Fluids Lecturenotes

Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403
School of Mechanical Engineering University of Western Australia Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403 2007
CLASS INSTRUCTIONS
Lecturer: Dr. Xiaolin Wang School of Mechanical Engineering ME building, Rm 2.84 xlwang@mech.uwa.edu.au
Aims Fluid mechanics aims to introduce the basic concepts of how fluid behaves under varying conditions. At the end of this course, you shall have a working knowledge of fluid properties, hydrostatics, and mass & energy conservation of fluids. In particular, you should have an understanding of how to find and solve the typical engineering problems that involve fluids. For example, you will learn how to use the pressure manometer to check the energy loss along the piping system, to use the dimensional analyses to analyze the experimental results. Most of these engineering problems will require understanding of many parts of this course. You should try to continually integrate each new concept you learn with work you have already covered. Tutors Tianran Lin Room 2.68 Laboratory demonstrators (all are in the Centre for Water Research Building, unless otherwise noted) Assessment Assessment for the course will be by: 1) Examination 2) Laboratory experiment 3) Tutorial assignments 70% 15% 15% 1
Y. A. Gengel, R. H. Turner, Thermal-fluid sciences, McGraw Hill, 2001. ; F. M. White, Fluid mechanics, McGraw Hill, 1999.; P.M. Gerhart, R. J. Gross, J. I. Hochstein, Fundamentals of fluid mechanics,2rd edition, 1992. R. W. Fox, A. T. McDonald, Introduction to fluid mechanics, 5th edition, 1998.
1) Examination This will consist of: i. one set of answer questions on concepts covered by the unit ii. four to five problems similar to those you would have dealt with in your tutorial and assignements. There will be no choice of questions. 2) Laboratory experiment You will do two laboratory experiments and complete in the laboratory following the instruction by laboratory demonstrators. The assessment will be given by the laboratory demonstrator according to the lab quiz which will be given during lab session. After you have completed the experiment, the demonstrator will mark them during the session and return them to you. If you do not understand any concepts covered in the lab, ask your demonstrator before you do the quiz! Note: If there is no quiz mark recorded (i.e. the student did not attend the laboratory session), then the student will automatically score a ZERO for the laboratory experiment. 3) Tutorial assignments Two to three assignments: 1 is due every other week during semester. Go to tutorials for hints on how to answer the problems. Assignments will be marked by tutors and returned to you. Solutions will be put on website a week after they were due to be handed in. This does mean that late assignments will not be accepted. Recommended Reading 1 2 3 4 Y. A. Gengel, R. H. Turner, Thermal-fluid sciences, McGraw Hill, 2001. F. M. White, Fluid mechanics, McGraw Hill, 1999. P.M. Gerhart, R. J. Gross, J. I. Hochstein, Fundamentals of fluid mechanics,2rd edition, 1992. R. W. Fox, A. T. McDonald, Introduction to fluid mechanics, 5th edition, 1998.
Faculty of Engineering and Mathematical Sciences
Policy on Plagiarism Plagiarise: take an another persons thoughts, writings or inventions as ones own The Concise Oxford Dictionary, Sixth Edition. Whilst co-operation is normally encouraged, and sometimes required, plagiarism is totally unacceptable. Where plagiarism is discovered in a students work, it is the normal policy of the faculty to apply the following penalties, 1, When the work has a mark allocated to it, the mark given will be negative with a magnitude up to the total allocation for the particular work. 2, When the work has no mark allocation, but is required to be preformed, a penalty of up to 20 marks will be deducted from the students score for the unit. 3,Where two or more students are involved, the penalty will be applied to all of them except that no penalty will be applied to an innocent party who did not permit the copying of his/her work. 4, All cases of plagiarism will be reported to the Dean for recording on the Facultys records.
LECTURE OUTLINE
LECTURE 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Fluid mechanics in engineering 1.2 The concept of a fluid and continuum hypothesis 1.3 Thermal properties L E C T U R E FUNDAMENTAL 2 DEFINITION OF TERMS 2.1 Viscosity 2.2 Density 2.3 Laminar/transition/turbulent flow 2.4 Steady/unsteady flow 2.5 Viscous/inviscid flow 2.6 Compressible/incompressible flow LECTURE 3 FLUID STATICS 3.1 Pressure at point 3.2 Hydrostatic pressure distributions LECTURE 4 FLUID STATICS 4.1 Pressure measurement - application to Manometer 4.2 Hydrostatic forces on plane surface LECTURE 5 FLUID STATICS 5.1 Hydrostatic forces on curved surface 5.2 Buoyancy and stability LECTURE 6-9 FLUID DYNAMICS LECTURE 10 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSES 10.1 The principle of dimensional homogeneity 10.2 The Pi theorem 10.3 Nondimensionalization of the basic equations 10.4 Similitude - model studies LECTURE 11 PIPE FLOW 11.1 Reynolds-Number regimes 11.2 Laminar flow and turbulent flow 11.3 Fully developed laminar flow in pipes LECTURE 12 PIPE FLOW
PROPERTIES
OF
FLUIDS
AND
12.1 Fully developed turbulent flow in pipes 12.2 minor losses 12.3 Piping networks and pumps selection
Lecture notes
LECTURE 1
Fluid Mechanics application in Engineering Fluid mechanics is the branch of engineering science that deals with the behaviors of fluids at rest and in motion, and the interaction between fluid and fluid, fluid and solid. The study of fluid mechanics involves applying the fundamental principles of mechanics and thermodynamics to develop physical understanding and analytic tools that engineers can use to design and evaluate equipment and processes involving fluids. Fluid mechanics involves a wide variety of fluid flow problems encountered in practice. Its principles and methods find many technological applications in fields such as: Fluid transport Energy generation Environmental control Transportation Fluid transport discusses how to move a fluid from one place to another so that the fluid may be used or processed. Examples include tap water supply system, oil-and-gas transportation pipe, chemical plant piping. The fluid transport system may include pumps, compressors, pipes, valves and a host of components. In order to design the new systems, engineers may evaluate existing systems to meet new demands or they may maintain or upgrade existing systems. Energy generation always involves fluid movement. Typical energy conversion devices such as steam turbines, reciprocating engines, gas turbines, hydroelectric plants, and windmills involve many complicated flow processes. Environmental control involves fluid motion. Building ventilation, heating and air-conditioning systems use a fluid to transport energy from a source to required environment. For example, in the heating system, the fluid brings the energy from a combustion process or other heat source to the heated place. In the air-conditioning system, the circulating air is cooled by a flowing refrigerant and then is distributed to the cooled place. With the exception of space travel, all transportation takes place within a fluid medium. The application of fluid mechanics to vehicle design can minimize the desired force which is generated by the relative motion between the fluid and vehicle and hence opposes the desired force. The fluid often contributes in a positive way such as by floating a ship or generating lift on airplane wings. In addition, these transportation devices derive propulsive forces that also interact with the surrounding fluid. These examples are by no means exhaustive. There are plenty of other examples such as design of harbors, bridges, canals and dams. In the environmental engineering, engineers must deal with naturally occurring flow processes in the atmosphere and lakes, rives and oceans. The phenomena of fluid motion are central to the field of meteorology and weather forecasting.
The fundamentals of fluid mechanics include a knowledge of the nature of fluids and the properties used to describe them, the physical laws that govern fluid behavior, the ways in which these laws may be cast into mathematical form, and the various methodologies that may be used to solve the engineering problem. The Fluids concept What is a fluid? From the point of fluid mechanics, all matter consists of only two states, fluid and solid. A solid can resist a shear stress by a static deformation but a fluid cannot. In order to develop a formal definition of a fluid, consider imaginary chunks of both a fluid and a solid as shown in figure 1.1. The chunks are fixed along the bottom and a shear force is applied along the top surface. A short time after application of the force, the difference between fluid and solid is obvious. The solid assumes a deformed shape which can be measured by the angle . This angle will not change with the time. That means the deformation of solid is exactly the same at different time and it will return to the original undeformed shape if the force is removed. On the contrary, the angle for fluid will become greater when the application of the force maintain for a short time. In fact, the fluid continue to deform as long as the force is applied. If the force is removed, the fluid will not return to its original shape but it will retain whatever shape it had. Now we can define a fluid: F 1 F F
t1 F 1 F
1 = 2 2
t2 F 2
(a)
(b)
t1
1 < 2
t2
(c)
(d)
Figure 1.1 Response of samples of solid and fluid to applied shear force: Condition (a) corresponds to the instant of application of the force; condition (b) to a short time after the application of the force; condition (c) to a later time and (d) removal of the force. A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously under the action of an applied shear force or stress.
The process of continuous deformation is called flowing. A fluid is a substance that is able to flow. Because of flowing, it is not possible to analyze or discuss fluid behavior in terms of stress and deformation as is done in solid mechanics. It is necessary to consider the relation to between stress and the time rate of deformation. A fluid deforms at a rate related to the applied stress. The fluid attains a state of dynamic equilibrium in which the applied stress is balanced by the resisting stress. Thus alternative definition of a fluid is: A fluid is a substance that can resist shear only when moving. The continuum hypothesis All substances are composed of an extremely large number of discrete particles called molecules. In a pure substance such as water, all molecules are identical; other substances such as air are mechanical mixtures of different types of molecules. Molecules interact with each other via collisions and intermolecular forces. The phase of a sample of matter-solid, liquid and gas- is a consequence of the molecular spacing and intermolecular forces. The molecules of a solid are relatively close (spacing on the order of a molecular diameter) and exert large intermolecular forces; the molecules of a gas are far apart (spacing of an order of magnitude larger than molecular diameter) and exert relatively weak intermolecular forces. Thus a gas can easily change its volume and shape, however, the solid maintain both its volume and shape due to stronger intermolecular forces. In a liquid, the intermolecular forces are sufficiently strong to maintain volume but not shape. Because of the large number of molecules involved in the fluid, it is impossible to describe a sample of fluid in terms of the dynamics of its individual molecules. For most cases of practical interest, it is possible to ignore the molecular nature of matter and to assume that matter is continuum. This assumption is called the continuum model and may be applied to both solid and fluids. This model assumes that molecular structure is so small relative to the dimensions involved in problems of practical interest that we may ignore it. Because of the continuum model, the fluid can be described in terms of its properties, which represent average characteristics of its molecular structure. As an example, we use the mass per unit or density rather than the number of molecules and the molecular mass. Furthermore, because the fluid properties and velocity are continuous functions, we can use calculus to analyze a continuum rather than applying discrete mathematics to each molecule. Fluid properties 1. Density and specific volume The density of a fluid is its mass per unit volume. It has a value at each point in a continuum and may vary from one point to another. Assume an arbitrary volume _V in a fluid and the mass is _m. The average density is m = V This average density depends on the size and location of the chosen volume. Therefore an exact definition of the density must involve a limit. With the volume
reducing, our nature of inclination is to take the limit of as _V approaches zero. The local density is defined by m = lim V V 0 V The small volume V represents the size of a typical point in the continuum. For fluids near atmospheric pressure and temperature, such small volume is of the order of 10-9mm3. We interpret all fluid properties as representing an average of the fluid molecular structure over this small volume. The unit of density in SI units is kg/m3. a. Specific volume The specific volume of a fluid is its volume per unit mass which is directly related to density. The specific volume is defined by 1 = , Is of considerable use in thermodynamics but is seldom used in fluid mechanics. b. Specific weight The specific weight is the weight of the fluid per unit volume; thus = g , Where g is the local acceleration of gravity. c. Specific gravity The specific gravity of a fluid is the ration of the density of the fluid to the density of a reference fluid. The defining equation is S= Re f For liquids, the reference fluid is pure water at 4oC and 1.0133 10 5 N/m2, Re f = 1000 kg/m3. Note: all the above properties are directly related to each other, once density is constant so that all the others are constant. 2. Pressure Pressure is a fluid property of utmost importance. Most fluid mechanics problem involve prediction of fluid pressure or with the integrated effects of pressure over some surface or surface in contact with the fluid. The definition of pressure is Pressure is the normal compressive force per unit area acting on a real or imaginary surface in the fluid. Consider a small surface area A within a fluid as shown in figure 1.2, A forces Fn acts normal to the surface. Tangential forces may also be present but are not relevant to the definition of pressure. The pressure is defined by
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Fn AA0 A The limiting value of A represents the lower bound of the continuum assumption. The pressure can vary from point to point in a fluid. It presents the molecular momentum and intermolecular force within the fluid microscopically and it is positive for compression. p= lim
Fn
Surface area A
The unit of pressure is force per unit area, N/m2. Gage pressure refers to the pressure measured relative to local atmospheric pressure. Pressure measured relative to zero pressure is called absolute pressure. Gage and absolute pressures are related as: Absolute pressure = Gage pressure + Atmospheric pressure in vicinity of gage. Pressure below local atmospheric pressure is sometimes called vacuum pressures. It is normally expressed as a positive number, Vacuum pressure = Atmospheric pressure Absolute pressure = -Gage pressure. In many situations that arise in fluid mechanics, we are more concerned with differences of pressure than with levels of pressure. Normally, pressure differences are the same whether the pressure are considered as absolute or gage, so long as all pressures are based on a common datum. 3. Temperature Temperature is a property that is familiar to everyone but rather difficult to define with the same exactness as density or pressure. We normally associate temperature with the degree of hotness or coldness, but this is hardly a precise definition. For introduction purposes, we define the temperature of a fluid as a measure of the energy contained in the molecular motions of the fluid. The most common temperature scales are relative scales such as Fahrenheit scale, Celsius Scale and absolute scales such as Kelvin scale and Rankine scale. T (Rankine) = T (Fahrenheit) + 459.67 T (Kelvin) = T (Celsius) + 273.15
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T (Rankine) = 1.8 T (Kelvin). Internal energy (U) is the energy contained in random molecular motions and intermolecular forces. The specific internal energy is the internal energy per unit mass. For a single liquid, the internal energy is primarily a function of temperature.
u = cvT Where Cv is specific heat at a constant volume.
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LECTURE 2
2.1 Thermal properties (continue) 1. Viscosity As you have learned that a fluid is a substance that undergoes continuous deformation when subjected to a shear stress and that the shear stress is a function of the rate of deformation. For many common fluids, this shear stress is proportional to the rate of deformation. This constant of proportionality, called Viscosity which is important fluid property. To develop this equation for viscosity, we must first obtain an expression for the rate of deformation of a fluid particle. Consider the behavior of a fluid element between the two infinite plates shown in figure 2.1. The upper plate moves at constant velocity, u , under the influence of a constant applied force, Fx . The shear stress, , applied to the fluid element is given by F dF = lim x = x A0 A dA Where A is the area of contact of a fluid element with the plate, and Fx is the force exerted by the plate on that element. During the time interval t , the fluid element is deformed from position BCMN to position BDON. The rate of deformation of the fluid is given by d = deformation rate = lim t 0 t dt
l
C D M O Force, Fx Velocity, u
Fluid element at time, t
Fluid element at time, t + dt
Figure 2.1 Deformation of a fluid element
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To calculate the shear stress , it is desirable to express d dt in terms of readily measurable quantities. The distance, l , between the points C and D is given by l = u t For the small angle, l = y By equating the above two equations, we obtain u = t y Taking the limits of both sides of the quality, we obtain d du = dt dy Thus, the fluid element of figure 2.1, when subjected to shear stress, , experiences a rate of deformation (shear rate) given by du dy . According to the definition of a fluid, the shear stress is directly proportional to the rate of deformation, du = dy The coefficient is the viscosity, we called absolute viscosity and its unit is 2 N-s/m . In fluid mechanics, the ratio of absolute viscosity to density is very useful and this ratio is given the name kinetic viscosity and its unit is m2/s. 2.2 Newtonian Fluid & non-Newtonian Fluid Fluids in which the shear stress is directly proportional to rate of deformation are Newtonian fluids. Thus in terms of the coordinates of the figure 2.1, Newtons law of viscosity is given for one-dimensional flow by du = dy Most common fluids such as water, air and gasoline are Newtonian under normal conditions. Non-Newtonian Fluid is used to classify all fluids in which shear stress is not directly proportional to shear rate. Blood and plastics are examples of non-newtonian fluids. In this text we only consider Newtonian fluids. For liquids, both the dynamic and kinematic viscosities are practically independent of pressure and any small variation with pressure is usually disregarded, except at extremely high pressures. For gases, this is also the case for dynamic viscosity (at low to moderate pressures), but not for kinematic viscosity since the density of a gas is proportional to its pressure. For example, Air at 20oC and 1 bar: = 0.000018 kg/m s; = 0.000015 m 2 / s Air at 20oC and 3 bars: = 0.000018 kg/m s; = 0.00005 m 2 / s The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its stickiness or resistance to deformation. This is due to the internal frictional force that develops between layers as they are forced to move relative to each other. Viscosity is caused by cohesive forces between molecules in liquids and by molecular collisions in gases, and it varies greatly with temperature. The viscosity of liquids decreases with temperature, Y. A. Gengel, R. H. Turner, Thermal-fluid sciences, McGraw Hill, 2001. ; F. M. White, Fluid mechanics, 14
McGraw Hill, 1999.; P.M. Gerhart, R. J. Gross, J. I. Hochstein, Fundamentals of fluid mechanics,2rd edition, 1992. R. W. Fox, A. T. McDonald, Introduction to fluid mechanics, 5th edition, 1998.
whereas the viscosity of gases increases with temperature as shown in figure 2.2. This is because, in a liquid, the molecules possess more energy at higher temperatures, and they can oppose the large cohesive intermolecular forces more strongly. As a result, the energized liquid molecules can move freely. In a gas, on the other hand, the intermolecular forces are negligible, and the gas molecules at high temperatures move randomly at higher velocities, this results in more molecular collisions per unit volume per unit time, and therefore in greater resistance to flow. The viscosity of a fluid is directly related to power needed to transport a fluid in a pipe. Viscosity
Liquids
Gases
Temperature Figure 2.2 The viscosity of liquids decreases and the viscosity of gases increases with temperature. The kinetic theory of gases predicts the viscosity of gases to be proportional to the square root of temperature, T This has been confirmed by practical observations, but deviations for different gases need to be accounted for by incorporating some correction factors. According to Sutherland correlation, it is as aT 1 / 2 = 1+ b /T Where T is absolute temperature and a & b are experimentally determined constant, for air a=1.458 x 10-6Pa-s/ K1/2; b=110.4K at atmospheric conditions. For a liquid: = a10 b /(T c ) For water, a=2.414 x 10-5N-s/m2, b=247.8K and c=140K results in less than 2.5% error in the temperature range of 0oC to 370oC. 2.3 Viscous versus inviscid flow As we explained early, it is quite clear of the viscous flow in which the effects of viscosity are significant. The effects of viscosity are very small in some flows, and Y. A. Gengel, R. H. Turner, Thermal-fluid sciences, McGraw Hill, 2001. ; F. M. White, Fluid mechanics, 15
neglecting those effects greatly simplifies the analysis without much loss in accuracy. Such idealized flows of zero-viscosity fluids are called inviscid flows. 2.4 Internal flow and external flow A fluid flow is classified as being either internal or external, which depends on whether the fluid is forced to flow in a confined channel or over a surface. The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such as a plate, a wire, or a pipe is external flow. The flow completely bounded by a solid surface such as in a pipe and duct are called internal flow. External flow Air or gas
Water
Internal flow Figure 2.3 Internal flow in a pipe and the external flow of air over the same pipe (basic concept for gas-liquid heat exchanger. 2.5 Compressible and Incompressible flow Flows in which variation of density are negligible are termed incompressible; when the density variations within a flow are not negligible, the flow is called compressible. Gases are normally considered as compressible flow and liquids are usually classified as incompressible. For many liquids, density is only a weak function of temperature. At modest pressure, liquids may be considered incompressible. However, at high pressures, compressibility effects in liquids can be important. Pressure and density changes in liquids are related by the bulk compressibility modulus, or modulus of elasticity,
dp d If the bulk modulus is independent of temperature, then density is only a function of pressure (the fluid is barotropic). Ev =
16
Water hammer and cavitation are examples of the important of compressibility effects in liquid flow. Water is caused by acoustic waves propagating and reflecting in a confined liquid, for example, when a valve is closed abruptly. The resulting noise can be similar to hammering on the pipes hence the term. Here, we would like to know one more thermal property, vapor pressure of a liquid which is the partial pressure of the vapor in contact with the saturated liquid at a given temperature. When pressure in a liquid is reduced to less than the vapor pressure, the liquid may change phase suddenly and flash to vapor. 2.6 Laminar flow and Turbulent flow Some flows are smooth and orderly while others are rather chaotic. The highly ordered fluid motion characterized by smooth streamline is called laminar flow. The flow of high-viscosity fluids such as oil at low velocities is typically laminar. The highly dis-ordered fluid motion that typically occurs at high velocities is characterized by velocity fluctuations and is called turbulent flow. Air at high velocities is typically turbulent. This flow regime greatly influences the heat transfer rates and required power for pumping. The nature of the Laminar flow and Turbulent flow is determined by the value of a dimensionless parameter, called Reynolds number (Re). For a piping flow, Re= VD / . Generally, Re<2300, it is laminar flow. Note: in order to understand more about the nature of laminar flow and turbulent flow and the behavior of the transition from the laminar flow to turbulent flow, one laboratory experiment is prepared for students. 2.7 Steady and unsteady (transient) flow The term steady and uniform are used commonly in engineering. Steady flow means flow does not change with time. The opposite of steady is unsteady flow or called transient. The term uniform implies no change with location over a specified region. Many devices such as turbines, compressors and nozzles operate for long period of time under the same conditions and they are classified as steady flow devices. During the steady flow, the fluid properties can change from point to point within a device but at any fixed point they remain constant. 2.8 Natural flow and forced flow A fluid flow is said to be natural or forced, depending on how fluid motion is initiated. In forced flow, a fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a pipe by external means such as a pump or a fan. In natural flows, any fluid motion is due to natural means such as the buoyancy effect, which manifests itself as the rise of warmer fluid and the fall of cooler fluid. Figure 2.4 shows a thermo-siphoning system which is typical natural flow system.
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Cold water Hot water Solar radiation
Solar collector
Hot water storage (top part)
Figure 2.4 Natural circulation of water in a solar water heater by thermo-siphoning. 2.9 Surface tension and Capillary effect
Figure 2.5 Some consequences of surface tension

From: Y. A. Gengel, R. H. Turner, Thermal-fluid Sciences, 2001
It is often observed that a drop of blood forms a hump on a horizontal glass, a drop of mercury forms a near-perfect sphere and can be rolled just like a steel ball over a smooth surface, water droplets from rain or dew hang from branches or leaves of trees, a liquid fuel injected into an engine forms a mist of spherical droplets, water dripping from a leaky faucet falls as spherical droplets, and a soap bubble released into air forms a spherical shape. All these observances demonstrate a pulling force that causes a tension acts parallel to the surface and is due to the attractive forces between the molecules of the liquid. The magnitude of this force per unit length is called surface tension. To understand the surface tension effect better, consider a liquid film such as the film of soap bubble suspended on a U-shape frame with a movable side as shown in figure 2.6. Normally, the liquid film will tend to pull the movable side inward in order to minimize the surface area. A force F needs to be applied on the movable frame in the Y. A. Gengel, R. H. Turner, Thermal-fluid sciences, McGraw Hill, 2001. ; F. M. White, Fluid mechanics, 18
opposite direction to balancing this pulling effect. The thin film in the device has two surfaces exposed to air, and thus the length along which the tension acts in this case is 2l. Then a force balance on the movable frame gives F = 2l s Thus the surface tension can be expressed as F s = 2l The unit of surface tension is N/m. An apparatus of this kind with sufficient precision can be used to measure the surface tension of various fluids.
Rigid frame
F Movable frame x
s
F Liquid film
Figure 2.6 Stretching a liquid with U-shaped frame and the force acting on the movable frame In the U-shape frame, the force F remains constant as the movable frame is pulled to stretch the film and increase its surface area. When the movable frame is pulled a distance x , the surface area increases by A = 2lx and the work done W during this stretching process is W = F x = s 2l x = s A Since the force remains constant in this case. This result also can be interpreted as the surface energy of the film is increased by an amount of s A during this stretching process, which is consistent with the alternative interpretation of s as surface energy. In the case of liquid film, the work is used to move liquid molecules from the interior parts to the surface against the attraction forces of other molecules. Therefore, surface tension also can be defined as the work done per unit increase in the surface area of the liquid. There are a few factors which affect the surface tension. Firstly, the surface tension varies greatly from substance to substance, and with temperature for a given
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substance. For example, at 20oC, the surface tension is 0.073 N/m for water and 0.440 N/m for mercury surrounded by atmospheric air. In general, the surface tension of liquid decreases with temperature and becomes zero at the critical point. The effect of the pressure on tension is usually negligible. The table 2.1 shows the surface tension for some substance at different temperature. Fluids Water 0 oC 20 oC 100 oC 300 oC Glycerin SAE 30 oil Mercury Ethyl alcohol Blood, 37oC Gasoline Ammonia Soap solution Kerosene Surface tension s , N/m 0.076 0.073 0.059 0.014 0.063 0.035 0.440 0.023 0.058 0.022 0.021 0.025 0.028
In addition, the surface tension can also be affected considerably by impurities. Therefore, certain chemicals, called surfactants can be added to a liquid to decrease its surface tension. For example, soaps and detergents lower the surface tension of water and enable it to penetrate through the small openings between fibers for more effective washing. But this also means that devices whose operation depends on surface tension (such as heat pipes) can be destroyed by the presence of impurities due to poor workmanship. Capillary effect Capillary effect is one of most useful and interesting consequence of surface tension, which is the rise or fall of a liquid in a small-diameter tube inserted into the liquid. Such small or narrow tubes or confined flow channels are called capillaries. The rise of kerosene through the cotton wick inserted into the reservoir of a kerosene lamp is due to this effect. The capillary effect is also partially responsible for the rise of water to the top of tall trees. It is commonly observed that water in a glass container curves up slightly at the edges where it touches the glass surface; but the opposite occurs for mercury: it curves down at edges. This effect is usually expressed by saying that water wets the glass by sticking to it while mercury does not. This strength of the capillary effect is quantified by the contact angle which the tangent to the liquid surface makes with the solid surface at the point of contact. When this angle is bigger than 90o, the liquid does not wet the surface; when it is smaller than 90o, it wets the surface. This contact angle is different in different environments such as another gas or liquid in place of air. For example, in atmospheric air, the contact angle of water (most other organic liquids) with glass is nearly 0o, thus the surface tension force acts upwards on water in a glass Y. A. Gengel, R. H. Turner, Thermal-fluid sciences, McGraw Hill, 2001. ; F. M. White, Fluid mechanics, 20
tube along the circumference, tending to pull the water up. As a result, water rises in the tube until the weight of the liquid in the tube above the liquid level of the reservoir balances the surface tension force. However, the contact angle is 130o for mercuryglass so that it does not wet the glass.
2R s
Water Mercury W h
a. Wetting fluid
b. Non-wetting fluid
2R Figure 2.8 the forces acting on a liquid column due to capillary effect
Figure 2.7 Contact angle for wetting and non-wetting fluids
The magnitude of the capillary rise in a circular tube can be determined from a force balance on the cylindrical liquid column of height h in the tube. The bottom of the liquid column is at the same level as the free surface of the reservoir, and thus the pressure there must be atmospheric pressure. This will balance the atmospheric pressure acting at the top surface, and thus these two effects will cancel each other. The weight of the liquid column is W = mg = Vg = g (R 2 h) Equating the vertical component of the surface tension force to the weight gives W = Fsurface g ( R 2 h )= 2R s cos Solving for h gives the capillary rise to be
2 s cos gR This is also valid for nonwetting liquids as shown in the figure 2.9.
Capillary rise: h =
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Tube
Tube
a. Capillary rise ( < 90 o )
b. Capillary depression ( > 90 o ) Figure 2.9
It is noted that the capillary rise is inversely proportional to the radius of the tube. Therefore, the thinner the tube is, the greater the rise of the liquid will be in the tube. In practice, the capillary tube is usually negligible in tubes whose diameter is greater then 9mm. when pressure measurement are made using manometers and barometers (we will talk about this in the next few lectures), it is important to use sufficiently large tubes to minimize the capillary effect. Also, it can be found that the capillary rise is also inversely proportional to the density of the liquid.
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LECTURE 3 FLUID STATICS ONE This lecture and following two lectures will discuss the mechanics of fluids that are not flowing; that is, the particles of fluid are not experiencing any deformation. 1.1 Pressure at a point: Pascals law In this discuss, we neglect the surface tension and assume that no electromagnetic forces act on the fluid. If there is no deformation, there are no shear stresses acting on the fluid; the forces on any fluid particle are the result of gravity and pressure only. We are mainly concerned here with calculating pressure distribution and evaluating the resultant pressure forces at interfaces between a fluid and as solid. Pascals law gives a clear statement for the pressure: the pressure at any point in a nonflowing fluid has a single value, independent of direction. In order to prove Pascals law, we consider the equilibrium of forces for the small fluid wedge shown in figure 3.1 which is assumed static. z
Ps
ds dz dx
y x
dy g Pz
Figure 3.1 wedge of fluid at rest The forces on the fluid are the result of gravity and pressure and we ignore x direction force. From the force balance, the wedge is at rest so
Therefore,
Fy = p y (dxdz ) p s (dsdx) sin = 0 Fz = p z (dxdy ) p s (dsdx) cos (dydxdz / 2) = 0 dy = ds cos ; dz = dssin

p y = ps ; p z = ps + dz 2
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To evaluate this relation at a point, we take the limit as dx,dy,dz approach zero, which results in p y = ps ; p z = ps As is arbitrary, these equations are valid for any angle. Note that x and y axes are not unique; rotating the wedge 90o about the z axis would interchange the x and y axes, and we would conclude that p x = p s . Therefore, pressure is independent of the direction. 1.2 Pressure variation in a static fluid Even through the pressure at a point is the same in all directions in a static fluid, the pressure may vary from point to point. To evaluate the pressure variation, lets examine a cubical fluid element at rest as shown in figure 3.2.
p dz 1 2 p dz 2 + ( )+ ( ) + H .O.T . z 2 2 z 2 2
p dy 1 2 p dy 2 ( )+ ( ) + H .O.T . y 2 2 y 2 2
p(x,y,z) dz dz G dy dx dy dx
p dy 1 2 p dy 2 ( )+ ( ) + H .O.T . y 2 2 y 2 2
p dz 1 2 p dz 2 ( )+ ( ) + H .O.T . z 2 2 z 2 2
Figure 3.2 Cubic fluid element in a static fluid The pressure at the center of the element is p . For simplicity; we assume that the pressure does not vary in the x direction. As the fluid is continuous, we express the pressure at the faces of the element from the center by Taylor series as shown in the figure 3.2. where the H.O.T. means higher order terms involving dy and dz. The forces balance for the rest fluid element is as Fy = 0; Fz = 0 By combining and canceling the terms where possible, consider the higher order terms vanish as we take the limit, it can get p p = 0; + = 0 y z These two equations show: (i) the pressure does not vary in a horizontal plane (y direction); (ii) the pressure increases if we go down and decreases if we go up.
24
Because pressure changes in only one direction, we can replace the partial derivative with an ordinary derivative: dp = dz This equation is the basic equation of fluid statics. 3.2.1 Application of Pressure variation In a constant-density fluid If the specific weight of fluid is constant, the above equation can be easily integrate as p ( z ) = z + p o Where p o is the pressure at reference point, that is z=0. If we consider the pressure in the liquid which has a free surface as shown in the figure 3.3, the free surface is at constant pressure and it is horizontal. We introduce the depth of the fluid, h, measured downward from the free surface. As z=-h, we can have p ( h) = p o + h This pressure distribution is called a hydrostatic pressure distribution. The last term in the above equation is called hydrostatic pressure. y Free surface Gas (po) x Symbol for free surface
Figure 3.3 Body of liquid with a free surface. Based on the above, we can state the hydrostatic condition: Pressure in a continuously distributed uniform static fluid varies only with vertical distance and is independent of the shape of the container. The pressure is the same at all points on a given horizontal plane in the fluid. The pressure increases with depth in the fluid. An illustration of this is shown figure 3.4. the free surface of the container is atmospheric and forms a horizontal plane. Points a, b, c, and d are at equal depth in a horizontal plane and are interconnected by the same fluid, water. Therefore all points have the same pressure. The same is true of points A,B,C on the bottom, which all have the same higher pressure than at a, b, c, and d. However, point D although at the
25
same depth as A, B and C has a different pressure because it lies beneath a different fluid, mercury. Atmospheric pressure Free surface
d Depth 1 Depth 2 Mercury D
Figure 3.4 Hydrostatic pressure distributions
In a variable-density fluid and the standard atmosphere In the above section, we discussed the constant specific weight. For some cases, the specific weight is variable so that we must relate the specific weight to the pressure and evaluation before we can integrate the equation. Lets take the ideal gas as an example,
dp pg = = g = dz RT Solving for pressure, we can get: dp g p = ln( p) = RT dz + C Now the problem becomes the temperature variation with the z. A useful application of this is calculation of the variation of pressure with altitude in the earths atmosphere. The temperature profile of the U.S. standard atmosphere is shown in figure 3.5a and the pressure variation with altitude could be calculated according to the temperature profile as shown in figure 3.5b.
26
Altitude z, km 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 20.1km 11.0km -60 0 -40 -20 o Temperature, C 60 50 40 Ionosphere 30 Stratosphere Tropospher e 20 20 10 0
Altitude z, km
1.20kPa
101.33kPa
40 80 Pressure, kPa
120
(a) (b) Figure 3.5 Temperature and pressure distribution in the U.S. Standard. 3.2.2 Manometry 1 Manometers: Recall the equation for pressure in a constant density: p p o = h A simple and effective way to measure the pressure is to measure the height of a column of liquid supported by the pressure. Such device based on this principle is called a manometer. One of most common types of manometer is the U-tube, as shown in Fig. 3.6. Since the pressure is the same at the point A, we can have Pa + 2 gh2 = p o + 1 gh1
p a p 0 = ( 1 gh1 2 gh2 )
p gage = 1 gh1 2 gh2
If the fluid 2 is air inside the tube, then the gage pressure is just the height of the liquid, fluid 1.
27
Open to atmosphere A h2 Fluid density 2 B
h1
Fluid density 1 B
Figure 3.6 U-tube manometer
28
LECTURE 4 4.1 (Con) Manometry and pressure measurement In this section, we would like to illustrate the principles by which the equation for any manometer can be developed. The essence of the method is the application of the hydrostatic pressure equation and the balance of pressure at a point. Figure 4.1 shows a manometer with several different fluids. We can find an expression for the pressure difference by dividing the manometer at the high point D and the low point C. D h2 h1 PA h6 h4 3 C Figure 4.1 multi-liquid manometer h5 h3 PB 1 2 4
PA = PD + 1 gh1 + 2 gh2 PC = PD + 2 gh3 + 3 gh4 PB = PC 3 gh5 4 gh6

Therefore, we can obtain PA PB = 1 gh1 2 g (h3 h2 ) 3 g (h4 h5 ) + 4 gh6 This shows that any type of manometer can be developed. We can avoid the slight complexity of solving simultaneous equations by following a three-step manometer rule: 1) write the pressure at one end of the manometer; 2) proceed through the manometer, adding the hydrostatic pressure if you are going down and subtracting if going up. 3) At any point, the algebraic sum of pressure is equal to the pressure at that point. The sensitivity of the pressure depends on the h per unit change in pressure and the maximum readable pressure depends on the change of liquid.
29
For the small pressure change, we can use the inclined manometer as shown in the figure 4.2 to increase the sensitivity.
l P h
Figure 4.2 Inclined manometer

sin By reading the length, l, which is much longer than h, the sensitivity increases which depends on the angle . P = gh = g l
4.2 pressure measurement Example 1 Flow devices a b
1
h
2
Figure 4.3 Pressure drop measurement Application for measuring the pressure drop across the fittings, valves, flowmeters, orifices and so on. Pab = ( 2 1 ) gh Example 2 Application for measuring the pressure inside the pipe flow.
30
Water flow SAE 30 Oil
Gage B Mercury H3
A H1 H4 H2 C
Figure 4.4 Pressure inside the water flow pipe

PA = PB + m g ( H 4 H 2 ) + o gH 3 w gH 1
Example 3 This figure shows how to measure the absolute pressure at point 1 and 2 by using different type of manometers. However, if the pressure difference is desired, this method is not perfects since the significant error is incurred by the subtracting two independent measurements. It is far better to connect both ends of one instrument to the two static holes 1 and 2 so that one manometer reads the difference directly. The figure c shows an elastic-deformation pressure measurement device which is a popular, inexpensive and reliable device, called bourdon tube. The deflection can be measured by a linkage attached to a calibrated dial pointer. This idea can use the diaphragm or membrane to replace the bourdon tube. As shown in the other measurement devices.
31
Schematics of (b)
Figure 4.5
From F. M. White, Fluid Mechanics, 1999
Some other pressure measurement devices Except the above-mentioned pressure sensors, the commonly used pressure devices include the following types, Capacitive sensors, Strain gages and Frequency sensor.
32
Figure 4.6a Capacitive pressure sensor From F. M. White, Fluid Mechanics, 1999
Figure 4.6b Strain gage From F. M. White, Fluid Mechanics, 1999
33
Figure 4.6 c Frequency pressure sensor From F. M. White, Fluid Mechanics, 1999 4.2 Pressure force on surface When a surface is in contact with a fluid, fluid pressure exerts a force on the surface. This force is distributed over the surface; however, it is often helpful in engineering calculations to replace the distributed force by a single resultant. To completely specify the resultant force, it is necessary to determine its magnitude, direction, and point of application which is called center of pressure. According to the definition: dF p= n dA The resultant force can be obtained by integration: Fn = pdA There are two difficulties in performing this integration: 1) The pressure and area must be expressed in terms of a common variable to permit integration. 2) If the surface is curved, the normal direction varies from point to point on the surface, and Fn is meaningless because no single normal direction characterizes the entire surface. In this case, the force at each point on the surface must resolved into components and then each component integrated. 4.2.1 Pressure force on plane surface The simplest pressure on a place surface is uniform pressure acting on a surface such as a container as shown in figure 4.7 below: The pressure force can be easily integrated as: F = pdA = p o A = ( p a + l gh) A
34
po
Liquid 0 F
h P
Figure 4.7 Uniform pressures in the liquid tank From this, it is obvious that the force on a plane surface caused by a uniform pressure is equal to the product of the pressure and the area. The force is normal to the area. On an arbitrary surface Consider the top surface of a flat plate of arbitrary shape completely submerged in a liquid as shown in figure 4.8 together with its top view. The plane of this surface (normal to the paper) intersects the horizontal free surface with an angle , and we take the line of intersection to be the x axis. Free surface hc
Pc F=PCA h(x,y) y y(dA)
x C CP dA=dxdy C: Centroid CP Center of pressure
Figure 4.8 Hydrostatic force on an inclined plate surface completely submerged in a liquid The distance from the free surface to the plate is
35
h = y sin
The absolute pressure on the plate is P = Po + gy sin The resultant hydrostatic force FR acting on the surface is determined by integrating the force PdA acting on a differential area dA over the entire surface area, FR = PdA = (Po + gy sin )dA = Po A + g sin ydA
A A A
The first moment of area center) of the surface by
ydA is related to the y coordinate of the centroid (or

yC = 1 ydA A A
Substituting,
FR = ( Po + gy C sin ) A = PC A = Pave A
Where Pc = ghC is the pressure at the centroid of the surface which is equivalent to the average pressure on the surface, and hc is the vertical distance fo the centroid from the free surface of the liquid. Note: the magnitude of the resultant force acting on a plane surface of a completely submerged plate in a homogeneous (constant density) fluid is equal to the product of the pressure Pc at the centroid of the surface and the area A of the surface. Now we need to know solve the second problem how to determine the line of action of the resultant force. Two parallel force systems are equivalent if they have the same magnitude and the same moment about any point. The line of action of the resultant hydrostatic force, in general, does not pass through the centroid of the surface, it normally lies underneath where the pressure is higher. This point is called the center of pressure. This vertical location of the line of action is determined by equating the moment of the resultant force to the moment of the distributed pressure force about the x axis. It gives y p FR = yPdA = Po ydA + g sin y 2 dA = Po y C A + I xx ,o g sin
A A A
Where yp is the distance of the center of pressure from the x axis, Ixx,o is the second moment of area (also called the area moment of inertia) about x axis. This second moment of area is commonly used in the engineering handbooks, but they are usually given about the axes passing through the centroid of the area. However, the second moments of area about the two parallel axes are related to each other by the parallel axis theorem, which in this case is expressed as 2 I xx ,o = I xx ,C + y C A
Where Ixx,C is the second moment of area about the x axis passing through the centroid of the area and yc (the y coordinate of the centroid) is the distance between the two parallel axes. Therefore, we could have I xx ,C y P = yC + [ y C + Po /( g sin )] A If Po=0, which is usually the case when the atmospheric pressure is ignored. It simplifies to I xx ,C y P = yC + yC A
36
Therefore, the vertical distance of the center of pressure from the free surface is determined from h p = y p sin . The Ixx,C for some common areas are given in figure 4.9. For these and other areas that possess symmetry about the y axis, the center of pressure lies on the y axis directly below the centroid. The location of the center of pressure in such area is simply the point on the surface of the vertical plane of symmetry at a distance hp from the free surface. y b/2 C b/2 a/2 a/2 A= R 2 ; Ixs,C= R 4 / 4 Circle y A= ab ; Ixs,C= ab 3 / 4 Ellipse y x
4R 3
y b R x C
C x
a x
A=ab; Ixx,C=ab3/12 Rectangle y 2b/3
C C a/2 a/2 b/3 x R
C b a
x
4b 3
A=ab/2; Ixx,C=ab3/36 Triangle
A= R 2 / 2 ; Ixs,C= 0.11R 4 Semicircle
A= ab / 2 ; Ixs,C= 0.11ab 3 Semiellipse
Figure 4.9 The centroid and the centroid moments of inertia for some common geometries
37
LECTURE 5 5.1 Hydrostatic forces on submerged curved surfaces For a submerged curved surface, the determination of the resultant hydrostatic force is more involved since it typically requires the integration of the pressure forces that change direction along the curved surface. It required to determine the horizontal and vertical components FH and FV. this could be done by considering the free body diagram of the liquid block enclosed by the curved surface and the two plane surfaces (one horizontal and one vertical) passing through the two ends of the curved surface as shown in figure 5.1. FR Horizontal projection of the curved surface A W FH Vertical projection of the curved surface B
Fv
Figure 5.1 determination of hydrostatic force acting on a submerged curved surface. Note that the vertical surface of the liquid block is simply the projection of the curved surface on a vertical plane and the horizontal surface is the projection of the curved surface on a horizontal plane. The resultant force acting on the curved solid surface is then equal and opposite to the force acting on the curved liquid surface (Newtons third law). The force acting on the imaginary horizontal or vertical plane surface and its line of action can be determined as discussed in the lass section. Horizontal force component on curved surface: FH = Fx Vertical force component on curved surface: FV = Fy + W The horizontal component of the hydrostatic force acting on the curved surface is equal to the hydrostatic force acting on the vertical projection of the curved surface. The vertical component of the hydrostatic force acting on a curved surface is equal to the hydrostatic force acting on the horizontal projection of the curved surface, plus the weight of the fluid block.
38
The magnitude of the resultant hydrostatic force acting on the curved surface is
2 FR = FH + Fv2
FH The exact location of the line of action of the resultant force, distance can be determined by taking a moment about an appropriate point. The discussion above is valid for all curved surfaces regardless of whether they are above or below the liquid.
= FV
If the curved surface is a circular arc (full arc or any part of arc), the resultant hydrostatic force acting on the surface always pass through the center of the circle. This because the pressure forces are normal to the surface, and all lines normal to the surface of a circle pass through the center of the circle. Thus the pressure forces from a concurrent force system at the center which can be reduced to a single equivalent force system at the center which can be reduced to a single equivalent force at that point.
a FR1
Oil
FR
FR2
Water
Figure 5.2
Figure 5.3
Note, hydrostatic forces acting on a plane or curved surface submerged in a multilayered fluid of different densities can be determined by considering different parts of surfaces in different liquids as different surfaces, finding the force on each part, and then adding them using vector addition. As shown in Figure 5.3 Plane surface in a multilayered fluid: FR = FR ,i = Pc ,i Ai Where Pc ,i = Po + i ghc ,i is the pressure at the centroid of the portion the surface in fluid i and Ai is the area of the plate in that fluid. The line of action of this equivalent force can be determined from the requirement that the moment of the equivalent force about any point is equal to the sum of the moments of the individual forces about the same point. 5.2 Buoyancy and stability Buoyancy force is a force that tends to lift the body in a fluid which is mainly caused by the increase of pressure in a fluid with depth. The common practices: the object
39
feels lighter and weighs less in a liquid than it does in air. For example, the ship can float on water, the yachts park on water. Consider a thick plate in the water as shown in figure 5.4: Ftop h A
h
Fbot Figure 5.4 A plate of uniform thickness h submerged in a liquid The pressure force at the top and bottom surfaces are Ftop = f ghA
Fbot = f g (h + h) A
The difference between these two forces is a net upward force which is the buoyant force, FB = Fbot Ftop = f ghA = f gV The f gV is simply the weight of the liquid whose volume is equal to the volume of the plate. Thus we conclude: the buoyant force acting on the plate is equal to the weight fo the liquid displaced by the plate. This is independent of the location inside the liquid and the density of the solid body. This relation and statement are valid for any body regardless its shape. Consider an arbitrary shaped body submerged in a fluid and compare it to a body of fluid of the same shape indicated by the dashed line: Liquid
Solid
Liquid
FB
FB
Figure 5.5 comparison between the solid body and the same shaped liquid body It is obvious that the buoyant forces are the same between the above two bodies since the pressure distribution only relies on the depth. Therefore, the weight and the buoyant force must have the same line of action to have a zero moment since the fluid
40
body is in static equilibrium and the net force is zero. This is known as the Archimedes principle and is expressed as: The buoyant force acting on a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body, and it acts upward through the centroid of the displaced volume. It is now clear that the weight of the entire body must be equal to the buoyant force, which is the weight of the fluid whose volume is equal to the volume of the submerged portion of the floating body. That is: ave,body V FB = W f gVsub = ave,body gVtotal sub = Vtotal f Therefore, the submerged volume fraction of a floating body is equal to the ratio of the average density the body to the density of the fluid. When the density ratio equals one, the floating body becomes completely submerged. From these we could conclude for a body immersed in a fluid as shown in figure 5.6: 1, ave = f ; the body will remain at any point in the fluid 2, ave > f ; the body will sink to the bottom 3, ave < f ; the body will float on water
ave < f
Floating body
Fluid
ave = f Suspended body ave > f

Sinking body
Figure 5.6 A solid body inside the fluid From the above equation, we could find that the buoyant forces are proportional to the density of the fluid and therefore, we might think that such forces exerted by the gas such air can be negligible. This is certainly the case in general however there are some significant exceptions. Take an example, a body with a volume 0.1 m3 and the air density is 1.19kg/m3, the buoyant force exerted by air on this body is FB = f gV = 1.19 * 9.81 * 0.1 = 1.2 N If the body is 65kg which is about 638 N, the measurement error is 0.2% which is negligible in comparison to the weight of body. But the buoyancy effect sometimes cannot be negligible and dominate some important natural phenomena such as the rise of warm air in a cooler environment and Y. A. Gengel, R. H. Turner, Thermal-fluid sciences, McGraw Hill, 2001. ; F. M. White, Fluid mechanics, 41
thus the onset of natural convection currents, the rise of the hot air or hydrogen balloons, the rise of the water vapor to high elevations. Stability of immersed and floating bodies An important application of the buoyancy concept is the assessment of the stability of immersed and floating bodies with no external attachments. This topic is of great importance in the design of ships and submarines. Here we only provide some general qualitative discussion on vertical and rotational stability. When an immersed or floating body is in static equilibrium, the weight and the buoyant force acting on the body balance each other, and such bodies are inherently stable in the vertical direction. If the immersed body is raised or lowered to a different depth, the body will remain in equilibrium at that location. This also applies to the floating body. If a floating body is raised or lowered somewhat by a vertical force, the body will return to its original position as soon as the external effect is removed. These circumstances are called neutrally stable since it does not return to its original position after a disturbance.
Liquid
FB G B W B
FB G W (b) Unstable
FB G B W (c) Neutral
(a) Stable
Figure 5.7 An immersed body is stable if the body is bottom-heavy and thus the center of gravity G is below the centroid B of the body The rotational stability of an immersed body depends on the relative location of the center of gravity G of body and the center of buoyancy B, which is the centroid of the displaced volume. An immersed body is table if the body is bottom heavy and thus the point G is below the point B. A rotational disturbance of the body in such cases produces a restoring moment to return the body to its original stable position. According to this concept, the stable design for ships and submarines calls for the engines and cabins for the crew to be located at the lower half in order to shift the weight to the bottom as much as possible. Another example is the hot-air or helium balloons which is stable since the load is always at the bottom of the balloons. When the G is above the B, the body is not stable and any disturbance will cause this body to turn upside down. A body for which G and B coincide is neutrally stable. This is
42
the case for bodies whose density is constant throughout. There is no tendency to overturn. The rotational stability criteria are similar for floating bodies. The stable situation is the same as the immersed body. When the center of G is below of buoyancy B, it is always stable. But a floating body may still be stable when G is above B. This is because the centroid of the displaced volume shifts to the side to point B during a rotational disturbance while the center of gravity G of the body remains unchanged. If the point B is sufficiently far, these two forces create a restoring moment and return the body to the original position. A measure of stability for floating bodies is the metacentric height GM, which is the distance between the center of gravity G and the metacenter M, the intersection point of the lines of action of buoyant force before and after rotation. If the M is above the G point, the floating point is stable. Otherwise it is unstable. If the M is below the point G, it generates an overturning moment instead of a restoring moment causing the body to capsize. The length of the metacentric height GM above G is a measure of the stability: the larger it is, the more stable the floating body will be.
Figure 5.8 A floating body is stable if the metacentre M is above the centre of gravity G, and thus GM is positive, and unstable if the M is below G and thus the GM is negative. From P.M. Gerhart, R. J. Gross, J. I. Hochstein, Fundamentals of fluid mechanics, 1992
43

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Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403

Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403

Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403

Faculty of Engineering and Mathematical Sciences

Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403

Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403

Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403

Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403

Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403

Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403

Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403

Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403

Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403

Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403

Fluid element at time, t

Fluid element at time, t + dt

Figure 2.1 Deformation of a fluid element

Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403

Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403

Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403

Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403

Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403

Cold water Hot water Solar radiation

Hot water storage (top part)

Figure 2.5 Some consequences of surface tension

Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403

Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403

Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403

Figure 2.7 Contact angle for wetting and non-wetting fluids

Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403

a. Capillary rise ( < 90 o )

b. Capillary depression ( > 90 o ) Figure 2.9

Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403

Fy = p y (dxdz ) p s (dsdx) sin = 0 Fz = p z (dxdy ) p s (dsdx) cos (dydxdz / 2) = 0 dy = ds cos ; dz = dssin

Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403

Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403

Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403

d Depth 1 Depth 2 Mercury D

Figure 3.4 Hydrostatic pressure distributions

Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403

Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403

Open to atmosphere A h2 Fluid density 2 B

Figure 3.6 U-tube manometer

Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403

PA = PD + 1 gh1 + 2 gh2 PC = PD + 2 gh3 + 3 gh4 PB = PC 3 gh5 4 gh6

Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403

Figure 4.2 Inclined manometer

4.2 pressure measurement Example 1 Flow devices a b

Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403

Water flow SAE 30 Oil

Figure 4.4 Pressure inside the water flow pipe

Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403

From F. M. White, Fluid Mechanics, 1999

Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403

Figure 4.6b Strain gage From F. M. White, Fluid Mechanics, 1999

Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403

Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403

Pc F=PCA h(x,y) y y(dA)

x C CP dA=dxdy C: Centroid CP Center of pressure

Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403

The first moment of area center) of the surface by

ydA is related to the y coordinate of the centroid (or

Fluid Mechanics MECH 2403

A=ab; Ixx,C=ab3/12 Rectangle y 2b/3