Research in Sports Medicine, 14: 205214, 2006 Copyright Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ISSN 1543-8627 print

t / 1543-8635 online DOI: 10.1080/15438620600854769

1543-8635 1543-8627 GSPM Research in Sports Medicine, Medicine Vol. 14, No. 3, July 2006: pp. 118

STRENGTH AND SPEED CHARACTERISTICS OF ELITE, SUBELITE, AND RECREATIONAL YOUNG SOCCER PLAYERS

Strength I. Gissis et Characteristics al. in Young Soccer Players

Ioannis Gissis Christos Papadopoulos

Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, Serres, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece

Vasilios I. Kalapotharakos Aristomenis Sotiropoulos

Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece

Georgios Komsis Evagelos Manolopoulos

Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, Serres, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece The purpose of the present study was to compare maximal isometric force, force-time curve characteristics, pedaling rate, vertical jump, and sprint performance among young soccer players from different competition levels. Fifty-four (54) young soccer players were divided into three groups according to competition level: the elite group (n = 18) consisted of soccer players from the national youth soccer team of
Received 28 April 2005; accepted 3 June 2006. Address correspondence to Dr. Ioannis Gissis, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, Serres, P.C. 62110 Serres, Greece. E-mail: igkisis@phed-sr.auth.gr

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Greece, the subelite group (n = 18) consisted of youth soccer players who participated in the local championship, and the recreational group (n = 18) consisted of recreational soccer players. All groups were evaluated for maximal isometric force, explosive force at 100 msec, peak force relative to body mass, rate of force development, squat and drop jump heights, 10 m sprint time, and pedaling rate. The elite group presented significantly (p < 0.05) higher maximal isometric force, vertical jump height, and pedaling rate, and lower 10 m sprint time in comparison with the subelite and recreational groups. No significant differences were observed in strength and speed characteristics between the subelite and recreational young soccer players. The findings of the present study suggest that the elite young soccer players can be distinguished from subelite and recreational young soccer players in strength and speed characteristics. These strength and speed measures can be used for strength and speed diagnosis, and for designing and evaluating training programs. Keywords: soccer, maximal isometric force, vertical jump performance, sprint performance

INTRODUCTION Muscle strength, power, and speed are important physiological characteristics of soccer players in order to perform sprinting, jumping, tackling, and kicking in a soccer game (Reilly, Bangsbo, and Franks 2000). In particular, muscle strength of the lower limbs is significantly associated with vertical jump height and sprinting performance (Wisloff, Castagna, Helgerud, et al. 2004), whereas preseason muscle weakness is associated with muscle hamstring injury (Orchard, Marsden, Lord, et al. 1997). Previous investigators have shown significant differences in muscle strength, mainly in isotonic and isokinetic muscle strength, vertical jump, and sprint performance between soccer players of different ages and levels of competition, and soccer teams of different divisions (Capranica, Cama, Fanton, et al. 1992; Cometti, Maffiuletti, Pousson, et al. 2001; Kalapotharakos, Strimpakos, Vithoulka, et al. in press; Wisloff, Helgerud, and Hoff 1998). Apart from isotonic and isokinetic muscle strength, maximum isometric strength and isometric forcetime curve characteristics, such as the rate of force development, are important capacities of the neuromuscular system for developing maximal force rapidly, and are related to athletic performance (Hakkinen, Komi, and Kauhanen 1986; Katartzi, Gantiraga, Komsis, et al. 2005; Papadopoulos, Salonikidis, and Schmidtbleicher 1997). These forcetime parameters are the starting force at 100 msec (F100), the peak force relative to body mass (PF), and the rate at which

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isometric force can be developed (rate of force development; RFD; Katartzi et al. 2005; Papadopoulos, Kalapotharakos, Gantiraga, et al., 2006; Papadopoulos and Salonikidis 2000). F100 is an important part of the isometric forcetime curve because it is the initial development of force that represents the ability of the musculoskeletal system to rapidly develop maximal muscle force over a very short time interval (100 msec; Katartzi et al. 2005). The evaluation of maximum voluntary contraction (MVC), forcetime curve characteristics, vertical jump ability, and speed has been used for strength and speed diagnosis and talent identification and to monitor the effects of training in children and young athletes (Katartzi et al. 2005; Papadopoulos et al. 2006; Papadopoulos et al. 1997). The purpose of this study was to compare MVC, forcetime curve characteristics, vertical jump, and sprint performance among young soccer players from different competition levels. It was hypothesized that young soccer players in higher levels of competition present higher values for maximal isometric force, forcetime curve characteristics, vertical jump, and sprint performance than subelite and recreational young soccer players. METHODS Participants Fifty-four young soccer players participated in the study and were assigned into three groups according to their competition level: the elite group (n = 18) consisted of soccer players from the national youth soccer team of Greece, the subelite group (n = 18) consisted of youth soccer players who participated in the local championship, and the recreational group (n = 18) consisted of recreational soccer players. The training experience (number of years of soccer training) and training background (number of training sessions per week) of the three groups are in Table 1. All participants were informed of the purpose of the study and gave their informed consent to participate. The research design and procedures of the present study were approved by the review committee of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece. Measurements Isometric Force A uniaxial load cell (AMD Co. Ltd., LC 4204-K600) with an aluminum and rubber plate situated vertically to the ground was used for maximal isometric force measurement. A specially designed leg-press apparatus was used for the measurement. The device consisted of a metal frame, a

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Table 1. Physical Characteristics, Training Experience, and Training Background of the Subjects (Means Values SD)
Age (years) Elite (n = 18) Subelite (n = 18) Recreational (n = 18) 16.3 1.26 16.4 1.32 16.2 1.29 Height (cm) 169.1 5.7 168.6 4.8 168.8 4.6 Body mass (kg) 68.17 6.9 67.74 7.5 69.87 7.6 Experience (years) 5 0.7*,# 3.6 0.7*, 2.7 0.7#, Background (sessions per week) 4.3 0.5*,# 3.2 0.4*, 2.7 0.7#,

*p < 0.05, significant differences between elite and subelite soccer players. #p < 0.05, significant differences between elite and recreational soccer players. p < 0.05, significant differences between subelite and recreational soccer players.

chair, and a metal bar under which the load cell was situated. A Velcro strap was placed around the waist to stabilize the body. The load cell was connected to an A/D (analog/digital) transformation card, a Pentium III computer with a math processor, and specially designed software for data reception and processing (Katartzi et al. 2005). Maximal isometric force of the bilateral leg extensor muscles was measured in a sitting position (knee and hip angle 90 degrees) (Katartzi et al. 2005). Participants placed their feet on the metal bar that was connected to the load cell and performed a maximum bilateral voluntary isometric contraction. During the effort, the unmovable back of the chair supported the trunk, while the hands were kept crossed on the chest to stabilize the body. Three trials were completed by each participant, separated by 3 min. intervals, and the best performance was used for the subsequent statistical analysis. Calibration of the measurement system was achieved by using weights (5, 10, and 20 kg weight discs) from 50 to 600 kg. Input (input = weight) and output values (output = electric signal) presented a distinct linearity. Reliability indexes ranged from .95 to .98 for the isometric strength. From the forcetime curve, MVC and three explosive force measures (F100, PF, RFD) were determined during the maximum isometric force (Katartzi et al. 2005; Papadopoulos et al. 2006; Papadopoulos 1997). One week prior to testing, each subject was familiarized with the strength and speed measures. Vertical Jump Ability Vertical jump ability was evaluated using a one-dimensional dynamometer. Four types of vertical jump were performed: a squat jump initiated from a knee flexion of 90 degrees (SJ), a drop jump from a height of 20 cm (DJ20), a drop jump from a height of 30 cm (DJ30), and a drop jump from a height of 40 cm (DJ40; Bobbert, Huijing, van Ingen Schenau 1987; Papadopoulos et al. 2006). The dynamometer was connected to an A/D

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transformation card, a Pentium III computer with a math processor, and specially designed software for data reception and processing. Three trials were carried out for each type of jump, and the best result was used (test retest reliability, r = .95). Two mininutes of rest was allowed between jumps to minimize the effect of fatigue. Maximum Speed on the Bicycle Ergometer A MONARK ergomedic bicycle (814 E, classe A, din 32932) was used for measurement of the highest speed on the ergometer, with no resistance (resistance = 0). The speed was registered on a digital tachometer (Cyclocomputer Type CLUB), with measuring precision 0.01 Km/h. On the bicycle ergometer, the saddle height was individually adjusted for each person so that when the pedal was in the lowest position, the leg was straightened to 150 degrees. The subjects began slowly with an increasing pedaling rate, then accelerated fast and within a few seconds achieved their maximum speed, as the electronic speedometer indicated. If the subjects could not accelerate any further for 2 seconds, they had to break their attempt off, and their maximum achievement was recoreded. Two trials were completed for each participant, separated by a 3 min rest interval, and the best performance was used for the subsequent statistical analysis (testretest reliability, r = .93). Sprint Performance Ten meter sprint time was measured using an Autonics Beam Sensor, BL5M-MFR with a double laser beam and an automatic digital chronometer (Saint Wien Digital Timer Type H5K) having a resolution of 0.01 sec and a measurement error of 0.01 sec. On command, subjects sprinted from a standing position. Three trials were completed for each participant, separated by a 3 min rest interval, and the best trial was used for the subsequent statistical analysis. Statistical Analysis Data were analyzed using the SPSS PC program for Windows. Means SD were calculated. Dependent variables in the present study were the maximum isometric force, the starting force achieved during the first 100 msec, the peak force relative to body mass, the rate of force development, vertical jump height, sprint time, and pedaling rate. One-way ANOVAs (with competition level as the independent factor) were applied to determine if there were differences among the three groups in all dependent variables. When F ratios were significant, post hoc comparisons of means were performed with Tukeys multiple comparison tests. Statistical significance was accepted at p < .05.

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RESULTS No significant differences were found among the three groups in their anthropometric characteristics (age, body mass, and height). On the other hand, significant differences (p < 0.05) were observed in training experience and training background among elite, subelite, and recreational young soccer players (Table 1). One-way ANOVAs revealed significant effects of the group on maximal isometric force (F2,51 = 5.490, p < 0.01), peak force relative to body mass (F2,51 = 818.728, p < 0.01), explosive force at 100 msec (F2,51 = 140.225, p < 0.05), rate of force development (F2,50 = 7.982, p < 0.001), squat jump height (F2,51 = 127.827, p < 0.05), and drop jump height from 20 cm (F2,51 = 303.083, p < 0.05), 30 cm (F2,51 = 347.077, p < 0.05), and 40 cm (F2,51 = 294.899, p < 0.05). Tukeys multiple comparison tests revealed that the elite soccer players showed significantly (p < 0.05) higher performance values in all dependent variables in comparison with the subelite and recreational soccer players (Table 2). On the other hand, no significant differences were observed in the above strength, vertical jump, and speed variables between the subelite and recreational soccer players. DISCUSSION Muscle strength and speed are important physiological characteristics of soccer players needed to perform sprinting, jumping, tackling, and kicking
Table 2. Strength and Speed Characteristics of Elite, Subelite, and Recreational Soccer Players (Means Values SD)
Elite (n = 18) Maximal isometric Strength (N) Peak force relative to body mass Explosive force at 100 msec (N) Rate of force development SJ height (cm) DJ20 height (cm) DJ30 height (cm) DJ40 height (cm) Pedalling rate (Km/h) 10 m sprint time (sec) 1282.4 209.6*,# 2.21 0.573*,# 976.5 132.6*,# 56.3 8.4*,# 23.6 3.5*,# 24.3 4.1*,# 24.6 4.4*,# 25.1 4.9*,# 68.8 3.4*,# 1.95 0.34*,# Subelite (n = 18) 1065.4 199* 1.91 0.63* 743.5 126.6* 49.8 7.6* 21.4 4.5* 21.4 5.7* 22.2 5.8* 23.2 5.1* 61.8 3.7* 2.14 0.41* Recreational (n = 18) 954.6 176.6# 1.81 0.68# 705.6 128.6# 48.32 8.29# 20.3 4.3# 20.4 5# 22.45 5.4# 23 5# 60.3 4.2# 2.21 0.45#

SJ indicates squat jump; DJ20 indicates drop jump from 20 cm; DJ30 indicates drop jump from 30 cm; DJ40 indicates drop jump from 40 cm. *p < 0.05, significant differences between elite and subelite soccer players. #p < 0.05, significant differences between elite and recreational soccer players.

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in a soccer game (Reilly, Bangsbo, and Franks 2000). The results of this study show that elite young soccer players presented higher maximal isometric force, force at 100 ms, reactive force index, vertical jump height, maximum pedaling rate, and 10 m sprint time than subelite and recreational young soccer players. Isometric tests are popular tests that have been widely used to assess the force-producing capacity of the neuromuscular system (Hakkinen 1993; Sale 1991). According to previous investigators, both maximal isometric force and maximal isometric development rates are significantly related to performance (Hakkinen et al. 1986; Vitasalo and Aura 1984). The force produced during the first 100 ms is an important part of the isometric forcetime curve because it is the initial development of force, and it represents the ability of the musculoskeletal system to rapidly develop maximal force (Katartzi et al. 2005). It appears that elite young soccer players demonstrate higher values in maximal isometric force and forcetime curve characteristics compared with subelite and recreational young soccer players. Previous studies have shown similar results in muscle strength, mainly in 1-RM lower limb muscle strength and peak torque of knee extensors and flexors, in soccer players of different ranking, ages, and competition level (Capranica et al. 1992; Cometti et al. 2001; Kalapotharakos et al. in press; Wisloff et al. 1998). The differences in maximal isometric force and forcetime curve characteristics found among young soccer players of different competition levels could be attributed to the fact that young soccer players on the national team participate in a greater number of weekly soccer training sessions (45 sessions/week), or to the greater experience in soccer training (45 years), or they have performed specific strength training programs for their lower limb muscles in comparison with subelite (34 sessions/week and 34 years experience) and recreational (23 sessions/week and 24 years experience) young soccer players. Vertical jump tests can determine muscle power of the lower limbs (Bosco and Komi 1980; Cronin and Hansen 2005; Reilly, Williams, Nevill, et al. 2000). Factors affecting the vertical jump performance are the force developed by the knee extensor muscles and intramuscular coordination and coactivation of the agonistantagonist muscles involved in performing the jump (Bencke, Damsgaard, Sackmose, et al. 2002; Bobbert, Huijing, van Ingen Schenau 1987). The jumping ability of national-level soccer players is significantly higher than the ability of the soccer players of both subelite and recreational levels. A previous study has shown significant differences in vertical jump height among soccer players of different competition levels (Reilly, Williams, Nevill, et al. 2000). The differences in both squat and drop jump heights among the elite, the subelite, and the

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recreational groups might be due to their different muscle strength levels and coordination patterns. The measurement of the maximum speed on the bicycle ergometer is a dynamic movement execution. Higher maximum speeds were observed in elite young soccer players than in subelite and recreational young soccer players. Since maximum speed on the bicycle ergometer is affected mainly by both speed and force generated by the lower extremities (Cronin and Hansen 2005; Papadopoulos et al. 1997), it appears that the elite young soccer players have developed these characteristics to a greater degree in comparison with subelite and recreational young soccer players. Hence, elite young soccer players also run faster over 10 m than subelite and recreational young soccer players. Reilly, Williams, Nevill, et al. (2000) have reported significant differences in sprint performance between soccer players who played for international clubs and local clubs. It seems that elite young soccer players present high strength and speed values due to the chronic systematized soccer training and the specific strength and speed training programs in comparison with subelite and recreational young soccer players. It should be noted that no significant difference was observed in maximal isometric force, forcetime curve characteristics, vertical jump height, pedalling rate, and sprint time between subelite and recreational young soccer players. Perhaps the training stimulus (strength or speed) or the soccer experience of subelite young soccer players was not adequate to further develop their strength and speed characteristics compared with recreational young soccer players. In conclusion, the findings of the present study suggest that the elite young soccer players can be distinguished from subelite and recreational young soccer players in strength and speed characteristics, such as maximal isometric force, forcetime curve characteristics, pedaling rate, vertical jump, and sprint performance. These strength and speed measures may provide useful information for attaining high soccer level and designing and evaluating training programs, while previous studies suggest that strength and speed measurements can be used for talent identification in combination with several other factors (psychological, performance, and social). Further research is required to identify these factors responsible for high-level soccer performance. REFERENCES
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