Through own reading, identify the main function of each elements and sketch the location of the elements

in buildings.

QUESTION 1 : Structural Steel Elements

a) Beams & Plate girder Beams Beams are an important class of structural element and usually horizontal the primary function of building structures is to support the major space enclosing elements commonly these are floors, roofs and walls. Beams support mainly vertical loads and are small in cross-section compared with their span.

Plate girder Used to carry higher or larger loads over larger spans then are possible with rolled universal or composed beams. They are used in buildings and industrial structures for long-span floor giders, heavy crane girders and in badges.

b) Column & Strut Columns and struts carry load primarily in compression along then length and are found in most building structures. Columns sometimes referred to as stachions and struts or structural elements which support compressive loads primarily only their longitudinal axes.

c) Trusess A truss or lattice structure is a structural assembly of small interconnected elements. Trusses are formed by an interconnected assembly of realtively small elements which create a lattice arrangement. In a typical single-storey industrial building, trusseses are very widely used to serve two main functions to carry the roof load (supporting a building roof) and to provide horizontal stability.

d) Purlin

The principal function of roofing purlins is to transfer the trusses in the roof of a building to its main structures. The purlin structure of a building is designed in accordance with the type of roofing to be used.

e) Sheeting rail A horizontal structural member in a formed wall. Provide latural support to the wall panel, primary to resist winds loads. Commonly used or a stabilixing element to the primary structure (e.g column)

f) Bracing Diagonal strut and tie to resist wind loads

g) Connections Refer to the material used to join 2 or more structural members.

h) Ties A tie, structural tie or strap is a structural component designed to resist tension. It is the opposite of a strut or column which is designed to resist compression. Ties may be made of any tension resulting material. Wood framing ties generally have holes allowing them be tastered to the wood structures by nails or screws.

QUESTION 2 : Describe about :

a) Fatigue of steel structures

Fatigue in general is a major cause of in-service failure of components and structures both. If by any means the fatigue risk be minimised or the fatigue life be increased will be advantageous to structures, it may be a bridge, a workshot frame or ofshore structure.

 Fatigue is one of the main problems causing degradation in the long term integrity of offshore structures. In order to assess the remaining life and fracture mecahnics crack growth analyses are required.

The fatigue failure occurs after four different stages, namely: Crack initiation at points of stress concentration Crack growth Crack propagation Final rupture

To reduce the problem of fatigue in steel structures shot peening may be advantageous and helpful by this inducing compressive residual stresses in critical areas in the structure. This will offer the most effective post weld stress relief method to solve the problem of fatigue in steel structures. Shot peening as reported by many investigators may reduce corrosion fatigue under sea water also.

b) Corrosion

The corrosion of structural steel is an electrochemical process that requires the simultaneous presence of moisture and oxygen. Essentially, the iron in the steel is oxidised to produce rust, which occupies approximately six times the volume of the original material. The rate at which the corrosion process progresses depends on a number of factors, but principally the 'micro-climate' immediately surrounding the structure.

Process corrosion

The corrosion of steel can be considered as an electrochemical process that occurs in stages. Initial attack occurs at anodic areas on the surface, where ferrous ions go into solution. Electrons are released from the anode and move through the

metallic structure to the adjacent cathodic sites on the surface, where they combine with oxygen and water to form hydroxyl ions. These react with the ferrous ions from the anode to produce ferrous hydroxide, which itself is further oxidised in air to produce hydrated ferric oxide (i.e. red rust.) The sum of these reactions can be represented by the following equation: Fe + 3O2 + 2H2O = 2Fe2O3H2O (Steel) + (Oxygen) + (Water) = Hydrated ferric oxide (Rust) However, after a period of time, polarisation effects such as the growth of corrosion products on the surface cause the corrosion process to be stifled. New, reactive anodic sites may be formed thereby allowing further corrosion. In this case, over long periods, the loss of metal is reasonably uniform over the surface, and this is usually described as 'general corrosion'. A schematic representation of the corrosion mechanism is shown (right).The corrosion process requires the simultaneous presence of water and oxygen. In the absence of either, corrosion does not occur. The principle factors that determine the rate of corrosion of steel in air are: Time of wetness : This is the proportion of total time during which the surface is wet, due to rainfall, condensation etc. It follows, therefore, that for unprotected steel in dry environments e.g. inside heated buildings, corrosion will be minimal due to the low availability of water. The requirement for the application of paints or coatings becomes unnecessary other than for appearance or fire protection purposes. Atmospheric pollution : The type and amount of atmospheric pollution and contaminants (e.g. sulphates, chlorides, dust etc.)

QUESTION 3 : Differentiate HOT-ROLLED STEEL and COLD-FORMED STEEL

HOT-ROLLED STEEL

COLD-FORMED STEEL

Hot rolled steel is heated up red-hot rollers and pushed through rollers thah squeeze the metal, literally squishing it intro a particular profile, dependeing on the shape of rollers. The manufacturing process involves forming the material by either pressbreaking or cold roll-forming to achieve the desired shape.

Cold rolling (or cold formed) is a metal is formed by possing it through rollers at a temperature below its recgistallization temperature. Cold rolling increases rhe yield strength and hardness of metal by intoducing defects into the metals crystal structure.