Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Lecture-34
Contents
Brief summary of the previous lecture
8/1/2008
103cm/s
107 cm/s
8/1/2008
Crystalline Si materials
Type of Silicon Abbreviation Crystal Size Range Deposition Method
Single-crystal silicon
Multicrystalline silicon
sc-Si
mc-Si
>10cm
1mm-10cm
Polycrystalline silicon
pc-Si
0.1mm-1mm
Chemical-vapor deposition
Microcrystalline silicon
mc-Si
<0.1mm
Emitter
Active layer, 5 to 50 m Diffusion barrier
Substrate
Substrate can be non-conductive, in that case both the contact is taken from the front side
8/1/2008 IIT Bombay, C.S. Solanki Solar Photovoltaic Technologies
p-type
p-type a-Si / int a-Si / n-type a-Si Based on drift rather than diffusion Absorption take place in thicker intrinsic layer
p-type
Can acieve high efficiency by capturing larger part of the spectrum individual cells with different bandgaps are stacked on top of one another Mechanically stacked and Monolithic
Carrier are transported by diffusion to the junction large diffusion length junction is very thin
Ldiff
kT q
Ldrift
8/1/2008
Vbi Li
Ldrift
10 * Ldiff
9
Light trapping
"light trapping" in which the optical path length is several times the actual device thickness Light trapping is usually achieved by changing the angle at which light travels in the solar cell texturing reduces reflection and increases optical path length
Snells law
n1 sin
n2 sin
substrate
8/1/2008 IIT Bombay, C.S. Solanki
substrate
substrate
10
Deposition techniques
Physical vapor deposition
Vacuum evaporation Sputtering
Chemical deposition
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) Hot wire CVD Plasma enhanced CVD Electro-deposition Spray pyrolysis
11
Contents
Motivation Different thin-film solar cell technologies Why crystalline Si films? Classification based on grain size Thin-film solar cell structures Deposition techniques low temperature High temperature approaches
Mono-crystalline Si thin films
Other concepts
8/1/2008
12
Low-temperature approaches
Property
Deposition temperature
Deposition technologies
200 550oC
Plasma-enhanced (PECVD, VHF-PECVD, microwave, ECR) Hot-wire CVD Solid Phase crystallisation of a-Si:H SiH4 Dilution with H2 is necessary for PECVD microcrystalline Si 0.1 1 nm/s 1 nm/s (Kaneka), mostly below 0.5 nm/s Mostly p-i-n Dual junction: Micromorph
Solar Photovoltaic Technologies
Si-precursor
13
Low-temperature processes
Technology
PECVD VHF-PECVD
Main R&D-players
IPV-Juelich
Features / results
Systems (13.56, 27.12, 40.28 MHz, 4chamber, 6-chamber system, 30x30 cm2) Micromorph cell: > 13%
Micromorph cell: 12% Module: 9%
Neuchatel (VHF-Technologies)
Kaneka Solartech
Micromorph cell: 14.5% Micromorph module: 10% Module (30x30 cm2): 7% !p-n polycrystalline Si solar cell!
Micromorph cell on stainless steel: 8% Staring from n+-a-Si:H/a-Si:H-layer With p+-a-Si:H HIT-emitter: 9.2%
Solar Photovoltaic Technologies
Pacific Solar
Hot-wire CVD Solid Phase crystallisation
8/1/2008
14
Compatible with glass Plastic Micromorph cell concept compatible with 15% Upscalability up to 1 m2 modules seems feasible with cost < 1$/W p
Best efficiencies are obtained with rates below 1 m/h Topcell degradation?
Solar Photovoltaic Technologies
15
Deposition techniques
Solid phase crystallization
Sputtering +
Metal induced crystallization
Features
TCO front contact
Grain size ~ 100nm
p layer
c-Si i layer
n layer
Back contact
Glass/metal
8/1/2008
16
High-temperature approaches
Property
Deposition temperature 900 1300oC
Deposition technologies CVD Solution Growth Electrodeposition Chemical Vapor Transport (CVT)
Si-precursor SiH4, SiH2Cl2, SiHCl3
Deposition rate
1 10 m/min
Cell structure
Always p-n
8/1/2008
17
High-temperature approaches
Technology Main R&D-players Features / results
CVD
Monocrystalline epitaxial cells: 17.8% Multicrystalline epitaxial cells: 14% Polycrystalline Si solar cells: 6%
ISE
Chemical Vapor Transport Solution Growth / Liquid Phase Epitaxy Electrodeposition
8/1/2008
Based on iodine as transporting agent Efficiency < 2% Monocrystalline epitaxial cells: 17.4% Multicrystalline epitaxial cells: 15%
18
High-temperature approaches
Pros Substrate Compatible with Si (perfect match of TEC)
High efficiency proven with epitaxial concept Large expertise from microelectronics available Doping and thickness homogeneity < 5%
Only high-temperature resistant substrates: Si, ceramics, glass-ceramics Strong requirements on TEC-match and purity Blocking layers
Non-recrystallised polycrystalline Si-layers on ceramic suffer from low efficiency
Efficiency
Upscalability
8/1/2008
19
Cons Substrate Only very high-temperature resistant substrates: Si, SiN, mullite, Al2O3 Very strong requirements on TEC-match and purity Thick blocking layers Rather complex process ( 4 additional steps to realise active layer on ceramic) Quality of Si-layers, subjected to ZMR, decreases at recrystallisation speeds above 10 cm/min
IIT Bombay, C.S. Solanki Solar Photovoltaic Technologies
Process Upscalability
8/1/2008
20
Deposition techniques:
Thermal CVD Ion assisted deposition Liquid phase epitaxy (Zone melting recrystallization)
ARC
Front contact
n+ p
Features
Grain size up to ~ several microns
CVD si layer
Diffusion barrier
~ 11 %
21
Hydrogen implantation
Si
Si
Si
Si
8/1/2008
22
Pores
23
Silicon
8/1/2008
24
Silicon
8/1/2008
25
Device fabrication
Silicon
8/1/2008
26
Silicon
Device fabrication
Substrate
Solar Photovoltaic Technologies
8/1/2008
27
Film Separation:
One-step anodization
Porous Silicon Film
Features
Homogeneous film thickness Film thickness from few microns to several tens of microns
Film area is limited by experimental set up Film thickness is function anodization parameters
US patent # 6649485
8/1/2008 IIT Bombay, C.S. Solanki
20 m film
28
Pt electrode
Electrolyte
Silicon ingot
8/1/2008
29
Pt electrode
Electrolyte
Silicon ingot
8/1/2008
30
Pt electrode
Electrolyte
Silicon ingot
Porous silicon films
8/1/2008
31
FMS (Freestanding Mono-Si) solar Two-side contacted cells Patent pending FMS cell process cell structure
Device is ready
PS Film
Emitter
Epi layer
Epi layer after PS removal Epitaxial layer
35
2 Current (mA/cm )
IQE analysis
0.8
30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0
Voc: 602.6 Volts Isc: 33.12 mA/cm FF: 60.18 Eff.: 12.01% Area: 0.65 cm2
2
IQE
Film thickness: 20 m
8/1/2008
600
800
1000
1200
32
Other processes:
Front contact
a-Si/c-Si hetero-junction
ITO layer
n+, a-SiH
int. a-Si:H
Al back contact
Combination of low production cost of amorphous cell technology and high efficiency of Monocrystalline Si cell technology Bandgaps: a-Si 1.7 to 1.8 eV, C-Si 1.12eV
33
Other processes:
a-Si Al Glass
annealing
Al
crystalline-Si Glass
8/1/2008
34
Conclusions
Thin-film crystalline Si solar cells represent obvious way to reduce costs PV A large number of techniques are under investigation There is a certain risk for subcritical R&D in this field Crucial issues are clear: Low-T techniques: increase of growth rate High-T techniques Availability of ceramic substrate Increase of recrystallisation speed for process Improvement of nucleation control for process without ZMR On all of these questions there is a considerable R&D-activity
8/1/2008
35
Concentrator PV systems
8/1/2008
36
Solar cell
Concentration (suns)
Solar Photovoltaic Technologies
Efficiency (%)
2 Solar Cell
3 Heat Sink
38
Light collectors
Refraction and reflection Line focus & point focus Imaging & nonimaging concentrator Concentration ratio
8/1/2008 IIT Bombay, C.S. Solanki Solar Photovoltaic Technologies
39
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.5
1.5
2.5 40
Wavelength (m)
Solar Photovoltaic Technologies
Bandgap engineering
Materials are manipulated to adjust the bandgap according to solar spectrum Double and triple-junction solar cells
InGaP/GaAs/Ge on Ge substrate
Eg1 Eg2
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
Wavelength (m)
Solar Photovoltaic Technologies
41
- 37.3 % (concentration
@175 Suns, 2004) World record efficiency by Spectrolab - 13% with 6 junction
8/1/2008 IIT Bombay, C.S. Solanki
Higher number of junction can achieve higher efficacies 40% is target by 2006 Potentially 45% by 2010 (Spectrolab)
Solar Photovoltaic Technologies
42
Comparison of technologies
Material t/
300
Disadvantages
Advantages, perspectives
Mono-Si
m, 15 18 %
Best researched solar cell material in a next few years it Lengthy production will dominate world market, procedure, wafer especially there, where sawing necessary
300
Multi-c Si
m, 13 15 %
The most important production procedure at least for the next ten years
Lower efficiency, Attractive solar cells for different Polyc-Si 300 special procedures BIPV applications. Possible Transpare m, to achieve optical also production of double sided nt 10 % transparency cells required 8/1/2008 IIT Bombay, C.S. Solanki Solar Photovoltaic Technologies
43
Comparison of technologies
Material t/ 250 m, 14 %
Disadvantage Advantages, perspectives s Limited use of this production procedure Very fast crystal growth, no wafer sawing necessary, significant decrease in production costs possible in the future
EFG
300 Riboon-Si m, 12 %
Limited use of No wafer sawing necessary, this production significant decrease in production procedure costs possible in the future
a-Si
No sawing necessary, possible production in the flexible form. It is a promising material in the future if long-term stability increases
Solar Photovoltaic Technologies
44
Comparison of technologies
Material
CdTe
CIS
HIT
Disadvanta ges 2-3 m , Poisonous 6 - 9 % raw (mod.) materials 2-3 m, Limited 7,5 Indium 9,5 % supply in (mod.) nature Limited use 200 m, of this 18 % production procedure t/
IIT Bombay, C.S. Solanki
Advantages, perspectives Significant decrease in production costs possible in the future Significant decrease in production costs possible in the future
Higher efficiency, better temperature coefficient and lower thickness.
45
8/1/2008