Lectures Nos. 3 and 4 Physical Unit Operations Chapter 5 pp.

311-474 Note: A significant amount of the information covered in this chapter should and will have been covered in the water course and should be mentioned but not re-developed in this wastewater course. Regardless of the text used in the water course, the information presented in this text on such topics as sedimentation, filtration may be useful in the water course especially in terms of the tables and solved problems. 1. General

Change is brought about by the application of physical forces known as unit operations. Derived from observations and therefore the first treatment methods. Include: mixing, sedimentation, filtration and aeration, F5-1, p.313, T5-1, p.314

2. Screening (T5-2, p.316) A. General First unit operation encountered is wastewater treatment plants. A screen is a device with generally uniform openings that is used to retain coarse solids. Screens may be divided into coarse (.25-6) and fine (<.25) screens. Microscreens (<50m) are also available can be used to remove fine solids from treated effluents. The material that is retained by the screens is know as screenings. Screenings are typically hauled to a landfill or may be buried on site or incinerated depending up the plant. B. Coarse Screens Coarse Screens (Bar Racks). Composed or parallel bars or rods with openings of and are used to protect pumps, valves from cloggings by large objects and rags. Bar racks may be hand cleaned or mechanically cleaned. T5-2, p.316, F5-3, p.317. Note that the bar spacing is quite close, the bars at angled to the vertical and the allowable head loss is 6 or less. Design of Bar Racks. Considerations should include: location, upstream of grit chamber; approach velocity (1.25-3fps); clear openings, mesh size, headloss (<6), screenings and controls. Use 2 units or 1 unit and a by-pass. hl = eq. 5.1 units p.320 Example:
Given: A bar rack is inclined at a 30 angle with the vertical. The rectangular bars are 1/2" wide in the dimension facing upstream and are 3 OC (on center). The approach velocity is 4.5 fps. Qadf = 30cfs.

Physical Unit Operations

Find: 1. Design the approach channel. The approach channel is a short (typically 10-50), retangular transition between the sewer pipe and the bar racks. Assume a depth of 2 is the normal depth which must be determined by open channel flow, backwater etc calculations. T5-2, p.316, F5-3, p.317 2. Head loss through the racks 3. Quantity of screenings 1. Approach channel Q=VA A = Q/V = 30cfs / 4.5fps A = 6.67 ft2 Assuming a depth of 2 in a rectangular channel A = bd b = A/d = 6.67 ft2 / 2ft b = 3.33 ft Rectangular channel connecting sewer and bar racks: A = 6.67 ft2 b = 3.33 ft d = 2ft 2. Head Loss Velocity through the bar rack. VAr = vAc v = approach velocity in upstream channel V = velocity through the bar racks Ac = channel area, ( 3" - 1/2" / 2 - 1/2" /2) Ar = area through bar racks V x ( 3" - 1/2" / 2 - 1/2" /2) = 4.5 ft/s x 3" V = 4.5 x V = 5.4 fps Head loss hl = = = hl = .20 ft. = 2.27 in. 3. Quantity of Screenings T5-7, p.32 Size of opening = 2.5 = 6.35 cm = 63.5mm, Use .8ft3/MG Q = 30cfs x 1MGD/1.547cfs = 19.39MGD Quantity = .8ft3/MG x 19.39MGD Quantity = 15.5 ft3/day

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Physical Unit Operations Comment: The angle of the bar rack is not relevant. In practice, the water would rise through the bar rack with the real velocity being something less than the above calculated one Quantity of screenings. T5-7, p.329 Example:
Given: The Pomona WWRP uses coarse screens with openings of 25mm, ie a coarse screen. Q=10MGD. Find: Estimate the volume of screenings and their weight and the dry weight of the solids. From T5-7, p.329, 3 ft3/MG, 600-1000 kg/m3, 50-80% moisture. Vol = 3 ft3/MG x 10 MGD Vol = 30 ft3/day Weight = Vol x density = 30 ft3/day x 800kg/m3 x 2.2lbs/1kg x (1m/3.28084ft)3 Weight = 1496 lbs Dry weight = total weight water Water = 1496 lbs x .65 (midway beween 50 and 80) Water = 973 lbs Dry weight = 1496-973 Dry weight = 523 lbs

C. Fine Screens Fine Screens. Composed of wires, grating, wire mesh, or perforated plates with openings. The application range from primary treatment to the removal of residual SS solids from biological treatment processes. Fine screens may static, rotary drum or step type. F5-4, p.322 and T5-4, p.323. Design of Fine Screens. Fine screens would be preceded by coarse screens. Use at least 2 sized for peak flow. hl = 2 Example:
Given: The Pomona WWRP uses coarse screens with openings of 12.5mm, ie a fine screen. Q=10MGD. Find: Estimate the volume of screenings and their weight and the dry weight of the solids following coarse screening. From T5-8, p.329, 10 ft3/MG, 900-1100 kg/m3, 80-90% moisture. Vol = 10ft3/MG x 10 MGD Vol = 100 ft3/day Weight = Vol x density = 100 ft3/day x 1000kg/m3 x 2.2lbs/1kg x (1m/3.28084ft)3 Weight = 6234 lbs Dry weight = total weight water Water = 6234 lbs x .85 (midway beween 80 and 90) Water = 5299 lbs Dry weight = 6234-5299 Dry weight = 935 lbs

eq. 5-2 units p.326

3. Flow Equalization

Flow equalization is th Dampening of flowrate variations so that steady state conditions may be achieved and shock loads eliminated. Page No.3

Physical Unit Operations

Equalization facilities may be located on-line or off-line. Fig.5-10, p.334.

4. Mixing

This topic should be covered in detail in the water course. G values and detention times. T5-10, p.348. Types: - Rapid continuous (30s less). Object is to completely mix one substance in another. Carried out via hydraulic jumps, Venturi flumes, pumping, static mixers, mechanically. - Continuous. Object is to maintain the contents of a reactor in a completely mixed state. Carried out via mechanical, pneumatic or static mixers. Mechanical Types: F5-14, p.351. Propeller mixer, turbine mixer, static in-line, in-line turbine. Energy Dissipation. G = eq.5-3 units p.348 - Multiplying both side of the equation by the theoretical detention time, t = V/Q Gt = = eq.5-4 units p. 348

Vortexing or mass swirling is a reduction in the difference between the fluid velocity and the impeller velocity that decreases the effectiveness of mixing. Vortexing can be mitigated by offsetting a mechanical mixing or using baffles. In small wet wells with submerged pumps or inlets, vortexing can expose the pump and air bind the facility. A two foot length of 2x4 thrown into the mix will usually solve the problem.

5. Gravity Separation

This topic should be covered in detail in the water course.

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Physical Unit Operations Sedimentation is the separation of SS from water by gravity used for grit removal, primary settling and biological floc removal. Description. Types of settling. T5-15, p. 362. Type 1, Discrete Settling Describes grit chamber. The particles are discrete with no significant interaction in a dilute solution Analysis Stokes Law Vc = eq. 5-22 units p.365

Type 2, Flocculant Settling Describes primary settling and upper portion of secondary settling. With flocculant settling, particles in relatively dilute solutions will flocculate or coalesce thereby increasing the mass and settling faster. Rates may be predicted by settling column analysis and settling curves.

6. Grit Removal Grit is sand, gravel, cinders, eggshells, seeds, coffee grounds and other heavy solid material that is much heavier than the organics in wastewater ie a sg of approximately 2.7 but can be as low as 1.3 versus an organic sg of 1. Grit is predominantly inert and relatively dry and highly variable in composition ranging from 13-65% moisture with a volatile content of 1-56%. It has a bulk density of 100lb/ft3. Normally, grit chambers are designed to remove all grit that will be retained on a .21-mm-diameter, 65 mesh, and some use 100 mesh or .15mm. Grit chambers are typically located after the bar racks but before the primary sedimentation tanks. The function of the grit chambers include: the protection of mechanical equipment from excessive wear; the reduction of heavy deposit in pipes, channels and tanks; the reduction of the frequency of digester cleaner which is where the grit would end up if not removed. Grit chambers are horizontal flow, aerated or vortex, the aerated type being predominate in the sophisticated, advanced plants of Southern Calilfornia. Enough unwanted organics are present in the grit so that it quickly putrefies. Clean grit is relatively free of organics. Grit Quantities. Grit quantities are highly variable perhaps 2ft3/MG. Aerated Grit Chambers, F5-33, T5-17 p.389. Air is introduced along one side of a rectangular tant to create a spiral flow pattern perpendicular to the flow through the tank. The heavier grit particles have higher settling velocities and settle to the bottom of the tank; lighter, organic particles remain in suspension and pass through the tank. The velocity of the roll determines the sg that will be removed.

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Physical Unit Operations If the velocity is too high grit will be carried out of the tank; if the velocity is too low organic matter will settle out. Aerated grit chambers are to designed to remove 65 mesh and larger, with a 2-5 minuted detention time at peak hourly flow. The grit may be removed with a grab bucket or screw conveyor F5-38, p.369 and disposed of at a landfill. Example:
Given: A 10MGD plant. Find: Design the grit chamber, Assumptions from T5-17, p.389 PH, peak hourly, flow. Use F3-13, p.202, population reqd., Assume 100 gpcd Population = 10MGD/100gpcd x 106gallons/MG Population = 100,000 From graph, peaking factor = 2.7 (graph reads pop in thousands, so 102 is 100,000) Peak flow rate = 10MGD x PF = 10MGD x 2.7 Peak flow rate = 27MGD Volume Assume 2 chambers, allowing one to continue operation while the second is being cleaned, repaired or maintained. Assume DT = 4 minutes Vol = Q x DT = 27MGD x 4 min x 1hr/60min x 1day/24hr x 1ft3/7.48gal x 106gal/MG Vol = 10,027 ft3 Vol per tank = 10,027/2 tanks Vol per tank = 5013 ft3 Dimensions Assume D=8 Use a W:D::3:1 W = 3D = 3(8) W = 24 L = Vol/(WXD) = 5013ft3/(8x24) L = 26.1 use 26 Detention Time at average flow DT = Vol/Q = 5013ft3 / [10MGD/2tanks x 1/7.48gal/ft3 x 106gal/MG] = 5013/668449 DT = .0075 days = 10.8 minutes Air Supply Assume 5ft3/ft.min, unit of length Air supply = 26 ft x 5ft3/ft.min Air supply = 130 cfm Estimate the quantity of grit at the adf flow Assume 2 ft3/MG Grit = 2ft3/MG x 10MGD Grit = 20 ft3/day Summary 2 chambers Total Q = 10MGD Q, PH = 27 MGD D=8, W=24, L=26, each chamber DT = 2.7 min @ peak; 10.8 @ adf Air Supply = 130cfm Grit = 20 ft3/day

7. Primary Sedimentation Physical unit operation employing gravity in large concrete settling tanks. Page No.6

Physical Unit Operations The objective is to remove readily settable solids and floating material thus reducing the suspended solid content. Almost all treatment plants use mechanically cleaned circular or rectangular tanks. Thanks require some mechanism to rake the solids to a dedicated collection point. At the same time the floatables are collected from the water surface. Flow distribution is critical. F5-39, p.397; F5-40, p.399; F5-43, p.402. Removal rates: 50-70% (50% typical) of the SS and 25-40% (30 % typical) of the BOD5. Detention times are typically 2 hours and average overflow rates are 1000 gal/ft2.day. Overflow rate Vc = OR = eq. 5-25, p.367 2 OR = overflow rate, gpd/ft Q = discharge, gpd 2 SA = surface area, ft Detention time t = eq. 5-26, p. 368 t or DT = detention time, days V = tank volume, MG Q = discharge, MGD Examples:
Given: 2 tanks, dia. = 100', depth = 10', Q = 14mgd Find: OR, t OR 2 6 OR = Q/SA = 14mgd/(2tanks x /4 x (100) ) x (10 gal/MG) 2 OR = 891.7gpd/ft 2 6 3 t = V/Q = 2tanks x/4(100) x10'/14mgd x (1MG/10 gal) x (7.48gal/ft ) t = .08388days = 2.01hours = 120.8minutes 2 Given: 1mgd plant, depth 8-12', rectangular tanks 3:1::L:W, t(required) = 90minutes, OR = 500gpd/ft , use at least 2 tanks Find: Size tanks 2 6 SA = Q/OR = 1mgd/500gpd/ft x 10 gal/MG 2 SA = 2000ft /2tanks SA = LxW = 2000/2, L = 3W 3WxW = 1000 W = 18.26', L = 3W = 3x18.26' = 54.77' t = V/Q 90minx1hr/60minx1day/24hours = LxWxd/(1mgd/2tanks) 18.26'x 54.77'x d / (1mgd/2tanks) x 7.48gal/ft d= 4.17', too shallow,adjust t assume d = 8.0' 6 3 t = 18.26'x54.77'x8'/(.5mgd) x 1mgd/10 x 24hours/day x 7.48gal/ft 3

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t = 2.87hours, too long, adjust OR(This procedure is the only remaining possibility) t = V/Q 3 6 90min = SA x d/Q = SA(8)/.5mgd(2 tanks) x7.48gal/ft x 24hours/day x 60min/hr x 1MG/10 gal SA = 522ft2 2 6 OR = Q/SA = .5mgd/522ft x 10 gal/MG 2 2 OR = 957gpd/ft , OK use 960gpd/ft 2 2 SA = LW = 3W = 522ft W = 13.19' use 13.0' L = 3W = 3x13.19' = 39.57' L = 39.57' use 40' DESIGN SUMMARY (A design summary should be used for all but the simplest problems) 2 tanks W = 13.0', L = 40.0', d = 8' t = 90minutes 2 OR = 960gpd/ft

Tank No. 1

W = 13' OR = 960 gpd/ft2 d = 8'

Tank No. 2 W = 13'

L = 40'
Given: Q = 2MGD primary clarifier: diameter = 65' depth = 6.5' peripheral weir Find: Are the units correctly sized? Use T5-20, p.398 circumference = (D) = (65) circumference = 204' 2 2 surface area = /4 D = (65) /4 2 surface area = 3317ft V = surface area x D = 3317x6.5 3 V = 21558ft 6 2 surface loading = Q/SA = 2.0x10 gal/day / 3317ft

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2 surface loading = 603gpd/ft , Looks low between 800-1200 T5-20, p.398 detention time (DT) 3 3 6 DT = V/Q = 21,558ft x 24hr/day x 7.48gal/ft / 2.0x10 gpd DT = 1.94hours, OK between 1.5-2.5, T5-20, p.398 6 weir loading = Q/weir circumference = 2.0x10 gpd/204' weir loading = 9804gpd/ft bit low between 10,000-40,000 <20,000 T5-20, p.398

8. Flotation

Flotation is a unit operation used to separate solid or liquid particles from a liquid phase. Separation is brought about by introducing fine air bubbles at the bottom of the liquid tank. The bubbles attach to the particulate matter and the buoyant forces cause the particle to rise to the surface. Dissolved Air Flotation (DAF). F5-53, p.420. Air is dissolved in the wastewater under a pressure of several atmospheres. The pressurized flow is then admitted through a pressure reducing valve to the flotation tank where the air comes out of solution in minute bubbles. Air Flotation. Air bubbles are formed by introducing the gas phase directly into the liquid phase through a revolving impeller or through diffusers. Vacuum Flotation. Saturating the wastewater with air by permitting air to enter on the suction side of a pump. A partial vacuum is applied which causes the air to come out of solution as minute particles. Chemical additives are commonly used. Alum, ferric salts and organic polymers are used. Since flotation is dependent upon the type of surface of particulate matter, surface testing should be performed. Performance of a DAF depends primarily on the ratio of the volume of air to the mass of solids, A/S, required to achieve a given degree of clarification; typical A/S ratios are .005-.06. Review example 5-12 p. 423 Floatation Thickening of AS Mixed Liquor

9. Oxygen Transfer A. Analysis of Gas Transfer

Lewis and Whitman Two-Film Theory. Two films exist at the gas-liquid interface, one film is gas and the other liquid resist the passage of gas molecules between the phases. Slightly soluble gasses encounter the primary resistance from the liquid film and very soluble gases encounter the primary resistance from the gaseous film. In wastewater treatment, the rate of gas transfer is generally proportional to the difference between the existing concentration and the equilibrium concentration of the gas in solution mathematically expressed as follows: rv = KLa(Cs - C) eq.4-130 units p.287

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Physical Unit Operations

when substituted and integrated becomes: = e-(KLa)t eq. 4-136 p.289

Oxygen-Transfer Coefficient. Aerators are evaluated on the basis of the quantity of oxygen transferred per unit of air introduced to the water. Equipment and manufacturers' claims are typically tested using a clean water and standardized procedures. Factors Effecting Oxygen Transfer. - Temperature. van't Hoff-Arrhenius relationship: KLa(T) = KLa(20C)T-20 = 1.024, typical - Others. Mixing, tank geometry, wastewater characteristics.

B. Oxygen Transfer Oxygen transfer is the process by which oxygen is transferred from the gaseous to the liquid phase. The most common application of oxygen transfer is in the biological treatment of wastewater. Aeration devices are evaluated on the basis of the quantity of oxygen transferred per unit of air introduced to the water. **put in a graphical problem. 10. Aeration Systems Types of aerations sytems include: submerged and surface including diffused air and mechanical systems. T5-25, p.431. A. Diffused-Air Aeration Diffusers are categorized as: porous, non-porous and others. Porous diffusers F556, p. 433 are analogous to a sparger in a fish tanks ie a finely divided material that separates the incoming area into fine bubbles. Non-porous diffusers, F5-59, are represented by a 2 pipe with holes, 3OC. Design information is included in T5-27, p.437. A dome diffuser might deliver 2 cfm. Example:
Given: The bottom of an activated sludge aeration tank is literally covered with diffusers. W=20, L=100, The diffusers ceramic domes, diameter = 5 Find: Estimate the airflow rate. From: T5-27, p.437, .5-2.5cfm, 1.5 midrange Number of diffusers In length direction = 100/5 In length direction = 240 diffusers In width direction = 20/5 In length direction = 48 diffusers Total diffusers = LxW = 240 x 48

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Total diffusers = 11,520 Airflow Airflow = no of diffusers x output = 11,520 x 1.5ft3/min Airflow = 17,280 ft3/min Assume an abutment and edge reduction of 10% Airflow = 17,280 x .90 Airflow = 15,552 ft3/min

B. Blowers and Piping Blowers. Blowers pump air as opposed to water. Centrifugal, rotary lobe positive displacement and and inlet guide vane-variable are typically used for aeration. Centrifugal blowers are universally used if the unit capacity is greater than 15,000 cfm. Rated discharge pressures range from 7-9 psi. For higher discharge pressures, >8psi, and for capacities less than 15,000 cfm of free air per unit, rotary-lobe postive displacement blowers are commonly used. Standard air has a specific weight of .0750 lb/ft3 and standard conditions are a temperature of 20C (68F), a pressure of 1 atmosphere (14.7 psi, 760 mm Hg) and a relative humidity of 36%. Unlike water, air is compressible fluid and its pumping characteristics are sensitive to temperature and pressure. Blowers must be selected for adequate capacity for a hot summer day (least dense) and be provided with driver with adequate power for the coldest winter day. The power requirement for adiabatic compression is: Pw = Eq.5-56b units p.441 Air Piping. Same as water in terms of valves, meters. Pressures are less than 10 psi, therefore, light weight pipe should be used. Design basis is velocity (T5-28, p.441) and the system losses should be small in comparison with diffuser losses, thus ensuring even distribution of air in the diffusers. Piping losses should be computed for maximum summer conditions which is a big deal in the Southwest. Friction losses in air piping can be calculated using the Darcy-Weisbach. hL = f hi Example:
Given: The system loss= 4.98of water. The diffuser head loss is 1.25" of Hg and it is 16' under water. Find: The required discharge pressure at the blowers. Discharge pressure at the blower = system loss + diffuser loss + depth of water above diffuser System loss = 4.98" of water Diffuser loss = 1.25" of Hg x 13.6 inches of Hg/inches of water (ratio of specific weights) Diffuser loss = 17" of water Depth of water = 16' x 12"/ft Depth of water = 192" of water Discharge pressure at the blower = 4.98" + 17" + 192" Discharge pressure at the blower = 213.98" = 17.83' of water = 7.72 psi Comment: The depth is doing the damage.

Eq.5-57 units p. 441 In which,

C. Mechanical Aerators Page No.11

Physical Unit Operations

Two major groups: vertical axis, horizontal axis each of which may be surface or submerged. F5-65, p.444; F5-66, p.445. Oxygen transfer capabilities are around 1.5lb O2/ hp.h. T5-31, p.446. Performance. Rated in terms of their oxygen-transfer rate, expressed as pounds of oxygen per horsepower-hour at standard conditions which means: temperature 20C, 0.0 mg/l DO and tap water typically 2-4 lb O2/hp.hr, p.446. hp/103 ft3 p.448.

Energy Requirements for mixing. .75-1.50 Example: Given: A CMAS basin is 14' deep and 50' wide. Find: Energy Requirment Hp = 1.00 hp/103 ft3 x (14' x 50' x 50') Hp = 35 hp

11. VOCs VOCs such as trichloroethylene (TCE) and 1,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane (DBCP) have been detected in wastewater. The two principal emission mechanisms are volatilization and gas stripping. The release of VOCs from wastewater surfaces to the atmosphere is termed volatilization. Gas stripping occurs when a gas is temporality entrained in wastewater is produced purposefully to achieve a treatment objective. When gas is produced in a wastewater, VOCs are transferred from the wastewater to the gas. Sources, methods of release and control of VOCs are summarized in T5-35, p.458. Treatment of VOCs include; activated carbon filtration, incineration and biofiltration.

Example Problems - p. 657, No. 10-12 Homework - Read Chapter 5 pp. 311-474 Problems: p. 467, Nos. 5-1, 5-2, 5-15, 5-22, 5-29, 5-31 Ancillary Problems: None

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