1

Band and λ Radio Freq of Ops Principle Range Accuracy & Errors How errors
ƒr Aid Coverage Overcome
VLF 100-10 Km
3-30 KHz
LF 10000-1000 m ADF 190-1750 KHz Bearing by loop Locators 10-25 70 Nm by Coastal Effect C QE-Callibration card
30-300 KHz theory Nms night Loop Misalign L CE-90º to coast, hi pwr
NDB 190-450 KHz Homing & Holding DOC by Interference I NE-Bcn wtn 70 nm, low
MF 1000-100 m 50 Nms night not Quadrantal Q freq, hi pwr
300-3000 D-50-100 (75) LR>100 Nm enforced. Night Effect N For interference, DOC
KHz Km T-Tx Pwr Static Interf S is promulgated
E-100-150(125)K F-Freq
F-150-250(225)K N-Ni Effect
T-Terrain
HF 100-10 m HF
3-30 MHz Communi
Usable 2-22 cation
MHz
VHF 10-1 m ACARS 136.9 – 136.975 Datalink LOS
30-300 MHz Used for company
specific
communications
VHF 117.975-137.000 AM Mod, 8.33 KHz
Comn Mhz spacing above LOS R=1.25√Ht
FL245, Below that Tx+1.25√Ht Tx Rx
Where R=Nm
it is 25 KHz. Hts are in feet
Vertically Polarised.
Virtually free from
static. FM UHF
comn can be used
if no static desired
VOR 108-117.95 MHz Bearing by phase ±3º 95% of Site S
LOS R=12√FL
All even first comparison time for grd Airborne Eqpt A
R=1.25√Ht
decimals eqpt Propagation P
Ref sig 30 Hz FM Tx+1.25√Ht Tx Rx
110.2, 110.4, Where R=Nm ±4º for 2 Pilotage
109.8 Variable sig 30 Hz Hts are in feet VORs The above three are called
LOVE AM Rangeα√Tx Pwr ±5º 95% of aggregate error
Frm 112-118 CDI-±10º time for both
DVOR Mhz exclusive Horizontally grd and No site error. Rest all same 50 antennas are used
for VOR Polarised aircraft as above.
±6º for A/B
eqpt
ILS (Loc) 108-112 MHz Bearing by lobe ±10º upto 25 Nm 1.35º to Site DH RVR
All odd decimals comparison or ±35º upto 17 Nm 5.25º for 3º Propagation Cat I 100 ft 550m
ILS 110.7, 110.35, DDM ±90º upto 10 Nm GSlope False G/Slope II 100 350m
Marker 110.55 etc Marker –BAW 7º upto 25 Nm(Vert) Or Outer marker-3.5 -6Nm IIIA <100 >200m
Beacon at Blue -------- (Outer) 0.45xθ to Mid- 3500 feet IIIB <50 200-50m
75 MHz 1.75xθ Inner- 1050 feet IIIC 0 0
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UHF 100-10 cm ILS (Glide 329.3-335 MHz Amber .-.-.- ±8º upto 10 Nm LOC & GS -300 mtrs Left & Top =90 Hz
300- slope) .(Middle) Threshold- 300 mtrs Right & Bottom-150 Hz
3000Mhz White..........(Inner) 35-50 ft high 90 Hz=Yellow Sector &
150 Hz Blue
On the instr, indications
are opposite
L 1-2 GHz DME 962-1213 MHz Random PRF 200 Nm ±0.5Nm or Fruiting
Ba technique Scan-150 PPS 3% Garbling
nd Tx after 50μs Lock- 24-30 (27) whichever is
ILS/DME freq No reply- 60 higher.
paired with VOR Max-2700
If not co-located but
within 7 Nm, the
letter „Z‟ is added to
its code.
SSR 1030-1090 MHz Mode & code pulse Max code-4096 TCAS-I – TA Only
Mode A-8 μs TCAS-II – RA in vert
Mode-B-17 μs plane only
Md- C-21 μs (100ft) Corrective-Mon vert sp
Md-S- 25 feet Preventive – Climb/Cl
Descent/Dec
TCAS 1030-1090 MHz SSR Principle 30 Nm Hollow ◊ (White/Blue)- No threat Other Tfk
Short PRF No RA below 1000 ft ↑Climb/Dec
Mode A & C RA in vert plane only Solid ♦ (White/Blue) – Within 6 Nm 1200 ft
Yellow ● – Traffic advisory (Traffic/Traffic)
Generated 40 Secs RA VSI- Fly to eyebrow
before collision either way
Red ■ – Res Advisory (Climb/Climb etc)

GPS L1-1575 MHz Pseudo-Random 3 Sat for 2D Fix SPS (C/A) Sat ephemeris error-±2m Grd Based Aug Systm
L2-1228 MHz Noise code of 1 4 Sat for 3D Fix code for civil Sat clock-±1.5 m A/B Based Aug Sys
millisec in UHF 5 Sat for Remote use (Std Posn Ionos prop err-±5 m Space Based Aug Sys
Differenti 21(m)+3(S/by) Band Autonomous Service) Rec noise err- ±0.3m Loc Area Aug Sys
al GPS or Satellites The PSN Code Integrated Geometric Dilution of Wide Area Aug Sys
DGPS 6 Orbits gives: Monitoring (RAIM) PPS (Precision Position (GDOP)
55º incl to equat - Posn of Sat 5 Sat for Posn Ser) now Multipath reflection
20,200 Km high -Clock time initialisation av to all
12 hrs/orbit - Clock error ICAO Req ±30m > 50%
-Info on ionos cond 1 ms pseudo of time
and suplimtry info range induces
an err of 162
Nm

SHF 10-1 cm
3-30 Ghz S 2-4 GHz
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C 4-8 GHz MLS 5030-5090 MHz Time Ref Scan GSlope beam Hor- ±20 feet Hor Interference of vehicles or Scan time -40.5
Coverage-±40º Beam ±10º upto 20 Nm ±2 feet Vert ac close to the elevations scan for
frm the centre & LOC & GS by Ver-0.9º-7.5º upto Transmitter every 14.5 Hor Scan
20 Nm beam 20 Nm
Back beam-±20º Range by precision Ht 20000ft at 20º &
& 10 Nm DME back-
20º/10000/10Nm

SATCOM 6 GHz (Tx)

4 GHz(Rx Gnd)
1.5 GHz (Rx ac)
Rad Alt 4.2 GHz-4.4 GHz Measurement of Upto 2500 feet in 5 ft ±3% of
time shift by Freq steps of 5 feet indicated ht in
Mod Contineous ldg config
Wave
X 8-12.5 Doppler 8.8-13.5 GHz Doppler Freq Shift G/S ±0.1% Sea Movement
GHz Radar cont wave moving Drift ±0.1 º Sea Bias
tgt freq shift btn Tx Aerial Alignment
& Rx Mushing error
AWR 10 GHz Searchlight and 70 Nm for Wx Weather avoidance technique
Echo Radar From Grd Level to 20,000 ft – 5 Nm
Cone of 3º (±1.5º) For mapping, 20,000-25,000 ft – 10 Nm
For ground
2
Pencil Beam 70- 25,000-30,000 – 15 Nm
mapping, Cosec 150 Nm ↑30,000 ft – 20 Nm
beam
Res by beam width

Ku 12.5-16 Radar Searchlight & Echo Max Range on PRI Range= _C_
GHz principle Min Range on PW 2PRF
EHF 100-10 mm Azimuth res
30-300 GHz Ka 16-40 depends on PRPα _1_
GHz Beamwidth PRF
GPWS Inputs are fm Mode Hazard Envelope Alert Warning
Rad Alt
VSI
1 Excessive ROD 50-2450 feet AGL SINK RATE Whoop Whoop Pull up
ILS G/S
RED LIGHT
U/C System & Flaps
2 Excessive rate of TERRAIN Same as above
closure/ or rising TERRAIN
terrain below
(a) AC not in ldg config ↓1800 ft
R Excessive ROD (50-2450)
(b) AC in ldg config ↓790 ft
E Ex RoCl to trn/rising trn
3. Negative ROC after 50 – 700 ft AGL DON‟T SINK Same as above
U/C up-1800 ft
T/O or decent after
U/C Dn- 900 ft
T/O
N-Neg ROC after T/O-50-700
4 Unsafe Ldg Config TOO LOW Same as above
U-Unsfe ldg – U/C-500
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Flaps – 200 (a) Ldg Gear up ↓ 500 ft “GEAR”

G – Glide Slope
(b) Flaps up ↓ 200 ft “FLAPS”
D – Decision Ht
(c) EGPWS Alert if Rad Alt ↓
Only after T/O
Less than half
full deflection
=0.35º
5. Below Glide Slope 100 – 200 ft GLIDE SLOPE NO WARNING
6 Decision Ht Selected ht MINIMA NO WARNING
7 For EGPWS Excess bank on BANK ANGLE
Only finals below 150 ft
Wind Shear Ht Below 1500 Ft WIND SHEAR
INSTRUMENTS
TYPE PRINCIPLE CONTROL RPM ACCURACY ERRORS
AH Vertical Gyro Rigidity Precision 22,000-22,500 ±85º in Pitch Accn- Cl, Turn to Rt
180º in Roll Deccn – Dec, Turn to Lt
For Air Driven
±55º in Pitch
±90º in Roll
DG Horizontal AXIS Tied Gyro Rigidity to show 12,000 TOT DR=REAL NH=ER + TpT Dr=G/S x tan lat
To N-S Axis indication DR+EARTH RATE+TPT E+ 60
WANDER
NH W-
Hdg E, reading ↓at faster rate App Dr= 15xSin lat
Hdg W , reading ↓ at slow SH= ER –
rate
E–
Hdg N, reading ↓ at faster rate
Hdg S, reading ↓ at slow rate W+

SH
Hdg E, reading ↑ at faster rate
Hdg W , reading ↑ at slow
rate
Hdg N, reading ↑ at slow rate
Hdg S, reading ↑ at faster rate
TSI Rate & Horizontal Axis Tied Gyro Seconday Elec-9000 RPM↑ - Overread
Precision G Force ↑- Overread
Air - 4500
Spring Tension ↑- Under reads

DRC Horizontality – Suspend Magnet before pivot

Earths mag field In Northern hemisphere – Turning error – SONU
Shift pivot pt Accn Error – ANDS
Aperiodicity – Fluid, several small magnets
Sensitivity – Jewels at pivot pt. Fluid ↓ friction
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Important formulas

1. True Alt = Pr Alt + [ 4x (Act TºC – ISA Temp ºC) x Pr Alt or 4% of PA for every 10º deviation
1000

2. Density alt = PA +118 (Act-ISA Temp in ºC

CONVERSIONS
3. TAS = RAS + (1.75% of RAS x Alt ) DCP=(DH)/(O+H)
1000 DPN=EOH/(O+H) FC=FOB/
Endurance
SAR=FOBxTAS/FC
2
4. TATK = SATK x (1+0.2 K M ) K=ºKelvin
Ltrs x Sp Gr=Kgs
Imp Gal x Sp Gr x 10=lbs
5. M. No= TAS Kg x 2.2=lbs
LSS Imp Gal x 1.2 = US Gals
100 ltrs=22 Imp Gal = 26.4 US Gal
6. LSS=39√T T is in ºKelvin

7. QNH= QFE + Elev/30, QFE=1013.25-Elev/30

2
8. TATC = SATC +Ram Rise, Ram Rise = [Tas÷100]

9. Radio aids, LOS Range= 1.25√Radar elev feet + 1.25√ac elev feet or =12√(Flt Lev)

10. θ=s÷r, Dist to stn= (TAS x Mins) ÷ Bearing Change. 100 Ltrs=22 Imp Gal=26.4 US Gal, Imp Galx10xSG=lbs

11. Rel Motion, (a) Old ETA (b) New ETA (c) Dist with new sp (d) Time to drop sp= [(Old dist-New Dist) ÷ (Old Sp- New Sp)] (e) Dist to Drop= Time x Old Sp

12. Dep= d Long x 60 x Cos Lat, Convergency = d Long x Sin mean lat, CA=Convergency/2, Scale=MD/ED, Scale at Lat= Scale at Eq x Cos Lat
(only the denominator)

13. Total Drift = Real drift + Earth Rate (15xCos Lat) + Tpt Wander ( G/S ÷60 x Tan lat