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Heat Treatment
Various heating and cooling procedures performed to effect structural changes in a material, which in turn affect its mechanical properties Most common applications are on Metals Similar treatments are performed on Glass-ceramics Tempered glass Powder metals and ceramics
Annealing
Heating the metal to a suitable temperature, soaking at that temperature for a certain time, and slowly cooling Reasons to use annealing: Reduce hardness and brittleness Alter microstructure to obtain desirable mechanical properties Soften metals to improve machinability or formability Recrystallize cold worked (strain-hardened) metals Relieve residual stresses induced by prior shaping
Annealing of Steel
Full annealing (usually associated with low and medium carbon steels) - heating the alloy into the austenite region, region followed by slow cooling (furnace cooling) to produce coarse pearlite Normalizing g - similar heating g and soaking g cycles, y but cooling rates are faster (air cooling), which results in fine pearlite, higher strength and hardness, but lower ductility than the full anneal treatment
Time-Temperature-Transformation Curve
Martensite
A unique phase consisting of an iron-carbon iron carbon solution whose composition is the same as the austenite from which it was derived A non non-equilibrium equilibrium single-phase single phase sructure that results from a diffusionless transformation of austenite Face-centered cubic (FCC) structure of austenite is transformed into body-centered body centered tetragonal (BCT) structure of martensite almost instantly The extreme hardness of martensite results from the lattice strain created by carbon atoms trapped in the BCT structure (no carbon diffusion), thus providing a barrier to slip Any diffusion whatsoever will result in the formation of ferrite and cementite phases
Figure 27.1 - The TTT curve, showing transformation of austenite into other phases as function of time and temperature for a composition of about 0.80% 0 80% C steel. steel Cooling trajectory shown yields martensite
Figure 27.2 Hardness of plain carbon steel as a function of carbon content in martensite and pearlite (annealed)
Tempering of Martensite
A heat treatment applied to martensite to reduce brittleness, increase toughness, and relieve stresses The Th treatment t t t involves i l heating h ti and d soaking ki at ta temperature below the eutectoid for approximately one hour, followed by y slow cooling g Results in precipitation of very fine carbide particles from the martensite iron-carbon solution, gradually transforming the crystal structure from BCT to BCC The new structure is called tempered martensite
Hardenability
The relative capacity of a steel to be hardened by transformation to martensite It determines d t i the th depth d th below b l the th quenched h d surface f to which the steel is hardened Steels with good hardenability can be hardened more deeply below the surface and do not require high cooling rates Hardenability H d bili d does not refer f to the h maximum i hardness that can be attained
Hardenability
The hardenability of steel is increased through alloying Alloying All i elements l t h having i th the greatest t t effect ff t are chromium, manganese, molybdenum The mechanism by which these alloying elements work is to extend the time before the start of the austenite-to-pearlite transformation In I effect, ff t the th TTT curve is i moved d to t the th right, i ht thus th permitting slower quenching rates
Figure 27.4 - Jominy end-quench test: (a) setup, showing end quench of the test specimen; and (b) typical pattern of hardness readings as a function of distance from quenched end
Precipitation Hardening
Heat treatment that involves formation of fine particles (precipitates) that act to block the movement of dislocations and thus strengthen and harden the metal Principal p heat treatment for strengthening g g alloys y of aluminum, copper, magnesium, nickel, and other nonferrous metals Also utilized to strengthen a number of steel alloys that cannot form martensite by the usual method
Figure 27.5 - Precipitation hardening: (a) phase diagram of an alloy system consisting of metals A and B that can be precipitation hardened; and (b) heat treatment: (1) solution treatment, (2) quenching, and (3) precipitation treatment
Yi Yield ld St Strength th i increases as zones or precipitates i it t f form Strength reaches a peak value and then dec eases(o e age g) decreases(overageing)
Mechanism of Strengthening
During plastic deformation: Zones or precipitates act as obstacles to di l dislocation ti motion ti Stress must be increased to push the dislocation through the distribution of precipitates. Consequently the alloy becomes harder and stronger.
Surface Hardening
Any of several thermochemical treatments applied to steels in which the composition of the part surface is altered by addition of various elements Often called Case Hardening Most common treatments are carburizing, nitriding, and carbonitriding Commonly applied to low carbon steel parts to achieve hi ah hard, d wear-resistant i outer shell h ll while hil retaining a tough inner core
Carburizing
H Heating ti a part t of f low l carbon b steel t li in a carbon b rich i h environment so that C is diffused into the surface In effect the surface is converted to a high carbon steel, capable of higher hardness than the low-C core Carburizing followed by quenching produces a case hardness of around HRC = 60 Because internal regions consist of low C steel, whose hardenability is low low, it is unaffected by the quench and remains relatively tough and ductile Most common surface hardening treatment
Carburizing (cont.)
Types of: Pack carburizing with carbonaceous materials in a chamber (thickness of 0 0.6 6 -3.8 3 8 mm) Gas carburizing - hydrocarbon fuel in a chamber (thickness of 0.13-0.75 mm) ( ) Liquid carburizing molten salt bath with chemicals (thickness 0.7 mm )
Carburizing (cont.)
Carburizing (cont.)
Pack P kC Carburizing b i i
Gas Carburizing g
Liquid q Carburizing g
Carburizing (cont.)
Nitriding
Treatment in which nitrogen is diffused into surface of special p alloy y steels to p produce a thin hard casing g without quenching Carried out at around 500C (950F) To be most effective, the steel must contain alloying ingredients such as aluminum or chromium to form nitride compounds p that p precipitate p as very y fine p particles in the casing to harden the steel Hardness up to HRC 70. Case thicknesses 0.025 0.5 mm. Methods: gas nitriding steel pars heated in ammonia atmosphere; liquid nitriding parts dipped in molted cyanide salt baths.
However However, because the internal regions of the part consist of low-carbon steel, and its hardenability is low, it is unaffected by the quench and remains relatively tough and ductile to withstand impact and fatigue stresses stresses.
Chromizing
Diffusing g chromium to surface Case thickness 0.025 to 0.05 mm. Requires higher temperatures and longer treatment times than the preceding hardening treatments Usually applied to low carbon steels g is not only y hard and wear resistant; ; it is also heat Casing and corrosion resistant Techniques: packing steel parts in Cr-rich powders or granules; dipping in molten salt bath containing Cr and Cr salts; or Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) (chap. 29).
Flame Hardening
Heating of work surface by one or more torches followed by rapid quenching Applied A li d t to carbon b and d alloy ll steels, t l t tool l steels, t l and d cast irons Fuels include acetylene (C2H2), propane (C3H8), and other gases Lends itself to high production as well as big components such h as l large gears that h exceed d the h size i capacity of furnaces
Induction Heating
Application of electromagnetically induced energy supplied by an induction coil to an electrically conductive workpart Widely used for brazing, soldering, adhesive curing, and various heat treatments When used for steel hardening treatments, quenching follows heating Cycle C l times i are short, h so process l lends d i itself lf to hi high h production
Figure 27.7 - Typical induction heating setup. High frequency alternating current in a coil induces current in the workpart to effect heating g