AC Steady State Analysis

The AC mode
Alternating current (a.c.) is perhaps the most important type of electricity. Ac is also taken to mean sinusoidal steady state Most of the worlds electricity is generated, distributed, and consumed as a.c. power, and hence is an integral part of our lives.

2

Introduction to Energy Storage Elements

So far, we have talked about two kinds of circuit elements: Sources (independent and dependent) active, can provide power to the circuit. Resistors-passive, can only dissipate power.

Energy Storage Elements

Capacitors store energy in an electric field. Inductors store energy in a magnetic field. Capacitors and inductors are passive elements:
Can store energy supplied by circuit Can return stored energy to circuit

Capacitance
Metal Plates Lead E E C Lead Dielectric C

Parallel-plate capacitor

Circuit symbol

Electric field of capacitor

A capacitor consists of two metal plates separated by an insulator (dielectric) which may be air, oil, plastic, ceramic, etc. When a dc source is applied across the capacitor, one of the plates becomes positive and the other negative. The amount of charge stored by a capacitor is: Q = CV

C: is called the capacitance of the element and is a measure of the

ability of the device to accumulate, or store, charges.

Capacitor
The rest i(t) of the circuit + v(t) -

dv (t ) i(t ) = C dt

Capacitor Voltage
1 v(t ) = v(t 0 ) + i ( x)dx C t0
The energy stored:
t

Inductor
The voltage difference across the inductor is proportional to the rate of change of the current. The proportionality constant is called the inductance, denoted L Unit of the inductance is Henry (H)

di (t ) v(t ) = L dt

i(t) L

+ v(t) -

Inductor Current
di (t ) v(t ) = L dt t 1 i (t ) = i (t 0 ) + v( x)dx L t0
Energy stored:

The inductor (contd)

Often seen/built as a coil of wire wrapped around a core We will use them when we model transformers and electric motors
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AC Circuits
In order to find a steady state voltage or current, we need to know its magnitude and its phase relative to the source (we already know its frequency). Usually, an AC steady state voltage or current is given by the particular solution to a differential equation.

 We do not have to find this differential equation from the circuit, nor do we have to solve it. Instead, we use the concepts of phasors and complex impedances. Phasors and complex impedances convert problems involving differential equations into circuit analysis problems.

Sinewave Parameters
E m T e1 t Period, T e2

Period, T, is the duration of one cycle. Epk= Em; Ep-p= 2Em; Eave= 0; Erms= 0.707Em e1 = Em sin t ; e2 = Em sin ( t - ) where = 2f in radians/s where f = 1/T

We define the time-averaged value of a signal x(t) as

A useful measure of the voltage of an AC waveform is the rms value of the signal x(t), defined as:

Complex Number Review

Notes On Phasors
A phasor is a graphic representation of the magnitude and angular position of a time varying quantity such as a voltage or current that varies sinusoidally. The concept of phasor has no real physical significance. It is a convenient mathematical tool that simplifies the solution of AC circuits.

Notes On Phasors
1. Any sinusoidal signal may be mathematically represented in one of two ways: a time-domain form and a frequency-domain (or phasor) form 2. A phasor is a complex number, expressed in polar form, consisting of a magnitude equal to the peak amplitude of the sinusoidal signal and a phase angle equal to the phase shift of the sinusoidal signal. 3. When one is using phasor notation, it is important to note the specific frequency of the sinusoidal signal, since this is not explicitly apparent in the phasor expression.

Leading Sine Wave

j Im
Vm
+

i(t) v(t)

Im leads Vm (or i leads v) by o Time domain: v(t) = Vm sin t; i = Im sin ( t + ) Polar form: V = Vm / 0o; I = Im /o Note that i and v must have the same frequency.

Lagging Sine Wave

j i(t)
Im Vm
+
0

t


v(t)

Im lags Vm (or i lags v) by o Time domain: v(t) = Vm sin t; i = Im sin ( t - ) Polar form: V = Vm / 0o; I = Im /-o Note: i and v must have the same frequency.

Complex Impedance
Complex impedance describes the relationship between the voltage across an element (expressed as a phasor) and the current through the element (expressed as a phasor). Impedance is a complex number.

Complex Impedance (cont.)

Complex impedance allow us to use Ohms law with complex numbers to compute current from voltage and voltage from current. V Z = I
Z is the impedance

Circuit analysis of ac circuits

Phasors and impedance allow us to analyze ac circuits in the same manner that we did for DC circuits, except we have to use complex math. Replace all voltages and currents with their phasor equivalents Replace all passive elements (R, L and C) with their impedances

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law and the Voltage Divider Rule for AC Series Circuits
+ V1 Z1 I + E + V2 Z2 + VX ZX + VN ZN

Total impedance: ZT = Z1 + Z2 + . . . + ZX + . . .+ ZN KVL: E - V1 - V2 - . . . - VX - . . . - VN = 0. Voltage divider rule: VX = EZX / ZT

AC Parallel Circuits
IT I1 YT Z1 Z2 I2 ZX IX Zn IN

KCL: The summation of current phasors entering and leaving a node is equal to zero, i.e. IT - I1 - I2 - . . . - IN = 0. Current divider rule: IX = ZTIT /ZX or YXIT /YT

Formulas for AC Parallel Circuits

ZT = 1 1 1 1 + + ...+ Z1 Z 2 Zn

Total impedance:

For two impedances in parallel:

Z1 Z 2 ZT = Z1 + Z 2

Z 2 IT Z1 I T I1 = ; I2 = Z1 + Z 2 Z1 + Z 2

Impedances of R, L and C in the complex plane

Im L ZL 2
-90

ZR = R

ZR

ZL = j L R Re

ZC 1 C

ZC =

1 j C

Example
Determine i(t) for the given circuit

60 Hz 2f = 377 rad/sec L: ZL = jL = j (377) (26.53 x 10-3) = j 10 C: ZC = 1/jC = 1/j (377) (0.663 x 10-3) = -j4 ZTOTAL = 8 + j6 I = V/ZTOTAL = 100 / 0 / 10/ +36.9 = 10/ -36.9 A

i(t) = 10 2 sin (377t - -36.9 ) A

The current in this circuit lags the voltage.