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Even though the generalized modeling methodology apparently increases the dimensionality of the problem, the computation of the

dynamics is performed without incurring any penalty for the higher dimension. This is accomplished by using the invariance property of the first order linearization and the application of sparse matrix techniques. By this procedure it is assured that the number of equations to be solved by iterative process is consistent with the order of the control system. Implementation of this generalized methodology concept in an array processor should contribute in the long run to the de velopment of a power system training simulator. The potential future applications of the generalized modeling

recursively [2]. Numerical Techniques methodology are: . Its application to modeling of power plants The numerical techniques for the synthesis of Zfa) and the . Study of model order reduction simulation of A fa) are based on an asymptotic tracing of the . Design of power system training simulator corresponding magnitude functions, from their initital to their final . Exchanging of power system data among various organiza asymptotic values. This results in a uniformly accurate represen tions. tation over the entire frequency band, from the de condition to, for instance, 106 Hz. The order of the approximations is automatically defined by the breaking points of the asymptotes. This process January 1982, p. 147 overcomes the limitations of previous rational function approxi mations where, due to the difficulty of pre-establishing the form of the approximating functions, the characteristic impedance has been assumed constant and the propagation function has been simulated of Accurate with only three exponentials [2] (resulting in loss of accuracy over an extended frequency range). The approximation of Zfa) in Fig. 2 (a) Transmission Lines in resulted in 8 R-C blocks, and the simulation of A fa) in Fig. 2 (b) resulted in 13 exponential terms. Transient

The network Zeq is a combination of resistance-capacitance (R-C) units and has a frequency response that matches that of the line characteristic impedance ZCM (Fig. 2(a)). The current sources lkh and lmh represent the weighted history of the voltage and current waves traveling along the line. These sources are derived from the simulation of the system propagation function A fa) in the fre quency domain by means of a rational function approximation (Fig. 2(b). In the time domain this rational function corresponds to a sum of exponential terms. This allows the evaluation of the convolution integrals that are necessary to determine lkh and lmh to be performed

Simulations

Modeling FrequencyDependent Electromagnetic

J. R. Marti, Member IEEE University of British Columbia, Department of Electrical Engineering, Vancouver, B.C., Canada

Electromagnetic Transient Simulations The experience over the last ten years in the digital simulation of electromagnetic transients in power systems has proven the ad vantages of time domain formulations [1] for a large class of system conditions. It has also been recognized, however, that not to account for the frequency dependence of the parameters of system com ponents such as transmission lines with ground return can greatly affect the results of the simulations. Different formulations have been suggested in order to develop circuit models that without restricting the generality of time domain formulations can incorporate the effect of the frequency depend ence of the parameters. The improvement obtained with these models as compared to constant-parameter representations has been quite encouraging. However, these models have encountered in their application a series of numerical instability and inaccuracy problems, and their use has required many particular considera
tions. New Formulation The formulation presented in this paper avoids the numerical problems encountered in previous formulations and leads to much more accurate models without the need for particular considera tions on the part of the users. The general form of the new models is shown in Fig. 1.

10 JO* NT* FREQUENCY IHZI

10"

\(f

Iff

JO'

IO*

(a)

20.4-f
02H

VU
Fig.

n Zeq lkhQj(T)lmhzeq jn

k(0

m(t)

IO* IO1 IO"'

lunn imwii iirnw i nun iiimiiDmi hhmt rTmn nun limn nmn

IO

FREQUENCT IHZI

10*

IO*

10*

IO*

IO*

IO'

l(f

Vm(t)
Fig. 2.

(b)

1. New frequency-dependent line models at nodes k and m.

Simulation of Zfa) and A fa). Curves (I): Exact parameters. Curves (II): New Model parameters.

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Tests The validity and accuracy of the new method has been assessed by comparisons with analytical results and with field tests. These results are presented in the main paper. As an example of the computational efficiency of the routines, the simulation of a Bonneville Power Administration field test required only about 20% extra computer time as compared to a constant-parameter rep resentation.

The penalty factors FP and FQ are introduced if one of the objectives is to minimize the system active losses. Production, bus voltage and branch current constraints are ex pressed in terms of generated currents and of variable transformers, which can be directly controlled, as follows:

References [1] H. W. Dommel, "Computation of Electromagnetic Transients".

2 C/ IP-^U ^U IQ 2 U
. .

/PL- Pioss
.

IQL

Qloss

Proceedings IEEE, vol. 62(7), pp. 983-993, July 1974. [2] A. Semlyen and R. A. Roth, "Calculation of Exponential Step Responses.Accurately for Three Base Frequencies". IEEE Trans., PAS-96, pp. 667-672, March/April 1977.
158

VPBmin)<lAi)VP) + IBi) + iA2)(Aa) <(/PBmax) UQBm in) < (A3)(/Q) + (B2) + <C2) 4- {A4)IAT) < (IQBmax) {Um]n) < (As)(IQ) + (B3) + (C3) + {A6)(AT) 4- Uref < (Umax)

with

January 1982, p.

An Efficient Constrained Power Flow Technique Based on Active-Reactive Decoupling and the Use of Linear
P. A. Chamorel and A. J. Germond, Member IEEE Federal Institute of Technology, Lausanne, Switzerland increasingly important dispatching center function, in order to improve security in general and to judiciously operate existing resources, by minimizing generation costs and system losses. The general optimization problem has to be treated globally, and includes in its nature a great amount of variables and constraints. Several optimization methods have been developed for solving this problem with respect to planning. On the other hand, these methods are unsuitable for on-line analysis, due to their large computer storage and time requirements. Linear programming is certainly a promising tool for solving this type of problem, but at the price of a light inaccuracy due to the linearization of nonlinear functions. Its application for solving optimal active power generation is well known, and gives satis factory results. However, the same technique is more difficult to apply to reactive power optimization, due to the nonlinearity of relations between reactive power injections and voltages. As most high voltage power systems encounter problems in reactive power and voltage management, linear programming extension to reactive power is of great interest. An iterative and decoupled method, based on the optimization of injected active and reactive current, is proposed. The objective functions consist in minimizing the overall pro duction costs or priorities for a defined period, as follows:
active power: min reactive power: min

UPninXUPXVPmax) UQmin)<UQXUQmBX) (Acxmin)<(Aa)<(Ac*max) (Armin)<(Arx(Armax)


where IP, IPL IQ, IQL
are the active generator and load currents are the reactive generator and load currents are the active and reactive system losses are the active and reactive branch currents

Programming

Ploss, Qloss IPB, IQB

"ref (A,)f(A2)AA3)t [A4)


an

Active and reactive power optimization is becoming

(B,),(B2),(B3) (C2), (C3)

is the reference bus voltage matrices of decision variable con tributions to branch currents and bus volt ages are the vectors of fixed load contributions to branch currents and bus voltages are the vectors of fixed transformer contri butions to reactive branch currents and bus
are the

voltages

This set of linear equations is solved by the dual simplex method, with upper bound technique. The mentioned contribution matrices and vectors are computed by means of a dc-flow program, based on the solution of the general complex equation, with active-reactive

decoupling:

Unet) (y)(U)
=

where

(/net)
m (U)

is the complex impressed current vector is the complex nodal admittance matrix is the complex bus voltage vector

[ ^FPj \pj U IP 4- ^ppf


* . .

A<xf j
.

(YFQ}

\q U IQ + J)ws \Tg J
.

where IP, IQ Aa

active and reactive generated currents is the angular displacement of phase shifting transformers AT is the difference of transformer ratio of tap changing transformers U is the bus voltage Xp, \q, ip, iq are the linear costs or priorities of decision variables
are the

Optimization is performed by an iterative process. At the be ginning, only equality constraints are present before introduction of branch flow and bus voltage constraints, and the optimization is first achieved by a simple sort of costs or priorits. If one or several inequality constraints are violated, the latter are introduced in succession of their occurrence, and optimization is thereafter performed by linear programming. Generally, convergence is ob tained quickly especially in case of severe constraints. Contrary to active problem, reactive power optimization is more difficult, be cause each voltage modification leads to a general modification of loads, reactive losses, penalty factors and of several contribution matrices and vectors. The proposed example deals with an actual 220/125 kV system with 47 busses and 16 generating units, where the objective is to minimize active losses due to reactive productions. Nine iterations were necessary for reaching convergence after introducing 7 bus voltage and 1 branch flow violated constraints. This optimization took 8 seconds of CPU on VAX-11/780. Checking the results has been perforrried with a full Newton-Raphson load-flow, and shows in this case a very good accuracy of the linearized model.
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