SENTENCE STRUCTURES

Structurally, English sentences can be classified four different ways, though there are endless constructions of each. The classifications are based on the number of independent and dependent clauses a sentence contains. An independent clause forms a complete sentence on its own, while a dependent clause needs another clause to make a complete sentence. By learning these types, writers can add complexity and variation to their sentences. Simple sentence: A sentence with one independent clause and no dependent clauses. My aunt enjoyed taking the hayride with you. Compound Sentence: A sentence with multiple independent clauses but no dependent clauses. The clown frightened the little girl, and she ran off screaming. Complex Sentence: A sentence with one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. After Mary added up all the sales, she discovered that the lemonade stand was 32 cents short Complex-Compound Sentence: A sentence with multiple independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. Catch-22 is widely regarded as Joseph Heller's best novel, and because Heller served in World War II, which the novel satirizes, the zany but savage wit of the novel packs an extra punch.

Vary your sentence structure:

1. Vary the rhythm by alternating short and long sentences. Several sentences of the same length can make for bland writing. To enliven paragraphs, write sentences of different lengths. This will also allow for effective emphasis. Example: The Winslow family visited Canada and Alaska last summer to find some native American art. In Anchorage stores they found some excellent examples of soapstone carvings. But they couldn't find a dealer selling any of the woven wall hangings they wanted. They were very disappointed when they left Anchorage empty-handed. Revision: The Winslow family visited Canada and Alaska last summer to find some native American art, such as soapstone carvings and wall hangings. Anchorage stores had many soapstone items available. Still, they were disappointed to learn that wall hangings, which they had especially wanted, were difficult to find. Sadly, they left empty-handed. Example: Many really good blues guitarists have all had the last name King. They have been named Freddie King and Albert King and B.B. King. The name King must make a bluesman a

really good bluesman. The bluesmen named King have all been very talented and good guitar players. The claim that a name can make a guitarist good may not be that far fetched. Revision: What makes a good bluesman? Maybe, just maybe, it's all in a stately name. B.B. King. Freddie King. Albert King. It's no coincidence that they're the royalty of their genre. When their fingers dance like court jesters, their guitars gleam like scepters, and their voices bellow like regal trumpets, they seem almost like nobility. Hearing their music is like walking into the throne room. They really are kings. 2. Vary sentence openings. If too many sentences start with the same word, especially "The," "It," "This," or "I," prose can grow tedious for readers, so changing opening words and phrases can be refreshing. Below are alternative openings for a fairly standard sentence. Notice that different beginnings can alter not only the structure but also the emphasis of the sentence. They may also require rephrasing in sentences before or after this one, meaning that one change could lead to an abundance of sentence variety. Example: The biggest coincidence that day happened when David and I ended up sitting next to each other at the Super Bowl. Possible Revisions: Coincidentally, David and I ended up sitting right next to each other at the Super Bowl. In an amazing coincidence, David and I ended up sitting next to each other at the Super Bowl. Sitting next to David at the Super Bowl was a tremendous coincidence. But the biggest coincidence that day happened when David and I ended up sitting next to each other at the Super Bowl. When I sat down at the Super Bowl, I realized that, by sheer coincidence, I was directly next to David. By sheer coincidence, I ended up sitting directly next to David at the Super Bowl. With over 50,000 fans at the Super Bowl, it took an incredible coincidence for me to end up sitting right next to David. What are the odds that I would have ended up sitting right next to David at the Super Bowl? David and I, without any prior planning, ended up sitting right next to each other at the Super Bowl.

The Order of a Sentence

Not all sentences make a single point -- compound sentences, especially, may present several equally-important pieces of information -- but most of the time, when you write a sentence, there is a single argument, statement, question, or command which you wish to get across. When you are writing your sentences, do not bury your main point in the middle; instead, use one of the positions of emphasis at the beginning or end of the sentence.

The Loose Sentence

It is the opposite of the loose sentence, also continuous or running style, where the subject and verb are introduced at the beginning of the sentence If you put your main point at the beginning of a long sentence, you are writing a loose sentence:
loose I am willing to pay slightly higher taxes for the privilege of living in Canada, considering the free health care, the cheap tuition fees, the low crime rate, the comprehensive social programs, and the wonderful winters.

The main point of this sentence is that the writer prefers to live in Canada, and the writer makes the point at the very beginning: everything which follows is simply extra information. When the readers read about the free health care, the cheap tuition fees, the low crime rate, the comprehensive social programs, and the wonderful winters, they will already know that these are reasons for living in Canada, and as a result, they will be more likely to understand the sentence on a first reading. Loose sentences are the most natural for English speakers, who almost always talk in loose sentences: even the most sophisticated English writers tend to use loose sentences much more often than periodic sentences. While a periodic sentence can be useful for making an important point or for a special dramatic effect, it is also much more difficult to read, and often requires readers to go back and reread the sentence once they understand the main point. Finally, it is important to remember that you have to structure a loose sentence as carefully as you would structure a periodic sentence: it is very easy to lose control of a loose sentence so that by the end the reader has forgotten what your main point was.

The Periodic Sentence

The periodic sentence emphasizes its important point by putting first all subordinate clauses and other modifiers to its main idea. The sentence unfolds gradually, so that the thought contained in the subject/verb group becomes available only at the sentence's end. If your main point is at the end of a long sentence, you are writing a periodic sentence:
periodic Considering the free health care, the cheap tuition fees, the low crime rate, the comprehensive social programs, and the wonderful winters, I am willing to pay slightly higher taxes for the privilege of living in Canada .

The main point of this sentence is that the writer prefers to live in Canada. At the beginning of this sentence, the reader does not know what point the writer is going to make: what about the

free health care, cheap tuition fees, low crime rate, comprehensive social programs, and wonderful winters? The reader has to read all of this information without knowing what the conclusion will be. A balanced sentence is a sentence that employs parallel structure of approximately the same length and importance.

Examples
1. "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times..." ( A Tale of Two Cities) 2. "White chickens lay white eggs, and brown chickens lay brown eggs; so if white cows give white milk, do brown cows give chocolate milk?" 3. From Lincoln's Gettysburg Address on November 19, 1863, two powerful examples: "But in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate--we cannot consecrate--we cannot hallow--this ground." and "....--that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth. 4. Control it before it controls you - By Sami Musa

Active and Passive Voice

Verbs in the active voice show the subject acting. Verbs in the passive voice show something else acting on the subject. Most writers consider the active voice more forceful and tend to stay away from passives unless they really need them. ACTIVE: Tim killed the chicken hawk. PASSIVE: The chicken hawk was killed by Tim. Indicative, Imperative, and Subjunctive Mood Most verbs we use are in the indicative mood, which indicates a fact or opinion: Examples: He was here. I am hungry. She will bring her books.

Some verbs are in the imperative mood, which expresses commands or requests. Though it is not stated, the understood subject of imperative sentences is you. Examples: Be here at seven o'clock. (Understood: You be here at seven o'clock.) Cook me an omelette. (Understood: You cook me an omelette.) Bring your books with you. (Understood: You bring your books with you.) When verbs show something contrary to fact, they are in the subjunctive mood. When you express a wish or something that is not actually true, use the past tense or past perfect tense; when using the verb 'to be' in the subjunctive, always use were rather than was: Examples: If he were here... (Implied: ...but he's not.)

I wish I had something to eat. (Implied: ...but I don't.) It would be better if you had brought your books with you. (Implied: ...but you haven't brought them.) Review INDICATIVE: I need some help. IMPERATIVE: Help me! SUBJUNCTIVE: If I were smart, I'd call for help.

Connectors:
A preposition links nouns, pronouns and phrases to other words in a sentence.

The book is on the table. The book is beneath the table. The book is leaning against the table. The book is beside the table. She held the book over the table. She read the book during class. You can use a conjunction to link words, phrases, and clauses, as in the following example:
I ate the pizza and the pasta. Call the movers when you are ready.

Co-ordinating Conjunctions
You use a co-ordinating conjunction ("and," "but," "or," "nor," "for," "so," or "yet") to join individual words, phrases, and independent clauses. Note that you can also use the conjunctions "but" and "for" as prepositions.

Subordinating Conjunctions
A subordinating conjunction introduces a dependent clause and indicates the nature of the relationship among the independent clause(s) and the dependent clause(s). The most common subordinating conjunctions are "after," "although," "as," "because," "before," "how," "if," "once," "since," "than," "that," "though," "till," "until," "when," "where," "whether," and "while."

Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions always appear in pairs -- you use them to link equivalent sentence elements. The most common correlative conjunctions are "both...and," "either...or," "neither...nor,", "not only...but also," "so...as," and "whether...or." (Technically correlative conjunctions consist simply of a co-ordinating conjunction linked to an adjective or adverb.)

Punctuation:
Comma usage is in some respects a question of personal writing style: some writers use commas liberally, while others prefer to use them sparingly. Most modern North American style guides now recommend using fewer commas rather than more, so when faced with the option of using a comma or not, you may find it wise to refrain.

For instance, the use of a comma before the "and" in a series is usually optional, and many writers choose to eliminate it, provided there is no danger of misreading:

We bought scarves, mittens and sweaters before leaving for Iceland. (comma unnecessary before "and") We ate apples, plums, and strawberry and kiwi compote. (comma needed before "and" for clarity)

Comma Usage
1. Use a comma before a co-ordinating conjunction that joins independent clauses (unless the independent clauses are very short): I wrapped the fresh fish in three layers of newspaper, but my van still smelled like trout for the next week. (commas with two independent clauses) She invited him to her party and he accepted. (comma unnecessary with short clauses) 2. Use a comma after an introductory adverb clause and, often, after an introductory phrase (unless the phrase is very short): After the hospital had completed its fund-raising campaign, an anonymous donor contributed an additional $10,000. (after introductory adverb clause) From the east wall to the west, her cottage measures twenty feet. (after introductory prepositional phrase) In the bottom drawer you will find some pink spandex tights. (no comma with short, closely related phrase) 3. Use a comma to separate items in a series: Playing in a band can be exciting, but many people do not realize the hardships involved: constant rehearsals, playing until 2 a.m., handling drunken audience members, and transporting heavy equipment to and from gigs. (the comma preceding "and" is optional unless needed to prevent misreading) 4. Use commas to set off non-restrictive elements and other parenthetical elements. A non-restrictive modifier is a phrase or clause that does not restrict or limit the meaning of the word it is modifying. It is, in a sense, interrupting material that adds extra information to a sentence. Even though removing the non-restrictive element would result in some loss of meaning, the sentence would still make sense without it. You should usually set off non-restrictive elements with commas: The people of Haiti, who for decades have lived with grinding poverty and mind-numbing violence, are unfamiliar with the workings of a true democracy. A restrictive modifier is a phrase or clause that limits the meaning of what it modifies and is essential to the basic idea expressed in the sentence. You should not set off restrictive elements with commas: Those residents of Ottawa who do not hold secure, well-paying jobs must resent the common portrayal of the city as a land of opportunity. Note that you can use two other punctuation marks to set off non-restrictive elements or other parenthetical information: parentheses and dashes. Enclosing parenthetical information in parentheses reduces the importance of that information: Mr. Grundy's driving record (with one small exception) was exemplary. 5. Placing parenthetical information between dashes has the opposite effect: it emphasizes the material:

Mr. Grundy's driving record -- with one exception -- was exemplary. Nevertheless, you should usually set off parenthetical information with commas.

Superfluous Commas
Equally important in understanding how to use commas effectively is knowing when not to use them. While this decision is sometimes a matter of personal taste, there are certain instances when you should definitely avoid a comma.

Do not use a comma to separate the subject from its predicate:

[WRONG] Registering for our fitness programs before September 15, will save you thirty percent of the membership cost. [RIGHT] Registering for our fitness programs before September 15 will save you thirty percent of the membership cost.

Do not use a comma to separate a verb from its object or its subject complement, or a preposition from its object: [WRONG] I hope to mail to you before Christmas, a current snapshot of my dog Benji. She travelled around the world with, a small backpack, a bedroll, a pup tent and a camera. [RIGHT] I hope to mail to you before Christmas a current snapshot of my dog Benji. [RIGHT] She travelled around the world with a small backpack, a bedroll, a pup tent and a camera.

Do not misuse a comma after a co-ordinating conjunction: [WRONG] Sleet fell heavily on the tin roof but, the family was used to the noise and paid it no attention. [RIGHT] Sleet fell heavily on the tin roof, but the family was used to the noise and paid it no attention.

Do not use commas to set off words and short phrases (especially introductory ones) that are not parenthetical or that are very slightly so: [WRONG] After dinner, we will play badminton. [RIGHT] After dinner we will play badminton.

Do not use commas to set off restrictive elements: [WRONG] The fingers, on his left hand, are bigger than those on his right. [RIGHT] The fingers on his left hand are bigger than those on his right.

Do not use a comma before the first item or after the last item of a series: [WRONG] The treasure chest contained, three wigs, some costume jewellery and five thousand dollars in Monopoly money.

[WRONG] You should practice your punches, kicks and foot sweeps, if you want to improve in the martial arts. [RIGHT] The treasure chest contained three wigs, some costume jewellery and five thousand dollars in Monopoly money. [RIGHT] You should practice your punches, kicks and foot sweeps if you want to improve in the martial arts

You will usually use the semicolon to link independent clauses not joined by a co-ordinating conjunction. Semicolons should join only those independent clauses that are closely related in meaning. Abdominal exercises help prevent back pain; proper posture is also important. The auditors made six recommendations; however, only one has been adopted so far. Do not use a semicolon to link a dependent clause or a phrase to an independent clause. [WRONG] Although gaining and maintaining a high level of physical fitness takes a good deal of time; the effort pays off in the long run. [RIGHT] Although gaining and maintaining a high level of physical fitness takes a good deal of time, the effort pays off in the long run. Generally, you should not place a semicolon before a co-ordinating conjunction that links two independent clauses. The only exception to this guideline is if the two independent clauses are very long and already contain a number of commas. [WRONG] The economy has been sluggish for four years now; but some signs of improvement are finally beginning to show. [RIGHT] The economy has been sluggish for four years now, but some signs of improvement are finally beginning to show.

When to Use a Colon

The colon focuses the reader's attention on what is to follow, and as a result, you should use it to introduce a list, a summation, or an idea that somehow completes the introductory idea. You may use the colon in this way, however, only after an independent clause:
He visited three cities during his stay in the Maritimes: Halifax, Saint John and Moncton. Their lobbying efforts were ultimately useless: the bill was soundly defeated. My mother gave me one good piece of advice: to avoid wasting time and energy worrying about things I cannot change.

When Not to Use a Colon

You should not place a colon between a verb and its object or subject complement, or between a preposition and its object:
[WRONG] His neighbour lent him: a pup-tent, a wooden canoe, and a slightly battered Coleman stove. (colon between verb and objects) [RIGHT] His neighbour lent him a pup-tent, a wooden canoe, and a slightly battered Coleman stove. [WRONG] Her three goals are: to improve her public speaking skills, to increase her self-confidence and to sharpen her sales techniques. (colon between verb and subject complement) [RIGHT] Her three goals are to improve her public speaking skills, to increase her self-confidence and to sharpen her sales techniques.

[WRONG] We travelled to: London, Wales and Scotland. (colon between preposition and objects) [RIGHT] We travelled to London, Wales and Scotland

The Dash
As noted in the section on commas, you can use a dash at the beginning and end of parenthetical information. Usually, you will use dashes when you want to emphasise the information, but you might also use them if the parenthetical information is too long or abrupt to be set off with commas.
I think you would look fine wearing either the silk blouse -- the one with the blue pattern -- or the angora sweater. (abrupt interruption) The idea of returning to the basics in the classroom -- a notion which, incidentally, has been quietly supported for years by many respected teachers -- is finally gaining some currency with school administrators. (lengthy interruption containing internal commas)

You can use a dash to conclude a list of elements, focusing them all toward one point.
Chocolate, cream, honey and peanut butter -- all go into this fabulously rich dessert.

Dashes also mark sharp turns in thought.

We pored over exotic, mouth-watering menus from Nemo Catering, Menu du Jour, Taste Temptations, and three other reputable caterers -- and rejected them all.

Modifiers:
In general, you should place single-word modifiers near the word or words they modify, especially when a reader might think that they modify something different in the sentence. Consider the following sentence: [WRONG] After our conversation lessons, we could understand the Spanish spoken by our visitors from Madrid easily. Do we understand the Spanish easily, or do the visitors speak it easily? This revision eliminates the confusion: [RIGHT] We could easily understand the Spanish spoken by our visitors from Madrid.

Misplaced Phrases and Clauses

It is important that you place the modifying phrase or clause as close as possible to the word or words it modifies:
[WRONG] By accident, he poked the little girl with his finger in the eye. [WRONG] I heard that my roommate intended to throw a surprise party for me while I was outside her bedroom window. [WRONG] After the wedding, Ian told us at his stag party that he would start behaving like a responsible adult. [RIGHT] By accident, he poked the little girl in the eye with his finger. [RIGHT] While I was outside her bedroom window, I heard that my roommate intended to throw a surprise party for me. [RIGHT] Ian told us at his stag party that he would start behaving like a responsible adult after the wedding.

Squinting Modifiers
A squinting modifier is an ambiguously placed modifier that can modify either the word before it or the word after it. In other words, it is "squinting" in both directions at the same time:
[WRONG] Defining your terms clearly strengthens your argument. (does defining "clearly strengthen" or does "defining clearly" strengthen?) [RIGHT] Defining your terms will clearly strengthen your argument. OR A clear definition of your terms strengthens your argument.

Dangling Modifiers
The dangling modifier, a persistent and frequent grammatical problem in writing, is often (though not always) located at the beginning of a sentence. A dangling modifier is usually a phrase or an elliptical clause -- a dependent clause whose subject and verb are implied rather than expressed -- that functions as an adjective but does not modify any specific word in the sentence, or (worse) modifies the wrong word. Consider the following example:
Raised in Nova Scotia, it is natural to miss the smell of the sea.

The introductory phrase in the above sentence looks as if it is meant to modify a person or persons, but no one is mentioned in the sentence. Such introductory adjective phrases, because of their position, automatically modify the first noun or pronoun that follows the phrase -- in this case, "it." The connection in this case is illogical because "it" was not raised in Nova Scotia. You could revise the sentence in a number of ways:
For a person raised in Nova Scotia, it is natural to miss the smell of the sea. (the phrase no longer functions as an adjective) Raised in Nova Scotia, I often miss the smell of the sea. (the phrase functions as an adjective but now automatically modifies "I," a logical connection) Although nearly finished, we left the play early because we were worried about our sick cat.

A dangling modifier can also appear when you place an elliptical clause improperly:

The way this sentence is structured, the clause "Although nearly finished" illogically modifies "we," the pronoun directly following the clause. An easy way to rectify the problem is to reinsert the subject and verb that are understood in the elliptical clause:
Although the play was nearly finished, we left early because we were worried about our sick cat.