1117509 What are the key influences on the development of social policy?

There are many elements which influence the development of social policy; from recognised social problems through to economic and ideological elements, there are many factors capable of bearing a significant even key influence upon the creation and implementation of social policies. The aim of this essay is to articulate what arguably, are the key influences upon the policymaking process namely economic conditions and to a lesser extent, political factors. In order to explore the influences pertaining to social policy, it is necessary to provide a working definition of what Social Policy is. Classic examples of social policies are the activities of governments in providing finance and services to their citizens (Hill: 2003), in order to promote wellbeing (Alcock,2008:3 in alcock et al). However such an assertion gives little attention to any agency but the state, although Hill (2003:1) qualifies this by arguing the term social policy is used primarily to define the role of the state in relation to the welfare of its citizens. For the purposes of this essay then, a working definition of social policy will be the focus of governmental policies to provide welfare or wellbeing as the two terms are interchangeable (ibid) to its citizens. This emphasis has been recently evidenced in the current governments wellbeing measure proposal (Guardian, 2010). The focus will be following in the tradition of the social policy discipline by framing this study with an Anglo-centric focus, exclusively on the UK. There are many ways in which wellbeing could be assessed, however it is difficult to objectively define what constitutes a sufficient level of wellbeing (Liddard, 2003 in Baldock). One way to measure would be to assess the level of social need, however the same pitfalls exist when defining needs. There can be no straightforward connections made involving facts about need and the respective social policies to address them (Liddard, 2003 in baldock:129). Whilst social need is an important factor in forming policy indeed Liddard (2003:129) argues the recognition and satisfaction of need distinguishes the welfare function of the state the lack of agreement about which needs should be prioritised lies at the heart of conceptual welfare (ibid:129). 1

1117509 Whilst need and consequently, social problems undoubtedly have played a role in policymaking the influential Beveridge report of 1942 centred on five giants (Fraser, 2003), which contemporarily appear social problems born of social needs and rapidly became the blueprint for the modern British welfare state (nationalarchives.gov.uk). However, the lack of consensus over what constitutes a social need demonstrates that whilst it certainly has and will continue to play a significant role in policymaking, it is undermined by lack of consensus, making it vulnerable to other factors, such as economic and political influences possibly leading to differening interpretations of what constitutes need. Welfare refers to the spectrum of social arrangements in place to meet needs of individuals and groups, and to tackle social problems (Manning:2008 in Alcock). But why is it necessary for state intervention? Glennerster (2008:227) argues that there is no intrinsic reason why individuals cannot privately purchase welfare services, provided they have the money. Indeed influential economists such as Milton Friedman among others argue that the state should limit itself to paying individuals so they can privately consume welfare services (ibid). However the composition of needs and the respective services to meet them mean they are unsuitable for individual market purchase (ibid:227). In addition, the nature of welfare provision means some services are non-excludable clean air cannot be portioned off and sold for private consumption, it is either present or not and this example can be described as a market failure (ibid). In addition to non-excludable factors, private consumers may make less efficient choices (referred to as information failure) in areas of welfare such as education or healthcare in a market environment, and even lead to behavioural failure when choice abundance leads to inaction (ibid). Market failures help explain why a free market economic system idealised by Thatcher and economists such as von Hayek (Alcock, 2008) of privately purchased welfare cannot be relied upon as a majority source of welfare provision in the UK; arguably state intervention is more efficient in ... special cases (Glennerster:227) such as health and education. This is perhaps the most fundamental economic influence on policy that

1117509 capitalism is inefficient or even incapable of adequately and inclusively providing welfare to the extent of rendering intervention, from the state, voluntary or informal sectors, unnecessary. Whilst we have established the purview of social policy (to provide welfare and ensure wellbeing to citizens), and reasons for state intervention (market failure), it is useful to understand how state provision is achieved. The quandary facing policymakers in deciding who to administer welfare to and in what quantities can be seen in two ways choices about distribution and redistribution of provision in the form of services, resources and money and secondly, decisions about how to fund welfare though varying taxation scales to determine who and how much is paid (Blakemore & Griggs, 2007). As one of the most significant forms of inequality in the UK is in terms of income distribution (Liddard 2003, in Baldock) welfare in this country is largely concerned with redistribution of wealth in order to provide a base level of welfare (ibid). This is one of the most significant factors affecting policymaking, as it follows that no policy can be drafted without the requisite funding. Manning (2003:31 in Baldock) posits that financial resources or lack thereof are a pre-eminent constraint on government action. In this sense, it could be said all policies are at the mercy of economic determinism. Since the inception of the welfare state, social policy has become irremovably enmeshed with governments and politics (Manning, 2003 in Baldock), which demonstrates the gravitas that politics can play on policymaking. Its influence cannot be overstated Political party manifestos routinely include substantial proposals for changes in social policies (ibid:29). Indeed, governments have been elected on the grounds of their social policies, such as the Labour government of 1951s mandate to enact Beveridges proposals (Nationalarchive). Reasons for political decisions on policy may be caused by external pressures such as economic conditions, or be more fundamental in nature, such as ideological approach. For example, the mid-twentieth century was characterised by a shaky consensus best evidenced by Butskellism when consecutive Labour and Conservative governments demonstrated continuity, rather than a shift, in policy (Fraser, 2003). However this accord was more

1117509 down to politically pragmatic reasons; ideological differences still existed in areas such as education and private housing (ibid). An example of a more ideologically motivated policy approach, would be how the Thatchers governments healthcare policies were determined by politics, rather than rational planning (Manning, 2003:30 in Baldock) , however they came in a period of economic challenge in the form of disproportionate rising costs that led to a powerful critique of the Welfare State itself. Thus fiscal imperatives were once again at the forefront of policymaking. Even the political decisions that enabled the Welfare State to develop were largely due to economically favourable circumstances enabling it to develop deep roots which would be both difficult and electorally dangerous to alter (ibid:265). In conclusion, this study of policymaking influences has demonstrated the primacy of economic conditions in shaping social policy. Whilst political factors certainly are prominent, economic requirements can dictate the scope for any state action and consequently are the most influential element of governmental policymaking in the UK.

Unprecedently, this government used the level of unemployment as an economic tool to contain inflation (Fraser, 2003:283)

The ideas that sustain political parties are frequently developed through pressure groups and think tanks who take in the task of thinking the unthinkable as far as policies are concerned. For example previous conservative governments have consulted the Institute of Economic Affairs (IEA) as well as the Adam Smith Institute, whereas the former Labour government drew on the Fabian Society amongst others. 41

1117509 Governments are not the only source of welfare provision and services, however they remain tremendously important, particularly when considering the political influences on social policy. (Manning in Baldock et al:32) Bibliography

Alcock, P. May, N. and Rowlingson, K. (eds) (2008) The students Companion to Social Policy

Hill, M. (2003) Understanding Social Policy (fifth edition). Blackwell: Oxford. Baldock, J. Manning, N. and Vickerstaff, S. (2003) Social Policy (Second edition). Oxford press: Oxford Fraser, D (2003) The Evolution of the British Welfare State (Third edition). Palgrave Macmillan: Basingstoke Blakemore, K. Griggs, E. (2007) Social Policy: an introduction (Third edition) chapter 5 McGraw Hill House: Maidenhead http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/citizenship/brave_new_world/welfare.htm (accessed 14/11/10)