays, games, songs, and gymnastic exercises. Double-Planedness Learners learn from the direct instruction and from the environment in which the instruction takes place. Intonation, Rhythm, and Concert Pseudo-Passiveness The teacher varies the intonation and the rhythm of his/her voice when reading to the students. This is done in order to avoid boredom and dramatize, emotionalize, and give meaning to linguistic material. Music is used in the background while the students listen to dialogues being read out to them. Role of the teacher: One of the teacher's main roles is to see that she/he creates the right environment for the students in which they find it easy to learn. He/she is meant to correct the students very carefully, if at all, in order not to discourage them. He/she is expected to be positive, yet authoritarian Role of the learner: Students are expected to tolerate and in fact encourage their own infantilization. Groups of learners are ideally socially homogeneous, 12 in number, and divided equally between men and women. Learners sit in a circle, which encourages face-to-face exchange and activity participation. Objectives: To deliver advanced conversational proficiency quickly Syllabus: A S. Course lasts 30 days and has 10 units of study. The central focus of each unit is a dialogue of 1200 words, with a vocabulary list and grammar comments The dialogues are lexical and grammatical. Activities: The types of activities that are more original to suggestopedia are the listening activities, which concern the text and text vocabulary of each unit. These activities are typically part of the pre -session phase, which takes place on the first day of a new unit. The students first look at and discuss a new text with the teacher. In the second reading, students relax comfortably in reclining chairs and listen to the teacher read the text in a certain way. During the third reading the material is acted out by the instructor in a dramatic manner over a background of the special musical form described previously. Stages of Suggestopedia There are three stages in using suggestopedia method. They are: 1. Presentation Presentation is the basis of conducting Suggestopedia in class successfully. The main aim in this stage is to help students relaxed and move into a positive frame of mind, with the feeling that the learning is going to be easy and funny. Desuggestion and suggestion happen at this stage at the same time. 2. Concert First Concert

This involves the active presentation of the material to be learnt. The original form of Suggestopedia presented by Lozanov consisted of the use of extended dialogues, often several pages in length, accompanied by vocabulary lists and observations on grammatical points. Typically these dialogues will be read aloud to students to the accompaniment of music. Second Concert The students are now guided to relax and listen to some Baroque music. The best choice of music according to Lozanov, with the text being studied very quietly in the background. During both types of reading, the learners will sit in comfortable seats, armchairs rather than classroom chairs, in a comfortable environment. After the readings of these long dialogues to the accompaniment of music, the teacher will then make use of the dialogues for more conventional language work. The music brings the students into the optimum mental state for the effortless acquisition of the material. The students, then, make and practice dialogue after they memorize the content of the materials. 3. Practice The use of a range of role-plays, games, puzzles, etc. to review and consolidate the learning. COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING Theory of language: language is for communication and linguistic competence. Its important to learn the use of the language, its forms and meanings for communicative competence. Theory of learning: Activities that involve real communication promote learning Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning Language that is meaningful to the learner promotes learning.

Role of the teacher: the teacher facilitates the communication in the classroom, and he also acts like an adviser and a guide. Role of the student: Ss are communicators. They are actively engage in trying to make themselves understood and in understanding others. Use of the mother tongue: it can be used. However, whenever possible the target language should be used. Activities: Scrambled sentences Language Games Picture Strip Story Role Play

Communicative language teaching uses almost any activity that engages learners in authentic communication activities in which communication is involved, and social interaction activities, such as conversation and discussion sessions, dialogues and role plays.

Materials: Language materials that are used with native speakers of the target language being learned (newspaper, radio and television broadcast, menus, weather forecast, timetables). For beginner students it is possible to use realia with a lot of language. Evaluation: A teacher can informally evaluate students performance in his role as an adviser or cocommunicator. For formal evaluation an integrative test is used which has a real communicative function. In order to assess students writing skill, a teacher might ask them to write a letter to a friend. Modes of interaction: T-Ss, Ss-Ss, Ss-T Students feelings: Students are given an opportunity to express their individuality by having them share their ideas and opinions on a regular basis. The syllabus: notional syllabus with specified semantic-grammatical categories (e.g., frequency, motion, location) and the categories of communicative function that learners need to express. Objectives: the objective of language learning is to learn to express communication functions and categories of meaning. Purpose of CLT: Let students communicate fluently in a target language (L2). Develop communicative competence. Use Language as means of communication. It focuses on communication rather than structure. Students will use language as a means of expressing values and judgments Students will learn to express the functions that best meet their own communication needs.

COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING Background: a method developed by Charles A. Curran and his associates. His application of psychological counselling techniques to learning is known as Counseling-Learning. Community Language Learning represents the use of Counseling-Learning theory to teach languages. Counseling is one person giving advice, assistance, and support to another who has a problem or is in some way in need. In Community Language Learning the teacher would be the counsellor and the learners would be the clients. CLL techniques belong to a set of language teaching practices called humanistic techniques. Humanistic techniques are those that engage the whole person, including the emotions and feelings as well as linguistic knowledge and behavioural skills. In language alternation, a message/lesson/class/ is presented first in the native language and then again in the second language. In CLL, a learner presents a message in L1 to the knower. The message is translated into L2 by the knower. The learner then repeats the message in L2, addressing it to another learner with whom he or she wishes to communicate. Theory of language and learning One of his students, La Forge seems to accept that language theory must start (not end), with criteria for sound features, the sentence, and abstract models of language. The foreign language learners' tasks are: to understand the sound system; to assign fundamental meanings; to construct a basic grammar of the foreign language;

However, La Forge elaborates an alternative theory of language, Language as Social Process. He says that communication is more than just a message being transmitted from a speaker to a listener. The speaker is at the same time both subject and object of his own message. Communication is an exchange which is incomplete without a feedback reaction from the destinee of the message. There are two fundamental kinds of interaction in CLL: interactions between learners and interactions between learners and knowers. Interactions between learners are unpredictable in con tent but involve exchanges of affect. The need to be part of this growing intimacy pushes learners to keep pace with the learning of their peers. (Intimacy then appears to be defined here as the desire to avoid isolation.) Interaction between learners and knowers is initially dependent. The learner tells the knower what he or she wishes to say in the target language, and the knower tells the learner how to say it. In later stages interactions between learner and knower are characterized as self-assertive (stage 2), resentful and indignant (stage 3), tolerant (stage 4), and independent (stage 5). The CLL view of learning is a holistic approach to language learning, since "true" human learning is both cognitive and affective. This is termed whole-person learning. Such learning takes place in a communicative situation where teachers and learners are involved in -"an interaction ... in which both experience a sense of their own wholeness". The process is divided into five stages. Stage 1 dependent or "Birth" stage: The learner is like an infant, completely dependent on the knower for linguistic content. Feelings of security and belonging are established. Stage 2 self-assertive: as the learner's abilities improve, the learner, as child, begins to achieve a measure of independence from the parent. Stage 3 resentful and indignant: Learners begin to understand others directly in the target language and may need to assert his, or her own identity. Stage 4 tolerant: it sees the learner as secure enough to take criticism. Stage 5 independent: Complete independence from the knower. the child has become adult. The learner knows everything the teacher does and can become knower for a new learner.

Psychological requirements for successful learning are known as SARD: S stands for security. Unless learners feel secure, they will find it difficult to enter into a successful learning experience. A stands for attention and aggression. CLL recognizes that a loss of attention should be taken as an indication of the learner's lack of involvement in learning. Aggression applies to the way in which a child, having learned something, seeks an opportunity to show his or her strength by taking over and demonstrating what has been learned, using the new knowledge as a tool for self-assertion. R stands for retention and reflection. If the whole person is involved in the learning process, he will retain and internalize what he learned. Reflection is period of silence in which the student reflects or focuses on the learning of the last hour, his present stage of development.

D denotes discrimination. It enables the students to use the language for purposes of communication outside the classroom. Objectives Explicit linguistic or communicative objectives are not defined in CLL since linguistic or communicative competence is specified only in social terms. Most of what has been written about it describes its use in introductory conversation courses in a foreign language. Syllabus CLL does not use a conventional language syllabus which sets out in advance the grammar, vocabulary, and other language items to be taught and the order in which they will be covered. The progression is topic-based. A CLL syllabus emerges from the interaction between the learners expressed communicative intentions and the teachers reformulations of these. Learning activities 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. TRANSLATION. GROUP WORK. RECORDING. TRANSCRIPTION. LISTENING. FREE CONVERSATION.

Roles of the learners Learners become members of a community and learn through interacting with the community. Learners are expected to listen attentively to the knower, to freely provide meanings they wish to express, to repeat target utterances without hesitation, to support fellow members of the community. Roles of the teacher The teachers role derives from the functions of the counsellor on. The counselors role is to respond calmly and nonjudgmentally, in a supportive manner, and help the client try to understand his or her problems better by applying order and analysis to them. Materials Since a CLL course involves interactions, a textbook is not considered a necessary component. Materials may be developed by the teacher as the course develops, although these generally consist of little more than summaries on the blackboard or the use of overhead projector. Procedure Generally the observer will see a circle of learners all facing one another. The first class may begin with a period of silence, in which learners try to determine what is supposed to happen in their language class. In later classes, learners may sit in silence while they decide what to talk about. The observer may note that

the awkwardness of silence becomes sufficiently agonizing for someone to volunteer to break the silence. The knower may use the volunteered comment as a way of introducing discussion of classroom contacts or as a stimulus for language interaction regarding how learners felt about the period of silence. The knower may encourage learners to address questions to one another or to the knower. These may be questions on any subject a learner is curious enough to inquire about. The questions and answers may be tape recorded for later use, as reminder and review of topics discussed and language used. The teacher might then form the class into facing lines for three-minute pair conversations. Following this the class might be reformed into small groups in which a single topic, chosen by the class or the group, is discussed. The summary of the group discussion may be presented to another group, who in turn try to repeat the summary back to the original group. In an intermediate or advanced class a teacher may encourage groups to prepare a paper drama for presentation to the rest of the class. A paper drama group prepares a story that is told or shown to the counselor. The counselor provides or corrects target language statements and suggests improvements to the story sequence. Students are then given materials with which they prepare large picture cards to accompany their story. After practicing the story dialogue and preparing the accompanying pictures, each group presents its paper drama to the rest of the class. The students accompany their story with music, puppets, and drums as well as with their pictures Finally, the teacher asks learners to reflect on the language class, as a class or in groups. Reflection provides the basis for discussion of personal interaction, feelings toward the knower and learner, and the sense of progress and frustration. What is TBLT? Principles and practices: A needs-based approach to content selection. An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the TL. The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation. The provision of opportunities for learners to focus not only on language but also on the learning process itself. An enhancement of the learners own personal experiences as important contributing elements to classroom learning. The linking of classroom language learning with language use outside the classroom. Defining task Some Characteristics of Tasks Tasks are activities in which students work purposefully towards an objective. The objective may be one that they have set for themselves or one which has been set by the teacher. Tasks may be carried outindividually or (more often) in groups. Tasks may be carried out in competition with others or (more often) in collaboration. The outcome may be something concrete (e.g. a report or presentation) or something intangible (e.g. agreement or the solution to a problem). Tasks involve communicative language use in which the learners attention is focused on meaning rather than linguistic structures. They should be authentic and as close as possible to the real world and daily life experience of the learners.

They should involve learners in various activities in which they are required to negotiate meaning and make choices in what, when and how to learn.

Target Tasks Pedagogical Tasks Target tasks: designed to practise or rehearse tasks which sts need to carry out outside the classroom. Pedagogical tasks: do not necessarily reflect real world tasks but facilitate the development of language proficiency. Nunan (1999:25) refers to them as classroomwork that involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is focused on mobilizing their grammatical knowledge in order to express meaning. Pedagogical tasks enable learners to acquire the skills needed to master real-world target task Task-cycle Pre-task phase Introduces the learners to the topic and task Activates schemata Familiarizes the learners with skills and strategies needed to do the task The actual doing of the task The teacher sets up a communication task which sts are to carry out using the language at their disposal. The task exposes the learners to authentic materials The task encourages the development of comprehension strategies and processing strategies like listing, sorting, ordering, comparing. Sts plan their reports of the task Post-task phase Learners evaluate the work done They focus attention on both content and language forms (and their functions) Communication, Tasks and Exercises Tasks: activities where the target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome. (Willis:1996, p. 23) Exercises: learning activities in which students focus upon and practise specific elements of knowledge, skills and strategies needed for the task without a communicative purpose. CLT & TBL TBL: one particular approach to implementing the broader communicative approach CLT is a broad philosophical approach to the language curriculum that draws on theory and research in linguistics, anthropology, psychology and sociology. TBL represents a realization of this philosophy at the level of syllabus design and methodology. TBL & Experiential Learning The learners immediate personal experience is the point of departure for the learning experience. Intellectual growth occurs when learners engage in and reflect on sequences of tasks.

Learners learn by doing # transmission approach to education. Activities can be classified according to where they lie along this continuum with varying degrees of focus on form and/or meaning

Teachers & learnersroles Teacher: selector and sequencer of tasks, preparing learners for tasks, conciousness raising. Learners: group participant, monitor, risk-taker and innovator.