Social Learning Theory

Of the many cues that influence behavior, at any point in time, none is more common than
the actions of others. (Bandura, 1986, p.206)

Based on a belief that important psychological processes and issues had not been
completely dealt with by earlier theorists, Bandura & Walters (1963) began to present
another view, originally referred to as observational learning. This theory discussed the
human learning that takes place as individuals abstract information from observing the
behavior of others, abstracting information from these observations, make decisions
about which of these behaviors to adopt, and later perform the selected behaviors. The
theory lists several social cognitive factors that influence learning such as the capacity to
use symbols and engage in firm and intentional actions. Through the use of symbols, an
individual can translate observations into internal models that can guide future actions
and can be used to test out possible courses of action before actual performance.

As Bandura began to build his theory of social learning, he identified three areas of
weakness in Behaviorism. These were (1) the limited range of the behaviors possible for
research in a laboratory type setting (2) the fact that these theories were unable to account
for the acquisition of new responses to situations and (3) that it dealt with only one type
of learning, direct learning, where the learner performs a response and experiences the
consequences. Bandura referred to this type learning as instantaneous matching Bandura
went on to discuss indirect learning, referred to as delayed matching where the learner
observes reinforced behavior and then later enacts the same type behavior.

Bandura bases his theory on the acquisition of complex behaviors on a triangular diagram
illustrating the interactive effect of various factors. These three factors are behavior (B),
the environment (E), and the internal events that influences perceptions and actions (P).
The relationship between these three factors is known as reciprocal determinism.

A major difference between Bandura's social-cognitive theory of learning and earlier

theories is his definition of learning. He noted that persons acquire internal codes of
behavior that they may or may not act upon later. Therefore, he divided learning and
performance as two separate events. Learning was the acquisition on the internal
symbolic representations in the form of fverbal or visual codes, which could serve as
guidelines for future behavior. These memory codes of observed behaviors are referred to
as representational systems and divided into two types of systems, visual (imarginal) and
verbal-conceptual. The first is concerned with abstractions of distinctive features of
events instead of just mental copies, the second would be the verbal form of details for a
particular procedure.

The modeled behavior serves to convey information to the observer in one of three
different ways. One is by serving as a social prompt to initiate similar behavior in others.
The second is by acting to strengthen or weaken the exiting restraints of the learner
against performance of particular behaviors. The third influence is to transmit new
patterns of behavior.

Bandura describes three types of modeling stimuli, which are live models, symbolic
models, and verbal descriptions or instructions. Of these three, in American society , the
greatest range of exposure is in the form of symbolic models through mass media.

The characteristics of models is an important factor in determining the degree to which

the attention is paid to the model by the learner. The response of the learner to the
modeling behavior is largely determined by three sets of factors. These are the particular
attributes of the model, such as relevance and credibility for the observer; the prestige of
the model, and the satisfaction already present in the situation where the behavior is
being modeled. A second determinant of the models success is the nature of the observer.
Those who lack self esteem and self confidence are more prone to adopt the behavior of
models.

Bandura identified three types of reinforcers of behavior. These were direct

reinforcement, vicarious reinforcement, and self reinforcement. Direct reinforcement
would be directly experienced by the learner. Vicarious reinforcement would be observed
to be consequences of the behavior of the model. Self reinforcement would be feelings of
satisfaction or displeasure for behavior gauged by personal performance standards.

An important point in the social cognitive theory is that the learners behavior is guided by
cognitive processes rather than formed or shaped by reinforced practice. Four component
parts are responsible for the learning and performance acquisition. These are:

I. Attentional processes

• Observer characteristics
o
o perceptual /cognitive capacities
o
o arousal level
o
o past performance
•
• Event characteristics
o
o relevance
o
o affective valence
o
o complexity
o
o functional value
o
 o model's characteristics
o
o intrinsic rewards

II. Retentional processes

• Observer characteristics
o
o cognitive skills

• Event characteristics
o
o cognitive organization
o
o cognitive rehearsal

III. Motor reproduction processes

• Observer characteristics
o
o physical capabilities
o
o subskill mastery
• Event characteristics
o
o selection & organization of responses
o
o feedback

IV. Motivational processes

• Observer characteristics
o
o incentive preference
o
o social bias
o
o internal standards
•
•
• Event characteristics
o
o external reinforcement
 o
o self-reinforcement
o
o vivacious reinforcement

In Bandura's later work he introduces two other aspects to his Social Learning Theory.
These are his work on the self regulatory system and self efficacy. In the area of self
regulatory system/self evaluative behaviors he said that this system is based upon
cognitive subprocesses that:

• perceive,
• evaluate and
• regulate behavior.

These processes are based upon the standards for one's behavior and capabilities of
cognitive structures that provide referents for behavior and its outcomes. These standards
are based upon one's:

• self observation,
• self judgment
• self response
• self evaluations

The third area of Dr. Bandura's work deals with the area of ones perception of one's self
efficacy in dealing with a situation. Perceived self efficacy is the belief that one can
execute behavior to produce outcome. It influences behavior in three ways:

• choice of behavior
• quality of individual performance
• persistence

Dr. Bandura's definition of aptitude, itself, illustrates the importance he places on self-
efficacy in his learning theory. He says that the concept of ability is not a fixed attribute
in our repertoire, rather it is a generative capability which cognitive, motivational,
emotional and behavioral skills must be organized and effectively orchestrated to serve
diverse purposes

Self efficacy-activated processes are based on four areas:

• cognitive
• motivtional
• emotional
• selective

People with weak belief in their self efficacy

 • shy away from difficult tasks (personal threats)
• have low aspirations and weak commitment to the goals they choose
• maintain a self diagnostic focus (rather than how to perform)
• dwell on personal deficiencies, obstacles & adverse outcomes
• attribute failures to deficient capabilities
• slacken their efforts or give up quickly in face of difficulty
• slow to recover their sense of efficacy after failures or setbacks
• prone to stress & depression

People with strong belief in their efficacy

• set challenging goals & sustain strong commitments to their goals

• approach difficult tasks as challenges rather than as threats
• maintain a task diagnostic focus
• attribute failures to insufficient effort
• heighten effort in face of difficulties
• quickly recover their sense of efficacy after failure or setback
• display low vulnerability to stress & depression

Perceived self efficacy is visible in schools as it sets up a cue in the intellectual process:

• student beliefs in their own self efficacy

• individual teachers perceived self efficacy in their ability to perform effectively
with their difficult students
• staffs perceived efficacy that their schools can perform

The sources of perceived self efficacy are:

• performance / accomplishments
• vicarious experience
• social persuasion
• physiological state

The 3 types of cognitive motivators around which theories have been built:

• cognized goals
• outcome expectancies
• retrospective reasoning about perceived causes of success & failure

Overview of Bandura's Theory

As Bandura began to build his theory of social learning, he identified three ...
Bandura's later work he introduces two other aspects to his Social Learning Theory. ...
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