CHAPTER 7 SENSORS

"The automotive industry has made great strides toward improved performance, creating new demand for sensors reducing fuel consumption and exhaust emissions while making safer vehicles Just an example

7.1 Sensing and sensors

what they are, how they work, and how they are used in mechatronics FUNCTIONS Sense or Measure Interface between Energy domain & Information Domain Sense without drawing energy from system Handle different forms of energy PERFORMANCE TERMINOLOGY RANGE & SPAN ERROR ACCURACY SENSITYVITY HYSTERESIS ERROR Non-Linearity Error DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS RESPONSE TIME TIME CONSTANT RISE TIME SETTLING TIME
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REPEATABILITY STABILITY DEAD BAND/TIME RESOLUTION O/P impedence

..

Explain the following sensor specifications: 1. Piezoelectric accelerometer: non-linearity=0.5% of full range 2. Load cell: Total error due to non-linearity, hysteresis and non-repeatability=0.1% of full scale 3. Capacitive fluid transducer: accuracy=1% of display An Example: To sense Acid level in a vessel Given data: Circular vessel of 1 m dia., 2 m height, 100 kg mass; acid density = 1050 kg/m^3 min. change to detect 10 cm Solution: 1. Level sensors 2. Weight sensors load cell strain gauge based Piezoelectric Required Range: Min weight = 0 kg max. weight = (1050x2x(/4)x(1^2)x9.81)+wt. of vessel =16.2+0.98 KN = 17KN (say) Range: 0 to 17 kN Required resolution: 10cm = 0.01x1050x2x(/4)x(1^2)x9.81 = 0.8KN
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One load cell: Range: resolution: Four load cells Range: resolution: 0 to 5 kN (overall 1-20 kN) 0.20 kN => 2.5 cm 0 to 20 kN 0.80 kN

One Vs many sensors Cost Resolution Reliability Accuracy Logic and Interface Classification of Sensors Physical Quantity Physical law Optics, Electromagnetics, Hall, See Back.... Technology Semiconductor, EM, optoelectronics.... Satial relationship with object and sensor Contact/Non Contact/remote Energy domain Digital Vs Analog Simple Vs Complex Self-generating Vs Modulating 1 More (wide range) Less Poor (1 fail -> wrong result) Less Simple / Direct n (many) Less(c may be more) More Better (1 fail -> small error) More Complex To integrate output from n sensors series / parallel -> multiplexer

Self-generating Vs Modulating

Smart Sensors IEEE-P1451.2 Provides function beyond those necssary for generating a correct reopresentation of a sensed or controlled quantity It may have: Onboard microcontroller Signal processing, calibration Comunication circuit Storage od I/P and O/P

7.2 Types
DISPLACEMENT, POSITION, PROXIMITY VELOCITY, ACCELARATION FORCE, PRESSURE LIQUID FLOW LIQUID LEVEL TEMPERATURE LIGHT INTENSITY

7.3 SELECTION OF SENSOR

Choosing the Right Sensor: Ask questions to help decide what type of sensor would be best for a particular situation. carefully think about what kind of information is needed - more thinking - better decisions. For example, "Am I touching a wall?" or "Is it warm?" possible answers to those questions? ("Yes" or "no"? A number from 1 to 360?) Remember that there is always more than one sensor - use one of several sensors to help get the information you need. SELECTION CRITERION (DISPLACEMENT, POSITION AND PROXIMITY) SIZE OF DISPLACEMENT (range) LINEAR/ANGULAR RESOLUTION ACCURACY MATERIALS INVOLVED COST ..
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CONTACT/NON-CONTACT TYPE POTENTIOMETER STRAIN GAUGED CAPACITIVE TYPE LVDT EDDY CURRENT TYPE (PROXIMITY) OPTICAL ENCODER HALL EFFECT TYPE ULTRASONIC PIEZOELECTRIC PYROELECTRIC OPTIC IC/MEMS POTENTIOMETER Effect of load is to transform a linear relationship between output voltage and angle into non-linear relationship. Total Resistance: RP (1 x ) + RL xRP (RL + xRP ) POTENTIAL DIVIDER:

RL xRP (RL + xRP ) x = RP (1 x ) + RL xRP (RL + xRP ) (RP RL )x(1 x ) + 1

IF RL VL = xVS

Types of Potentiometers Linear/rotary Wirewound Cermet Plastic film Long life/better resolution/good temperature stability Wiper slides on a conductive track Wear of track/non-linear Wiper slides on a coil of wire step variation/wear/

Shunting resister

STRAIN GAUGE ELEMENT METAL WIRE METAL FOIL SEMICONDUCTOR G (gauge factor) Metal wire/foil=2.0 P-type=100 or more N-type=-100 or more CAPACITIVE ELEMENT C =
R = G R

r o A
d

C C =

r o A
d+x

C x d = C 1 + (x d )

Strain Gage Selection Considerations Strain gage dimensions Strain gage resistance: 120, 350, 600, and 700 Ohms. Gage Factor (Strain Sensitivity) Temperature Characteristic Service Temperature Range Maximum Permitted RMS Bridge Energizing Voltage Number of Gages in Gage Pattern Arrangement of Gages in Gage Pattern Strain Sensitive Alloy Carrier Material Gage Width Solder Tab Type Configuration of Solder Tab Availability
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Applications Experimental stress analysis. Diagnosis on machines and failure analysis. multi axial stress fatigue testing, proof testing residual stress vibration measurement torque measurement bending and deflection measurement compression and tension measurement strain measurement Sensors for machines, automotive, research etc. force measurement in machine tools aerospace impact sensors medical sensors automotive, motor sport Biometrics tension sensors, web tension force on hydraulic or pneumatic press Strain gauge data sheet

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Capacitive sensors sense a variety of things: motion, chemical composition, electric field Indirectly (motion or dielectric constant): pressure, acceleration, fluid level, and fluid composition. Low cost, Stability, Simple conditioning circuits 10-14 m displacements good stability, high speed, and wide extremes of environment Capacitive sensors in oil refineries measure the percent of water in oil, and sensors in grain storage facilities measure the moisture content of wheat

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Calculation of capacitance

Spacing variation

Area variation

Three plate systems Sensor capacitance is doubled Tilt is first-order compensated Shielding is easier

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Parallel multi-plates

Finger position sensor

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Applications Flow Pressure Liquid level Spacing Scanned multiplate sensor Thickness measurement Ice detector Shaft angle or linear position Lamp dimmer switch Keyswitch X-Y tablet Accelerometers

DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER Output (Difference between the two secondary voltages)

e=M di for i = I sin (t ) dt
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V1 = K1 sin (t ); V2 = K 2 sin (t ) V1 V2 = (K1 K 2 ) sin (t )

LVDT

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LVDT Components

Underlying Principle Electromagnetic Induction: Primary Coil (RED) is connected to power source Secondary Coils (BLUE) are connected in parallel but with opposing polarity Primary coils magnetic field (BLACK) induces a current in secondary coils Ferro-Metallic Metallic core (BROWN) manipulates primarys magnetic field In the null position, the magnetic field generates currents of equal magnitude in both secondary coils.
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the

When the core is moved, there will be more magnetic flux in one coil than the other resulting in different currents and therefore different voltages This variation in voltages is linearly proportional to displacement

Electromechanical transducer Coupled to any type of object/structure Converts the rectilinear motion of an object into a corresponding electrical signal Precision of LVDT Movements as small as a few millionths of an inch Usually measurements are taken on the order of 12 inches Some LVDTs have capabilities to measure up to 20 inches Advantages Friction Free Operation NO mechanical contact between core and coil (usually) Infinite Mechanical Life Infinite Resolution Electromagnetic coupling Limited only by electrical noise Low risk of damage

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Most LVDTs have open bore holes Null Point Repeatability Zero displacement can be measured Single Axis Sensitivity Effects of other axes are not felt on the axis of interest Environmentally Robust Stable/Strong sensors good for structural engineering tests!!! Uses Automation Machinery Civil/Structural Engineering Power Generation Manufacturing Metal Stamping/Forming OEM Pulp and Paper Industrial Valves R & D and Tests Automotive Racing Civil/Structural Engineering Type of LVDTs DC vs. AC Operated DC Operated Ease of installation Simpler data conditioning Operate from dry cell batteries (remote locations)
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Lower System Cost AC Operated Smaller than DC More accurate than DC Operate well at high temperatures Armature Types Unguided Armature Fits loosely in bore hole LVDT body and armature are separately mounted must ensure alignment Frictionless movement Suitability Short-range high speed applications High number of cycles Captive (Guided) Armature Restrained and guided by a low-friction bearing assembly Suitability Longer working range Alignment is a potential problem Spring Extended Armature Restrained and guided by a low-friction bearing assembly (again!) Internal spring pushes armature to max. extension Maintains reliable contact with body to be measured Suitability Static slow moving application (joint-opening in pavement slabs)

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General Schematic AC vs DC LVDT

Examples

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Some special Applications Crankshaft Balancer Low-cost LVDT, with refined signal conditioning, resolves to a millionth of an inch for this automotive crankshaft balancer. Testing Soil Strength DCDT measures soil sample deformation under load to determine soil strength. Pill Making Machine In making tablets from medicinal powder, dual LVDTs control pill weight & thickness. "Brain Probing" Medical Device Special AC LVDT is critical part of this medical instrument that assists with brain surgery. Product Inspection Machine Using our small-package LVDTs, these machines check the final dimensions on flat-panel displays. Portable Friction Welder Friction welds are produced by spinning one metal object at very high RPM against another while simultaneously moving the two pieces closer together; an LVDT measures the distance between the approaching metals. Robotic Cleaner A hydraulic oil compatible LVDT is used to continuously monitor fluid level as part of leak detection system. Borehole Extensometer Borehole depth measurement is simplified using a DC LVDT in a robust extensometer design. Octane Analyzer An LVDT provides displacement feedback of an air cylinder on a Waukesha engine; this is done to measure engine knock and determine octane ratings for different fuel mixtures. Bottle Height Inspection Height measurement during a bottle assembly process is critical in assuring uniform product; an LVDT replaces limit switches for higher resolution on bottle inspection machinery.
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Automation Assembly Equipment These assembly systems increase production efficiencies and use our LVDTs for automated part inspection.The Scanning Laser Tomography Who doesn't get jittery waiting for that puff of air in a glaucoma test??? A relatively new laser scanning system, that uses an LVDT for precise optic positioning, eliminates the air rush altogether. Automotive Suspension System low cost and ruggedness of an AC LVDT is ideal for a revolutionary type of active control suspension system for large trucks and buses. Dollar Bill Thickness in ATM Machines High precision and repeatability are essential in detecting the number of bills dispensed by an ATM. Robotic Manipulator Joystick control is enhanced by DC LVDTs used in 3 axes for heavy equipment robotics. Specific Gravity Sensor Fluids used in the PC board wave soldering industry must be monitored by their specific gravity; this is done by linking an LVDT to the mechanical float assembly of a S/G probe. Weighing Systems Load cells and other types of weighing equipment, such as checkweighing systems, can benefit from the infinite resolution and high accuracy of an LVDT. Servo Valve Positioning LVDTs can be used to measure spool position in a wide range of servo valve applications. Typically, the units are positioned over an isolation tube, isolated from the pressurized environment. Hydraulic Cylinder Displacement LVDTs are used extensively to provide displacement feedback for hydraulic cylinders. Several mounting configurations, both internal and external, are discussed. Force Generation System
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Providing direct feedback of a piston, our DCDT helps to control static position and dynamic excitation in a system that tests automotive suspension structures PROXIMITY SENSORS EDDY CURRENT TYPE Supply of a.c. produces alternating current -if there is a metal object in the proximity to this alternating magnetic field, then eddy currents are induced -eddy currents themselves produces a magnetic field -this distorts the magnetic field responsible for their production -as a result, the impedance of the coil changes and so the amplitude of the alternating current -this may be used to trigger a switch Optical sensors

Optical Sensor Measurands Light Detectors: =c/f Ep=hf 1eV= energy of a photon Optical or radio frequency =. No medium

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Range UV Visible Near IR Middle IR Far IR Material: Exposed to light => photon concentration increases => Conductivity increases Silicon cadmium sulphite (CdS) 0.002=< 0.38=< 0.78=< 1.7 =< 6 .0=< =<0.38 m =<0.78 m =<1.7 m =<6 m

=<1000 m

Mercury cadmium telluride (MCT) Mode of operation Quantum: based on photovoltaic, photoconductive effect, for UV and MUV Thermal: for MUV and FIR Photo resistor (Photo cell) Photo conductive device Light increases=>Resistance fall Similar to potentiometer CdS material Most sensitive to light then other photo device -Slow response (several mili sec.) -Short life in humidity and UV

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Photo resistor (Photo cell): types Bare coated Plastic Metal Glass

Photo diode Light => Electrical energy Si,Gr 300nm to 1800nm Photovoltic Photoconductive Photodiode: applications Spectroscopy Photography Analytical instrumentation Optical position sensors Beam alignment Phototransistor Similar to BJT, but exposed to light More sensitive than photodiode Response slower than photodiode Surface characterization Laser range finders Optical communications Medical imaging instrumentation

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OPTICAL ENCODER Provides a digital output as a result of a linear or angular displacement

OPTICAL ENCODER: Types Incremental Absolute Binary Gray Incremental Pulses from leads are counted to provide rotary position Two detectors are used to determine direction (quadrature) Index pulse used to denote start point Otherwise pulses are not unique

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Absolute Encoders Absolute encoders have a unique code that can be detected for every angular position Often in the form of a grey code; a binary code of minimal change Absolute encoders are much more complex and expensive than incremental encoders

Encoder processing Need a squaring circuit to digitize signal A counter and index monitor Generally available in monolithic form Often with algorithms for control externally programmable

Application Require accurate position information: 10,000 line incremental 360 line absolute Digital feed-back loop
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 Compact and reasonably rugged (not as good as inductive) Linear encoders also available Tachometers Measurement of rotary speed using a DC generator Essentially a motor running in reverse Used to be common to have these attached to motors to enable direct analog feedback Much less common now with digital control (use incremental encoders) Ultrasonic sensor

Use sound pulses Measures amplitude and time of flight Range provides more than on/off information Frequencies 40KHz-2MHz Provide range data directly Level monitoring of solid and liquids Approach warning (collisions) Can (usually) work in heavy dust and water Ambient noise is potentially an issue

HALL EFFECT
V = KH BI t

KH Hall coefficient

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Can be used as non-contact switches, position, displacement and proximity sensor

Temperature Sensors Thermocouples Resistive Temperature Devices Thermistor Infrared Sensors Bimetallic Devices Change-of-state Sensors Thermometers Thermocouples Available in different combinations of metals or calibrations. The four most common calibrations are J, K, T and E. There are high temperature calibrations R, S, C and GB. Each calibration=>different temperature range and environment The maximum temperature varies with the diameter of the wire used in the thermocouple. Range is also limited by the diameter of the thermocouple wire. A very thin thermocouple may not reach the full temperature range.

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Thermocouples:Selection Temperature range: Calibration range Probe type Wire Diameter Chemical resistance of the thermocouple or sheath material Abrasion and vibration resistance Installation requirements (may need to be compatible with existing equipment; existing holes may determine probe diameter) Thermocouples:Probe Probe =>wire housed inside a metallic tube. The wall of the tube => sheath of the probe. Common sheath materials => stainless steel and Inconel Inconel supports higher temperature ranges than stainless steel stainless steel is often preferred because of its broad chemical compatibility For very high temperatures, other exotic sheath materials are also available

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Resistive Temperature Devices (RTDs) Changes in the electrical resistance with temperature Excellent stability Linear signal w.r.t temperature of any electronic temperature sensor. Generally more expensive than alternatives. Characterized by a slow response time and low sensitivity sensitivity, , and because they require current excitation, they can be prone to self-heating The relationship between en resistance and temperature is very linear and follows the equation For < 0oC RT = R0 [ 1 + aT + bT2 + cT3 (T - 100) ] For > 0oC RT = R0 [ 1 + aT + bT2 ] Where, RT = resistance at temperature T R0 = nominal resistance a, b, and c are constants used to scale the RTD Common Resistance Materials for RTDs Platinum (the most common because of its wide temperature range, accuracy, and stability) Nickel Copper Balco (rare) Tungsten (rare) Resistance-Temperature Temperature Curve for a 100 Platinum RTD, a = 0.00385 Benefits of Using an RTD The RTD is one of the most accurate temperature sensors. Not only does it provide good accuracy, it also provides excellent stability and repeatability. Most OMEGA standard RTDs comply with DIN-IEC IEC Class B. The accuracy of an OMEGA standard RTDs is
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shown in the table on the right. RTDs are also relatively immune to electrical noise and therefore well suited for temperature measurement in industrial environments, especially around motors, generators and other high voltage equipment. Types of RTD RTD Elements The RTD element is the simplest form of RTD. It consists of a piece of wire wrapped around a ceramic or glass core. Because of their compact size, RTD elements are commonly used when space is very limited. RTD Surface Elements A surface element is a special type of RTD element. It is designed to be as thin as possible thus providing good contact for temperature measurement of flat surfaces. RTD Probes The RTD probe is the most rugged form of RTD. A probe consists of an RTD element mounted inside a metal tube, also known as a sheath. The sheath protects the element from the environment. OMEGA offers a wide variety of probes in various configurations. Thermistor It will be A negative (NTC), or positive (PTC) resistance/temperature coefficient. 90 C to 130 C NTC = semiconductor resistors. NTCs should be chosen when a continuous change of resistance is required over a wide temperature range. They offer mechanical, thermal and electrical stability, together with a high degree of sensitivity. PTC thermistors are temperature dependent resistors manufactured from barium titanate and should be
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chosen when a drastic change in resistance is required at a specific temperature or current level. NOTE: RTD and thermistor output signals are typically in the millivolt range, making them susceptible to noise. Lowpass filters are commonly available in RTD and thermistor data acquisition systems and can effectively eliminate high-frequency noise in RTD and thermistor measurements. For instance, lowpass filters are useful for removing the 60 Hz power line noise that is prevalent in most laboratory and plant settings. One can also significantly improve the noise performance of your system by amplifying the low-level RTD and thermistor voltages near the signal source. Because RTD and thermistor output voltage levels are very low, one should choose a gain which optimizes the input limits of the analog-to-digital converter (ADC). Infrared Temperature Measurement Devices Infrared sensors are noncontacting devices. They infer temperature by measuring the thermal radiation emitted by a material Bimetallic Temperature Measurement Devices Bimetallic devices take advantage of the difference in rate of thermal expansion between different metals. Strips of two metals are bonded together. When heated, one side will expand more than the other, and the resulting bending is translated into a temperature reading by mechanical linkage to a pointer. These devices are portable and they do not require a power supply, but they are usually not as accurate as thermocouples or RTDs and they do not readily lend themselves to temperature recording. Fluid-Expansion Temperature Measurement Devices Typified by the household thermometer, generally come in two main classifications: The mercury type

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The organic-liquid type. Versions employing gas instead of liquid are also available. Mercury is considered an environmental hazard, so there are regulations governing the shipment of devices that contain it. Fluid-expansion sensors do not require electric power, do not pose explosion hazards, and are stable even after repeated cycling. On the other hand, they do not generate data that is easily recorded or transmitted, and they cannot make spot or point measurements. Change-of-State Temperature Measurement Devices Consist of labels, pellets, crayons, lacquers or liquid crystals whose appearance changes once a certain temperature is reached. They are used, for instance, with steam traps when a trap exceeds a certain temperature, a white dot on a sensor label attached to the trap will turn black. Response time typically takes minutes, so these devices often do not respond to transient temperature changes. Aaccuracy is lower than with other types of sensors. Furthermore, the change in state is irreversible, except in the case of liquid-crystal displays. Even so, change-of-state sensors can be handy when one needs confirmation that the temperature of a piece of equipment or a material has not exceeded a certain level, for instance for technical or legal reasons during product shipment. Temperature measurement using IC IC temperature sensors can be used for measuring temperatures in the environmental and biological range of 50 Deg C to +150 Deg C.

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There are four basic types of IC temperature sensors, according to the output signal produced in response to sensed temperature, as follows 1. Analog Devices AD590/592 series temperature sensor, which produces a linear current output of 1 A/Deg K 2. National Semiconductor LM335 temperature sensor, which produces a linear voltage output of 10 mV/Deg K 3. National Semiconductor LM34 temperature sensor, which produces a linear voltage output of 10 mV/Deg F 4. National Semiconductor LM35 temperature sensor, which produces a linear voltage output of 10 mV/Deg C Comparision Attribute Cost Thermoc ouple Low Very wide -350oF +3200oF Interchange ability Long-term Stability Accuracy Repeatability Sensitivity (output) Response Linearity Self Heating Point (end) Sensitive Lead Effect Size/Packaging Good Poor to fair Medium Poor to fair Low Medium to fast Fair No Excellent High Small to large RTD High Wide -400oF +1200oF Excellent Good High Excellent Medium Medium Good Very low to low Fair Medium Medium to small Thermistor Low Short to medium -100oF +500oF Poor to fair Poor Medium Fair to good Very high Medium to fast Poor High Good Low Small to medium

Temperature Range

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Acceleration Sensors Fall Detection Tilt Detection Vibration Detection Sports Diagnostics Anti-Theft Devices Appliance Balance Earthquake Detection Car Occupant Safety 3-AXES ACCELERATION SENSOR (Freescale MMA7260Q) Features XYZ 3 axes of sensitivity in one device

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g-Select in 1 single device, the sensitivity can be selected at any of these values: 1.5g/2g/4g/6g Low current consumption: 500 A Sleep mode: 3 A Low voltage operation: 2.2 V 3.6 V Fast turn on time: 1 ms Low noise: can achieve higher resolution, more accuracy Package: low profile 16-lead 6 x 6 x 1.45 mm Sensitivity 1.5g Freefall, accurate tilt compensation 2g Handheld motion detection; Gaming controllers 4g Low vibration monitoring, shipping and handling 6g High vibration monitoring, Higher shock readings Applications Fall Free fall Protection, HDD Protection, Fall Log, Fall Detection, Motion Control & Awareness Tilt Compass, Inclinometer, Gaming, Text Scrolling/User Interfacing, Image Rotating, LCD projection, Physical Therapy, Camcorder Stability Movement Motion Control, Pedometers, General Movement Detection Positioning Personal navigation, Car navigation, Back-up GPS, Anti-theft Devices, Map Tracking Shock Fall log, Black Boxes/Event Recorders, HDD Protection, Shipping and Handling Monitor Vibration Seismic Activity Monitors, Smart Motor Maintenance, Appliance Balance & Monitoring, Acoustics Examples Auto Scroll for Menu selection and image viewer

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3D tilt Game No need to use arrow buttons 3D motion dialing Steady shot, Image Stability for Camera Dead Reckoning for GPS Navigation Shock detection - Tap to mute Fall Recording for warranty purposes Tilt compensation for e-compass OTHER SENSORS 1. PYROELECTRIC SENSOR 2. FLUID PRESSURE 3. PIEZOELECTRIC SENSORS 4. TACTILE SENSORS 5. MAGNETIC 6. MICRO-NANAO BIO VELOCITY SENSOR INCREMENTAL ENCODER TACHOGENERATOR Tachogenerator Flux linkage changes periodically producing an alternating e.m.f

= 0 + a cos nt d e = N = Na n sin nt
dt Emax
PYROELECTRIC SENSOR Lithium Titanate Generate charge in response to heat flow Heating to temp just below curie temp. in an electric field and cooling while keeping the electric field
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generates electric dipole and material becomes polarised Exposition to infra red radiation, reduces amount of polarization PIEZOELECTRIC SENSOR Lead Zirconium Titanate Generate charge in response to stress Application should be such that the charge produced by the pressure does not have much time to leak off and thus used for dynamic pressure changes

q = SF t StF V= 0 r A
TACTILE SENSOR FORM OF PRESSURE SENSOR PVDF: Polyvinyldene Fluoride LIQUID FLOW METER v1 P v P + 1 = 2 + 2 2 g g 2 g g A1v1 = A2 v2 Q= A2 1 ( A2 A1 )
2 2 2

C=

0 r A

2(P 1P 2)

Load Cells A load cell is a transducer which converts force into a measurable electrical output. History: Mechanical lever scales. Very large range

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 Reliably if they are properly calibrated and maintained Use of a weight balancing mechanism or the detection of the force developed by mechanical levers. Hydraulic and pneumatic In 1843, English physicist Sir Charles Wheatstone devised a bridge circuit The first bonded resistance wire strain gage:1940s Strain gages have reproduced both as mechanical scale components and in standalone load cells. Today, except for certain laboratories where precision mechanical balances are still used, strain gage load cells dominate the weighing industry. Load Cells: Working Type of output signal generated pneumatic, hydraulic, electric The way they detect weight bending, shear, compression, tension, etc. Load Cells: Technology Hydraulic load cells Hydraulic load cells are considered in remote locations, as they do not require a power supply. Pneumatic load cells Pneumatic load cells are sometimes used where built-in safety and hygiene are desired Strain-gage load cells Strain gage load cells offer accuracies from within 0.03% to 0.25% full scale and are suitable for almost all industrial applications. Piezoelectric Piezoelectric load cells are a newer type of load cell that can measure dynamic forces with more accuracy than strain gauge based load cells. Capacitive

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Load Cells:Types 1. Canister Load Cells Single and multi-weighing applications. stainless steel design Hermetically sealed for wash down and wet areas. 2. S-Beam Load Cells S shape S-Beam load cells can provide an output if under tension or compression. Applications include tank level, hoppers and truck scales. They provide superior side load rejection. 3. Bending Beam Load Cells Used in multiple load cell applications, tank weighing and industrial process control. They feature low profile construction for integration into restricted areas.

4. Compression Load Cells Compression load cells often have an integral button design. They are ideal for mounting where space is restricted. They offer excellent long term stability. 5. Compression/Tension Load Cells Compression/tension load cells can be used for applications where the load may go from tension to compression and vice versa. They are ideal for space restricted environments. Threaded ends facilitate easy installation.

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6. Low Profile Load Cells Compression and tension/compression load cells. Mounting holes and female threads provide easy installation. Used frequently in weighing research and in-line force monitoring. Load Cell Performance Comparison

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Load cell: Specifications

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Special Purpose Sensors Gyroscopes Tilt Sensors Compass Sensors Fatigue Sensors Taste and Smell Sensors Vision Based Sensors Common Transducer - Ammeter - meter to indicate electrical current - Bourdon tube - widely used industrial gage to measure pressure and vacuum - Chromatographic instruments - laboratory-type instruments used to analyze chemical compounds and gases. - Inductance-coil pulse generator - transducer used to measure rotational speed. Output is pulse train. - Linear-Variable-Differential transformer (LVDT) electromechanical transducer used to measure angular or linear displacement. Output is Voltage - Manometer - liquid column gage used widely in industry to measure pressure. - Ohmmeter - meter to indicate electrical resistance

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- Optical Pyrometer - device to measure temperature of an object at high temperatures by sensing the brightness of an objects surface. - Orifice Plate - widely used flowmeter to indicate fluid flow rates - Photometric Transducers - a class of transducers used to sense light, including phototubes, photodiodes, phototransistors, and photoconductors. - Piezoelectric Accelerometer - Transducer used to measure vibration. Output is emf. - Pitot Tube - Laboratory device used to measure flow. - Positive displacement Flowmeter - Variety of transducers used to measure flow. Typical output is pulse train. - Potentiometer - instrument used to measure voltage - Pressure Transducers - A class of transducers used to measure pressure. Typical output is voltage. Operation of the transducer can be based on strain gages or other devices. - Radiation pyrometer - device to measure temperature by sensing the thermal radiation emitted from the object. - Strain Gage - Widely used to indicate torque, force, pressure, and other variables. Output is change in resistance due to strain, which can be converted into voltage. - Thermistor - Also called a resistance thermometer; an instrument used to measure temperature. Operation is based on change in resistance as a function of temperature. - Thermocouple - widely used temperature transducer based on the Seebeck effect, in which a junction of two dissimilar metals emits emf related to temperature. - Turbine Flowmeter - transducer to measure flow rate. Output is pulse train. - Venturi Tube - device used to measure flow rates.

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