Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
,11. T
BC2.5
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SECTION C
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
01. What are the different of water?
Ans: The different sources of water can be broadly classified as
1. Surface sources
2. Sub surface/ underground sources
1. Surface sources can be further divided as
a. Stream
b. Lakes
c. Ponds
d. ' Rivers
e. Impounded reservoirs
f. Stored rain water
2. Subsurface/underground sources can be further divided as
a. Springs
b. Infiltration galleries
c. Porous pipe galleries
D. Wells
02. Discuss stream as a surface source of water.
Ans: In mountainous region streams are formed by the run off.
The discharge in the streams is much in rainy season than in any other seasons.
Those rivers which dry up in summer and contain water only during rainfalls are
known as 'Rainy Streams'. The quality of water in streams is normally good except
the water of first run off. But sometimes run off water while flowing over grounds is
mixed with clay, sand and mineral impurities. All the suspended impurities can be
removed in settling tanks up to certain extent, but the dissolved impurities require
special treatments. The streams generally flow in valleys and are the main source
of water supply to villages of hills which are situated near them.
03. Discuss lakes as a surface source of water.
Ans: In mountains at some places natural basins are formed with impervious beds.
Water from springs and streams generally flows towards these basins and 'Lakes'
are formed. The quantity of water in the lakes depends on its basin capacity.
catchment area, annual rainfall, porosity of the ground etc. The quality of large
lakes is good than that of the small lakes: But lakes which are situated at higt
altitudes contain almost pure water which can be used without any treatment. LakE
water is available only to those towns and cities which are situated nearthem.
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04. Discuss rivers as a surface source of water.
Ans: Rivers are born in the hills, when the discharge of large number of springs and
streams combine together. In mountains the quantity of water in rivers remains
small, therefore at such places these are called as small rivers. But as the riv.er
moves forward more and more streams combine in it and it increases Its
discharge. Therefore rivers grow bigger and bigger as they move forward due to
increase in .their catchment area. Rivers are the only surface sources of water
which have maximum quantity of water which can be easily taken. In summer the
quality of river water is better than that in monsoon, because in rainy season
runoff water also carries with it clay, silt, sand etc., which make the water tUrbid.
River water should always be used after necessary treatment. Some rivers are
snow fed and perennial, and have water throughout the year; therefore they do not
require any arrangement to hold the water. But some rivers dry up wholly or partly
in summer, therefore they require special arrangements to meet the water demand
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05. Discuss ponds as a surface source of water.
t
Ans: These are depressions in plains like lakes of mountains,in which water
during rainy season. Sometimes ponds are formed when much excavation I,S done
for constructing kaccha houses in villages, embankment for road and railways,
and manufacture of bricks. Generally the quantity of water in ponds is very small
and contains large amount of impurities. The water of ponds is used for washing
clothes animals, bathing and drinking. The water of pond cannot be used for water
supply dueto its limited quantity and large amount of impurities.
06. Discuss impounded reservoirs as a surface source of water.
Ans: Mostly it is found that there is great variation the of rive: water ?uring
monsoon and summer season. The discharge.m some rivers remam suffiCient to
meet the hot weather demand, but in some rivers the flow becomes very small and
cannot meet the requirements of hot weather. In such cases it es.sential.
to store the water for summer season. The water can be stored m the fiver by
constructing a bund, a weir or a dam across the river at
minimum area of land is submerged in the water and the reservOir basm remains
cup-shaped having maximum possible depth of water.
Q7. Discuss stored rain water as a surface source of water.
Ans: At some places where neither ground water nor surface water is easily .
the only way is to store the rainwater in cisterns or tanks from roofs of bUlldmgs.
The rain water from roofs and pucca courtyards is collected in water tight tanks
with the help of channels. Water obtained in this way is extremely soft and
reasonably clean. The water stored in this way should be prevented from
contamination. The quantity of water stored in this way is limited and can never be
utilized for water supply schemes on large scale.
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08.
Discuss springs as ground water source.
Ans:
Ground water reappears at the ground surface in the form of springs. Springs
generally can supply small quantity of water, hence cannot be used as source of
water to big towns. Good developed springs can be used as water supply sources
for small hill towns. Due to presence of sulphur in certain springs, they discharge
hot water. Such hot water springs are only useful for taking dips for the cure of
certain skin disease patients. These are not useful for public water supply.
09.
Discuss porous pipe as ground water source.
Ans:
When there is large quantity of ground water existing over a wider area, it can be
cheaply col/ected by laying porous pipes or pipes with open joints in the full area at .
some distances. These longitudinal and cross pipes are given a slope such that
they bring the water towards a point, where a well is constructed to take out the
water. These porous pipes are surrounded with gravel and broken stone pieces to
increase the intake capacity.
010.
Discuss infiltration gal/eries as ground water source.
Ans:
The ground water travels towards lakes, rivers or streams. This water which is
traveling can be intercepted by digging a trench or by constructing a tunnel with
holes on sides at right angles to the direction of flow of underground water. These
underground tunnels used for trapping underground water near rivers, lakes or
streams are called 'Infiltration galleries'. Yield from these galleries may be as much
4
as 1.5 X 10 litres/day/meter length of the infiltration gallery. Galleries are
surrounded on sides and top with gravel or pebble stones to increase their intake
capacity. Longitudinal slope is given to the galleries and at the end sump well is
. constructed, from where water is pumped out.
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SECTION D
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
Discuss the suitability of surface water with regard to quantity and quality.
01.
Rainfall directly affects the quantity of surface water. As the rainfall is uniform
Ans:
throughout the year, the quantity of surface large The
discharge in rivers and streams remains In season and minimum
in summer. If the quantity of water in summer IS not sufficient to meet the demand,
it should be stored in impounded reservoirs. In hilly areas having large lakes, the
construction of artificial reservoirs is not necessary.
Surface waters mostly contains large amount of impurities in both and
dissolved form. Surface water is contaminated by the impurities while traveling ?n
the ground. The suspended impurities contain disease-producing bacteria,
therefore, surface water should not be used before treatment. and
reservoirs, the suspended impurities settle down in the bottom, .but In their beds
algae, weeds, vegetable and organic takes place, which bad
smell, taste and color in water. Therefore thiS water should also b.e after
purification. The sewage of towns and cities. situated near the IS also
discharged in the rivers, which pollute the river water up to certain length.
, Therefore while taking water for water supply purposes, intakes should always be
installed in upstream side, which is free from contamination due to Whe.n
water is stored for long time in reservoirs it should be aerated and chlOrinated to kill
the microscopic organisms which are born in water.
Q2.
Explain the development of wells.
In case of rocks the capacity of well can be !ncreased by explosion in the .wells
Ans:
which will increase the cracks and passages through which In the
wells. In the case of sandy stratum the yield can be increased by packing
around the well. In the beginning when new well is which IS
drawn contains large quantity of fine sand. These sand particles stick the
mesh of strainer pipe and will decrease the capacity of the well. ThiS choking of
strainer can be removed by the following methods.
Back washing or back blowing. In this method the water is forced in
1. '
direction by means of compressed air pressure. All the sand, clay material which IS
sticked around the strainer pipe and choked it is agitated and removed. These are
then removed by means of pumping and bailing.
Surging. In this method the sand particles are from the filter by
2.
lowering a plunger in the well and giving severe agitation of the water inside the
strainer pipe.
Gravel packing. In this method the gravel is packed the strainer pipe. First
3.
the gravel is filled between strainer pipe and outer casing of the tube well.
casing is lifted upward to the top of screen and gravel rema.ins around the strainer
pipe.
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03. What are the various classification of wells?
Ans: Depending on the method of construction, wells are classified as follows:
1. Dug wells or percolation wells
2. Tube wells
3. Driven well or percussion wells
1. Dug wells or percolation wells: Sometimes these are also known as 'Draw Wells' or
'Open Wells'. These are shallow wells which are usually confined to soft ground,
sand and gravel. The diameter of these wells may be between 1 m to 4m and depth
may be up to 20m depending on the requirement and geological structure of the
earth. Thesewells are suitable for small discharge of about 20 cu.m/hr. The walls
of these wells may be constructed with precast Ree blocks, bricks or stone
masonry. Dug wells are very cheap in construction, and very popular in rural areas
and small towns. Wells should be disinfected frequently to avoid the risk of
contamination, because these wells generally are in poor sanitary conditions.
2. Tube wells: The maximum discharge which is available from the ordinary open
wells, is between 4 to 6 liters/sec. due to their low yield open wells are useful for
small locality or private dwellings. For small localities or private estates there may
be their own source of water supply. It is not economical to install pumps in these
wells, due to their low yield. For obtaining more yield tube wells are commonly
used. These wells essentially consists of blind pipes and strainer pipes, and their
supply of water is from large number of aquifers. The depth of the tube wells may
vary from SO to SOOm. and the maximum yield from the tube well may be about
200Iiters/sec. The yield of the average tube well is about SOIiters/sec.
3. Driven wells or percussion well: This is a shallow well constructed by driving a
casing pipe of 2.S cm to 1Scm in diameter. The lower portion of casing pipe which is
driven in the water bearing stratum is perforated. The bottom end of casing pipe is
pOinted known as drive point or well point. The perforated portion of the pipe is
covered with fine wire gauge to prevent the passage of soil and sand particles
insidethe well. The discharge of these wells is very small and these are suitable for
domestic purpose only. These pipes may be up to 12m deep; after this depth the
water can be taken out by means of pumps.
04. Discuss the suitability of ground water source with regard to quantity and quality.
Ans: Ground water ,is the waterwhich percOlates in the ground after rainfall. Therefore
the quantity of ground water directly depends on the rainfall. As the rainfall is not
uniformly spread throughout the year, the quantity of ground water varies
throughout the year. In monsoon or rainy season yield will be maximum and in
summer it will be minimum. The quantity of ground water also depends on the
underground storage and geological formation of pervious and impervious
stratums and the type of source of water. The yield from springs will be minimum.
The yield of water from shallow wells will depend on the depth of water bearing
stratum and its catchment area, but it is usually less and temporary which
decreases in dry weather. The quantity of water from deep wells and tube wells is
much more, because water is trapped from several acquifers into these wells.
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Therefore supplies of tube wells and deep wells are constant and more reliable
than shallow wells and springs. If we compare the quantity of ground water with
surface water, the more quantity is available from surface sources.
The quality of ground water is much better than surface water, because surface
water contains large amount of suspended impurities, whereas ground water is
free from it. But sometimes ground water dissolves minerals, salts etc which come
in its cOr;ltact while in movement. The strainer action of soil also removes large
quantity of bacteria. Therefore ground water is mostly free from bacteria but may
be soft or hard depending on the dissolved impurities. Overall ground water is
good in quality but requires some treatment to remove dissolved impurities and to
improve its chemical characteristics.
Q5. What are the factors which governs the final choice of the source of water supply?
Ans: The choice of source of water supply to a town or city depends on the following
factors:
1. Location: The source of water should be as near to the town as possible. If there
are both surface and ground sources available to the town the selection will be
decided by considering other factors also. If there is no river, stream or reservoirs,
the city will have to depend on ground source of water only because there is no
other alternative.
2. Quantity of water: The source of water should have sufficient quantity of water to
meet up all the demands of city such as domestic, industrial, fire fighting, public
etc. throughout the year. There should be sufficient extra quantity of water to be
required in while expansion of city.is done. Source of water should beable to
meet the maximum demand in dry weather also.
3. Quality of water: The quality of water should be good which can be 'easily and
cheaply treated. It should not contain disease germs or other pathogenic bacteria
which may endanger the health of the public. Therefore as far as possible the
water of the source should be wholesome, safe and free from pollution.
4. Cost: The cost of water supply scheme depends on many factors as system of
supply, ground levels of city, distance between source and distribution system etc.
If the water flows under the gravitational force it will be cheap, but if it is to be
pumped it will be costly. Similarly the cost will directly depend on the distance
between the source ofwater and city, if the distance is more it will be costly.
The selection is done based on the above points and the source which will give
good quality and the quantity at less cost will be selected.
Q6. What are intakes? Mention the points which should be taken into consideration in
deciding the location and design of an intake for the water supply?
Ans: Intakes are structures which consists of opening, grating or strainerthrough which
the raw water from river, canal or reservoir enters and is cacried to a sump well by
means of conduits. Waterfrom the sump is pumped through the rising mains to the
treatment plant. The main function of intake works is to collect the water from the
surface source and then discharge water so collected, by means of pumps or
directly to the treatment plants.
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Points to be kept in mind while selecting site for intake works:
1. The best of water should be available at the site so that it can be a '1
and economically purified. .. e Sl y
2. For the of the intake structures there should not be heavy current of
water at the site. . .
3. !he site should such that intake can draw sufficient quantity of water even
In the worst condition, when the diScharge of the source is minimum.
4. The site should be easiiy approachable obstruction.
5. A;' far as pOssible the site should be near the treatment works, it will reduce the
cunveyance cost from the source to the water works.
6. At the site sufficient quantity should be available for the future expansion of the
water works.
7. A.s far as possiblethe intake should not be located in the vicinity ofthe pOint of
disposal If at all it becomes necessary due to unavoidable reasons
to locate Intakes In the close proximity of the sewage disposal, a weir should
be upstream of the disposal point, and the intake should be
located In the upstream side of the weir.
Q7.
What are different types of intakes?
Ans:
Depending on the source of water the intake works are classified as follows:
1. Lake intake
2. River intake
3. Reservoir intake
4, Canal intake
1. Lake intake: .For obtaining water from lakes mostly submersible intakes are
used. These Intakes are in the bed of the lake below the low water
level as to draw In season also. It consists of a pipe laid in the bed
of fiver. One en? which IS In the middle of the lake is fitted with bell mouth
opening wlth.a mesh and protected by timber or concrete crib. The
. enters In the pipe through the bell mouth opening and flows under
gravity to the bank where it is collected in a sump well and then pumped to the
treatn:ent plants necessary treatment. The advantages of this intake is
there IS no to the navigation, no danger from floating bodies and no
trouble due to Ice.
= _ tClA'!..E
TO INLET PIPE
Lake intake
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.--.. - - ..--..
........,..... ......-. -.
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PFNSTOCJ(S
WITH SCREENS
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2. River Water from river is always drawn from the upstream side,
because it is free from the contamination caused by the disposal of sewage in
it. These intake are circular masonry tower of 4 to 7 m in diameter constructed
along the bank of the river at such place from where required quantity of water
can be obtained even in the dry period. The water enters in the lower portion of
the intake known as sump well from penstocks. The penstocks are fitted with
screens to check the entry of floating solids and are placed on the downstream
side so that water free from suspended solids only enter the well. The water
from sump well is pumped to the water works by pumps in the
upstream portion of the intake.
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TO WATER WORKS
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3. Reservoir intake: There is large variation in the discharge of all the rivers
during monsoon and summer. Water in some rivers remain suffiCient to meet
up the demand, but some rivers dry up partly or fully and cannot meet the hot
weather demand. In such cases reservoirs are constructed by constructing
weirs or dams across the rivers. These are mostly used to draw water from
earthen dam reservoir, These consists qf an intake tower constructed on the
slope of the dam at such place from where intake can draw sufficient quantity
of water even in the driest period. Intake pipes are fixed at different levels, so
as to draw water near the surface in all variations of water level. These all inlet
pipes are connected to one vertical pipe inside the intake welt. Screens are
provided at the mouth of all intake pipes to prevent the entry of suspended
matter. The water from the well is taken to the other side of the dam by means
of an outlet pipe. At the top of the intake tower sluice valve are provided to
control the flow of water.
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River Intake
Reservoir intake
4. Canal intake: Canal intake is a very simple structure constructed on the bank.
It consist of a pipe placed in a brick masonry chamber constructed partly in the .
canal bank. On one side of the chamber an opening is provided with coarse
screens for the entrance of water. The end of the pipe inside the chamber is
provided with a bell mouth fitted with a hemispherical fine screen. The outlet
pipe carries the water to the other side of the canal bank from where it is taken
to the treatment plants. One sluice valve which is operated by a wheel from the
top of the masonry chamber is provided to control the flow of water in the pipe.
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Canal intake
08.
What are the requirements of good distribution system?
Ans:
Requirements of good distribution system:
1. It should convey the treated water up to the consumers with the same degree
of purity ..
2. The water should reach the consumer with the required pressure head.
3. Sufficient quantity of treated water should reach for the domestic and
industrial use.
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4. The distribotion system should be economical and easy to maintain and
operate
5. It should be able to transport sufficient quantity of water during emergency
such as fire fighting.
6. It should be reliable so that even during breakdown or repairs of one linewater
should reach that locality from other line.
7. It should not cause obstruction to traffic during repair work.
8. It should be safe against any future pollution.
9. The quality ofthe pipe should be good and it should not burst.
10. It should be water tight and the water losses due to leakage should be
minimum as far as possible.
Discuss the methods of distribution system of water.
Q9.
For efficient distribution the water should reach to every consumer with required
Ans:
rate of flow. Depending upon the methods of distribution, the distribution system is
classified as follows:
1. Gravity system
2. Pumping system
3. Dual system or combined gravity and pumping system.
1. Gravity system: When some ground sufficiently high above the city area is
available this can be best utilized for the distribution system in maintaining
pre9sure in water pipes. This method is suitable when source of supply such
as lake, river or reservoir is at sufficient height than city. The water flows in the
mains due to gravitational force. As no pumping is required it is the most
reliable system.
2. Pumping system: in this system water is directly pumped in the mains. Since
the pumps have to work at different rates in a day, the maintenance cost
increases. It is preferred to have number of pumps and only the required
numbers may work at various times to meet the demand, in place of providing
pumps of variable speed. If the power fails, the whole supply of the town will be .
stopped. During fires the water can be pumped in the required quantity by the
stand by units also. is not preferred than other systems.
3. Dual system: This is also known as combined gravity and pumping system.
The pump is connected to the mains as well as to an elevated reservoir. In the
beginning when the demand is small the water is stored in the elevated
reservoir, but when demand increases the flow in the distribution system
comes from both the pumping station as well as elevated reservoir. As this
system has two sources, one from reservoir and the second from pumping
station it is called dual system. This system is more reliable and economical
because it requires uniform rate of pumping but meets low as well as
maximum demand.
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Q10. Discuss the layout of distribution system.
Ans: Depending upon their layout and direction of supply distribution system are
classified as follows:
1. Dead end or Tree system
2. Grid iron system
3. Circular or ring system
4. Radial system
1. Dead end system: It is suitable for irregular developed towns and cities. In this
one main starts from service reservoir along the main road. Sub mains are
connected to the mains in both the directions along other roads which meet
the main road. In street, lanes and other small roads which meet the roads
carrying sub-mains, branches and minor distributors are laid and are
connected to sub-mains. From these branches service connections are made
to This system is cheap in initial cost and easy
of pipe diameters, valve size etc. disadvantage is that due to the
!ormatlon of dead ends stagnation of water takes place, if pipe breaks down or
IS closed for repair the whole locality beyond that point goes without water
because water is reaching at each point from one side only, it cannot meet the
fire demand, nor supply can be increased or diverted from other points.
2. Grid iron system: This is also known as reticulated system and is used for
towns having rectangular layout of roads. This is improvement over dead end
system, all the dead ends are interconnected with each other and water
freely out the system. Main line is laid along the main road,
sub-mainS are taken In both the directions along other minor roads and
streets. From these sub-mains branches are taken out and are
interconnected. All disadvantages of dead end system are eliminated. More
of valves and longer length of pipe is required in this system, thereby
increasing the overall cost. .
3. or Ring system: This is adopted only in well planned locality of cities.
In this each locality is divided into square or circular blocks and the water
mains are laid around all the four sides of the square or round the circle. The
branches, sub-mains etc. are laid along the inner roads. All the sub-mains and
branches are taken off from the boundary mains and are interconnected. In
this way every point receives its supply from two directions. This is the best of
the .other but it requires many valves and more pipe length, but
deSign of this system is easier. The advantages and disadvantages of this
system are also the same that of grid iron system.
4. Radial In this system the roads should be laid out radially from a
center. In this system water flows towards outer periphery from one point. The
entire area is divided into various zones and one reservoir is provided for each
zone,. whic.h is placed i.n the center of the zone. The water lines are laid radially
from It. ThiS system gives very quick and satisfactory water supply and also
the calculation of pipe sizes is very easy. .
. 94 BC2.5
What are the functions of distribution reservoirs?
011.
The main functions of the storage and distribution reservoirs are:
Ans:
1. To store the treated water till it is distributed to the city.
2. To absorb the hourly variation in the water demand, and thus allowing the
treatment units and pumps to work at the average constant rate
3. To maintain the constant pressure in the distribution main, because when the
pressure in the pipe lines decreases due to increase in demand at peak hours,
the extra demand of water is fed by these reservoirs, and the pumps continue
their work at constant speed.
4. Distribution reservoirs lead to an overall economy by reducing the sizes of
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pumps, pipe lines and treatment units.
5. By providing distribution reservoirs, the pumping of water in shifts is possible,
because treated water will continuously flow in these reservoirs.
What are the different types of distribution reservoirs?
012.
The following types of reservoirs are:
Ans:
1 . Earth reservoirs
2. Masonry and RCC reservoirs
3. Elevated reservoirs
a. Stand pipes
b. Elevated tanks
1. Earth reservoirs: These reservoirs are used when large quantity of water is ti
be stored before the treatment. These are constructed by excavating to the
required depth below the ground surface and the excavated earth is used for
the embankment construction to the required height above the ground. Core
wall may be constructed to make the earthen reservoir impermeable. The
embankment should be keyed down to the bottom. Out let pipes may be
provided in the embankment walls at various places to minimiie seepage of
water. To prevent the loss of water and leakage, the sides and the bottom of
the reservoirs should be properly lined with bricks, stones, asphalts or cement
concrete etc.
2. Masonry or RCC ( underground) reservoir: These are constructed on high
natural grounds. It is made of bricks, stones, plain or RCC. While designing
ground water table is kept in mind and the side walls should be able to take up
the pressure of water, when the reservoir is full, and the earth pressure when it
is empty. The floors are constructed with RCC slab and bituminous
compounds may be used at all construction joints for water tightness.
3. Elevated Reservoirs: Generally two types of elevated reservoirs are used
a. Stand pipe: These are generally made of RCC or steel and are circular in
. plan. These are up to 12m in height. If it is possible to locate the stand
pipe on a hill or high ground then its entire capacity can be made use of
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successfully. Its. main function is increase pressure on the distribution
by creattng extra storage In the tank above the elevation required
give.the necessary pressure for distribution. These are provided with
single Inlet outlet pipes terminating at the lower elevation of the
useful capacity of the tank, scour or drain-pipe to drain out and flush th
tank and the overflow pipe to discharge surplus water. e
b. are popular because they have long life require
very maintenance and give good appearance in the The
tank IS with inlet, outlet, overflow and scour or drain pipes A
depth level Indlcato.r with a float arrangement is provided to measure the
depth of the water the About 60 to 100 cm balcony is provided
around the tank for and maintenance ofthe tank and step-iron
steel ladder also .fixed tn the inner walls of the tank. The tank is
and IS prQvlded with a manhole and ventilating pipe and
lightening conductors. These are used to store large quantity of water.
013. Discuss how the storage capacity of a distribution reservoir is determined by mass
curve method.
Ans: Capacity of.the reservoir is determined by the principle of mass diagram A
shOWing the rate of demand is drawn with time as abscissa and the
o emand as ordtnate. This is represented by the line P. if the
of the P are JOined by a straight line marked 0, then the line 0 represents
e diagram of pumping into the tank and its slope represents the rate of
pumping.
Mass Curve
From graph it be observed that the tank is full at the point a and empty at
the b, so that ItS tangents are drawn at points a and b parallel to the line 0 the
veftrthlcabl tnl bc on the scale would represent the required capacity of
o e a anclng tank.
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SECTION C
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
01. What are the requirements of a good water meter?
Ans: Requirements of a good water meter are as follows:
1. It mustrecord the entire water passing through it.
2. Its maintenance and repair should be easy
3. It should work efficiently at all pressures in the mains
4. It should cause minimum hinderance to the flow and therefore cause minimum
head loss in its working
5. Its parts should not be easily affected by the chemicals present in the water
passing through it
6. It should prevent the back flow passing through it and should not be liable to
clogging
7. It should measure the discharge within the maximum limit of 20% error.
02. Enumerate differenttypes of water meter with exa mple.
Ans: Mainly there are two types of water meters
1. The velocity meters orthe Inferential meters
The various types of inferential meters are rotary meters, turbine meters, and
venturi meters.
2. The positive meters or the Displacement meters
The various types of displacement meters are reciprocating type, oscillating
type, disc type etc.
03. Discuss velocity meters.
Ans:. Velocity meters basically measures the horizontal velocity of water flowing through
them. This measured velocity when multiplied by the area of flow cross section,
will give the discharge through the meter. Automatic arrangements are then made
to record the integrated discharge over a period of time. They are used for
measuring high flows and are used in industries, and water works. Not used for
measuring small domestic supplies. The various types of inferential meters are
rotary meters; turbine meters, and venturi meters.
The rotary meter consists of radial vanes attached to the shaft, and enclosed in a
casing. When the water passes through the meter the radial vanes are rotated in
clockwise direction, which revolve the shaft. The number of revolution per unit
time, made by shaft depends upon the velocity of flow. The velocity of flow and
therefore, the discharge is thus proportional to the speed of the shaft. The meter is
calibrated to directly read the discharge.
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103
Turbine meter is similar to rotary meter, and consists of a turbine wheel which is
rotated by the moving water. The number of revolutions made by the turbine wheel
will give the discharge as in rotary meters.
Venturi meter is based on the principle of Bernoulli's equation. It is used for
measuring raw waters and high flows in large pipes with a nominal head loss.
04. Discuss displacement meters.
Ans: These meters are accurate because they measure the quantity of passing water
by counting the number of times the meter chamber is filled and emptied. The
capacity of the meter chamber when multiplied by the number of times it is filled
and emptied will directly give the quantity of flow over the given period of time. The
various types of displacement meters are reciprocating type, OSCillating type, disc
type etc. A disc meters are most commonly used for measuring small flows in
residential houses. It consists of a disc placed inside a chamber, provided with an
inlet and outlet. The water when enters the chamber, oscillates the disc about its
center with a spiral motion. One complete filling and emptying of the chamber
gives one revolution to the train of gears, and the meter thus record the volume of
the water passing through it. These are available in different sizes 16 to 150mm in
diameter with safe operating capacities of 90 to 4500 liters per min'ute
respectively.
05. Name the different types of pressure pipes.
Ans: The different types of pressure pipes are:
1. Cast iron pipes
2. Steel pipes
3. Reinforced cement concrete pipes
4. Hume steel pipes
5. Vitrified clay pipes
6. Asbestos cement pipes
7. Miscellaneous types of pipes
06. What are cast iron pipes discuss its advantages and disadvantages?
Ans: Cast iron pipes are used in water supply schemes. They are highly resistant to
corrosion and have long life of about 100 years. They are manufactured from best
grey pig iron. They are manufactured in lengths of 2.50m to 5.50m. The fitting are
also weighed, coated with tar coal and finally tested. They are joined together by
means of Bell and Spigot, threaded or flanged joints. These pipes have the
advantages of easy jointing withstanding high internal pressure, long life and less
corrosion. But these are very heavy and difficult to transport, because due to
104 BC2.5
;
07.
Ans:
08.
Ans:
brittleness they break or crack easily. Therefore more suitable as distribution
pipes.
Explain socket and spigot joint.
This is also known as Bell and spigot joint. These are used to join cast iron pipes.
The cast iron pipes are made in such a way that their one end is enlarged whereas
the other end is normal. The enlarged end is called 'socket' or 'Bell' while the
normal end is called 'spigot'. The spigot is fitted into the socket with few strands of
jute wrapped around spigot. The remaining space between the socket and spigot
is finally filled with molten lead, which gets solidified and tightly caulked into the
joint after cooling and thus making a water tight joint. These joints are some what
flexible and allows the pipe to be laid on flat curves without the use of specials.
Skilled labour is required for these joints.
Bell or Socket
lead
-- --..:..-- --, -
Socket and spigot joint
Explain Flanged joint.
These are used for pumping stations, filter and at other locations where it
may be necessary to occasionally disjoint the pipe. Cast iron pipe lengths to be
joined by this joint are cast in such a way as to have flanges at both ends. In case of
steel pipes to be joined by such joints, flanges are separately cast and then
screwed down or welded at both the ends of the respective pipe lengths. Two
flanges are brought together, keeping a rubber washer ( gasket) in between them
so as to make them water tight. They are then fixed by means of nuts and bolts.
These joints are strong but rigid, and hence cannot be used where deflections or
vibrations are expected. They are expansive and mostly used for indoor works.
BC2.5
105
, j
RUBBER WASHER
(GASKEn
----,--
FLANGES
Flanged joint
09. Explain the expansion joint.
Ans: Expansion joints are provided ,at suitable intervals in the pipe lines so as to
the st:esses produced due to temperature For
jOints In cast iron pipes, the socket end is cast flanged and the
IS plain. The s?cket end is connected rigidly to an annular ring which can
slide easily over the end. While making this Joint a small space is kept
the face of the spigot and the inner face of the socket, and the spigot is
filled up by means of a rubber gasket. The flanges are then tightened by means of
and bolts. When pipes expand, the socket end moves forward and the gap
left gets closed. when the pipes contract the socket moves backward
gap. All the time, the annular ring follows the movements of the socket
and maintains the gasket in position, thus keeping the joint watertight.
C.\.Fol\ower
ring
Rubber
gasket
Expansion joint
106 BC2,5
I
About 7Scm
l""' '1
.
Municipal
street water
8 O : : 8 ~ V
010. Explain the flexible joint.
These joints are used where large scale flexibilities a r ~ required, when pipes are
Ans:
laid in rivers with uneven beds, large scale settlements may break the ordinary
type of joint, while laying pipes on curves etc. the pipes to be provided with such a
joint are cast with special types of ends. The socket is spherical; and the spigot,
though plain, is having a bead at the end. A retainer ring is placed over the bead
which keeps the special rubber gasket in position. A split cast iron "gland" ring is
then placed over it. They are then tightened by means of nuts and bolts. The spigot
end can be moved to give away the desired deflection and nuts are tightened over
thegland ring.
Sphereol
socket end
I Gasket Of Duck
LReta,ner ring
Flexible joint
BC2.5
107
"l
SECTION D
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
01. Explain with a neat sketch as to how municipal water mains are connected to
private buildings and houses for giving water supply connections.
Ans: A typical water connection, connecting the servi,ce pipe with the municipal water
mains is as shown
Street /Road
house
mllin (SECTiON)
~
~
Gooseneck pipe
(usually of lead)
I
I
I
I
.j
The water connection
The water connection consists of 1 ) Ferrule, 2) a goose neck, 3) a service pipe, 4)a
stop cock and 5) a water meter.
1. Ferrule: a ferrule is a right angled sleeve made of brass or gun metal and is joined
to a hole drilled in the water mains, to which it is screwed down with a plug. Its size
usually varies between 10 to 50 mm diameter. For all other connections of more
tha n 50mm a tee branch connection, off the water mains, is used.
2. Goose neck: Goose neck is a small sized curved pipe made of a flexible material (
usually lead) and is about 75 cm in length forming a flexible connection between
the water mains and the service pipe.
3. Service pipe: Service pipe is a galvanized iron pipe of less than 50mm diameter. It
should be laid underground in a trench in which no sewer or drainage pipe is laid.
The service pipe which supplies water to the building through the municipal main is
thus connected to the main through the goose neck and ferrule.
4. Stop cock: The stop cock is provided before the water enters the water meter in the
house. It is housed in a suitable masonry chamber with ,a removable cover, and is
108 BC2.5
fixed in the street close to the boundary wall in an accessible position. Sometimes
it is provided just before the water meter inside the house, keeping both of them in
one chamber.
5. Water meter: It measures and records the quantity of water consumed in the
house. The domestic type water meter generally employedfor houses is fitted into
the service pipe with unions; which enables the meter to be changed where
necessary. The meter is fixed in an iron box fitted in an opening or cavity made in
the boundarywa" ofthe house, and is covered with a movable iron cover.
02. Discuss Ree pipes and their advantages and disadvantages.
Ans: Ree pipes are generally made from 1 :2:2 cement concrete with maximum size of
aggregates as 6 mm. They are provided with circumferential reinforcement to
carry hoop tension and a nominal longitudinal reinforcement equal to 0.25% ofthe
gross cross sectional area of concrete. Their thickness varies from 2. 5cm to 6.5 cm
for pipes of diameters varying from 0.1 m to 1.2m. These pipes are joined by
placing the protruding end bars of different lengths butting against one another and
welding them and finally filling the gap with rich cement concrete so as to provide a
watertight joint.
Advantages are:
1. They can resist external compressive loads and do not collapse under
nominal vacuums and traffic loads.
2. They are not corroded by normal potable water and soils.
3. They are quite strong and the useful life is 75 years or so.
4. They are easy to construct either at site or at factories and with local
ingredients.
5. The coefficient of expansion being low, expansion joints may not be needed
when laid above the ground
6. If laid under water the empty pipes do not float because of their heavy weights.
Disadvantages are:
1. They are likely to corrode by ground waters due to the presence of acids,
alkalis or sulphur compounds.
2. They are difficult to be repaired
3. They cannot withstand very high pressures.
4. They are heavy and bulky, and hence difficult to transport.
5. Making of connections in them is a little difficult job
6. Theytendto leaks due to shrinkage cracks and porosity.
03. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of asbestos pipes.
Ans: Advantages of asbestos pipes:
1. They are light and hence easy to transport
109 BC2.5
2. They can be easily assembled without skilled labour
3. They are highly flexible and may permit as much as 12 degree deflection in
laying them around curves
4. Expansionjoints are not required as the coefficient of expansion is low and the
joints are also flexible
5. They are very smooth and are hydraulically efficient pipes. Their carrying
capacity do not reduce with time
6. They are suitable for small size distribution pipes.
Disadvantages of asbestos pipes:
1. They are costly.
2. These pipes do not have much strength and are brittle and soft. They are liable
to get damaged by excavating tools or during transportation transit.
3. The rubber joint seal may deteriorate if exposed to gasoline or other petroleum
products, and hence cannot be used for transporting petroleum products.
04. Write short note on steel pipes.
Ans: Steel pipes are occasionally used for main line and at such places where
pressures are high and pipe diameter is more. These are more strong, have light
weight and can withstand high pressure than cast iron pipes. They are cheap,easy
to construct and can be easily transported. The disadvantage of these pipes is that
they cannot withstand external loads. If partial vacuum is created by emptying a
pipe rapidly, the pipe may be collapsed or distorted. These are affected by
corrosion and are costly to maintain. The life of these pipes is 25 to 50 years. These
are not used in distribution system, owing to the difficulty in making connections.
The joints are made by welding or riveting. Longitudinal lap joints are made in
riveted steel pipes up to 120 cm diameter. In case thickness of steel plate exceeds
15.87mm butt jOints are provided. If the diameter of the pipe is very large, two
longitudinal seams may be provided. Welded steel pipes can be used for large
diameters up to 2.43m or even more. .
05.
Name various types of sanitary fittings.
Ans:
In buildings various types of sanitary fittings are required to collect the waste water.
These all fittings can be broadly classified as:
A. Ablution fittings
1. Wash basins
2. Sinks
3. Bathtubs
4. Flushing cisterns
5. Drinking fountains
110
BC2.5
B. Soil Fittings
1. Water closets
2. Urinals
3. Slop sinks
Q6. Write short note on wash basins.
Wash basins or lavatory basin is made of white glazed earthen ware, enameled
Ans:
iron etc. these are of two types- the Flat Back and the Angled Back. Wash basins
are either fixed on brackets secured into the wall or on pedestals rising from the
floor.
\:
11
I
Wash basin ( Flat back)
As shown the flat back has an oval shaped bowl with a usual capacity of 5 liters up
to the overflow, and a waste pipe of 32mm bore with a trap in the center. The a s t ~
. opening is protected by a metallic strainer. The overflow may be of an open weir
type with a removable grating or ofthe slot type as shown in fig. there are two inlets,
one for cold water usually on the right side of the user facing the fixture and the
other for hot water. These inlets are controlled by chromium- plated pillar taps. The
wash when fixed has a height of 75 to 80 cm.
Q7.
With the help of a neat sketch describe flushing cisterns.
This is an appliance used for flushing out water closets, urinals etc. These are of
Ans:
two types- the valveless siphonic type and the valve fitted siphonic type. The
former is preferred and used in practice.
BC2.5
111
CIIAIII
1
j
DYEHRIJIf
PIPf'
U
I'QI.I.
Flushing cistern ( Bell type)
The Bell type flushing cistern is a valve-less siphonic type. It consist of cistern
made of a cast iron or pressed steel, having a suitable cover with a sump formed in
the center through which the flush pipe of 32mm bore passes. The flush pipe's
upper end is projected little above the maximum water level in the cistern, while its
lower end discharges into the W.C. pan. The flush pipe is covered up in the cistern
by a C.I. bell to the top of which a lever arm with a chain is attached. On pulling the
chain the bell is lifted and on releasing it, it is lowered to its original position. Due to
the movement the water enclosed is spilled over the top of the flushing pipe,
causing siphonic action and thereby emptying the entire. contents of the cisterns.
Water now enters the cistern I the flow being controlled by a ball valve arrangement
operated by a float. An overflow pipe is provided as an additional safeguard
against overflowing in case the ball valve arrangement ceases to function.
Q8. What are traps, discuss differenttypes of traps?
Ans: Traps are fittings placed in drainage pipes, which prevent the passage of foul air or
gases through drains, waste or soil pipes and thus prevent their entry into the
interior of houses or buildings.
Traps may be classified in two ways:
A. According to their shape as
1. P-trap
2. Q-trap
3. S-trap
112 BC2.5
P-THA!1
Q-TtAP
Traps according to shape
B. According to their use:
Intercepting trap
1. Floor trap
1. Floor traps: These are used for admitting waste water from floors of baths and
2. GullyTrap
kitchens. These are provided with cast iron grating at top to exclude coarse solid
3. Intercepting trap
matter, so as to prevent it from passing into the drain along with the waste water
'I
II and thereby cause blockade. A form of floor trap much used in practice is the Nahni
!
CAST/RON
trap.
GRATING
2. Gully trap: These are used for reception of suI/age from baths, sinks and wash
basins as well as rain or surface water from house tops and back yards. The waste
pipes or the rain waste pipes, discharging into drains, are seldom connected to
them without such interception. Gully trap may have P- trap or S-trap. The water
seal is 50 to 75mm deep. The upper section ofthe trap is covered by a C.1. grating
to exclude coarse or solid matter.
3. Intercepting traps or Interceptors: These are used at the junction of the house
drain and the house sewer with the primary object of preventing the foul gases in
the public sewer from entering the house drainage system. These gases are led off
through ventilating columns which are provided at the head of every branch sewer
and at key position in the sewerage systems. The trap has an opening at the top
called the 'cleaning eye' or 'rodding arm' and has a tight fitting plug. This enables
the trap to be periodically cleaned of any obstruction present inside. The water seal
is 75mm deep.
09. Write short note on sinks and urinals.
BAI;K
INtH Ans: Sinks: It is rectangular receptacle used in kitchen or laboratory for draining off
- water. It. is commonly made of glazed earthen ware. Usual size is
60cm*45cm*25cm. the sink is provided with a wooden draining board fixed on the
right of the user. It should be so located as to directly receive light through the
. window. The heightfrom the floor to the top edge of the sink is about 90cm.
Urinals; These are usually of two types- the Bowl type and the Slab or Stall type.
The bowl type has a lipped basin with flushing rim while the slab or stall type
comprises of flat wall slab with partitions on sides and floor channel to drain off the
114 BC2.5
BC2.5
.-.. _-_.__.- - ..
CItOWNWEIK
. WATER
SEAt..
. (!WM
':elJJf i}/CAlJl1 r-----.,.....-
-....
..---.. - ~ - - ~ - . - - - - - - . -
Floor trap
Gully trap
113 i
discharge through a trapped outlet. Both the types are flushed through siphonic
type offlushing cisterns; in the bowl type the cistern may be hand operated and of 5
liters capacity while in the stall type, an automatic flushing cistern with a capacity of
10 to 15 liters feeds a range of three or more stall urinals. .
Q10. What are the principle governing the design of water supply in building?
Ans: The principle governing the designof water supply in buildings are
1. There should be absolutely no risk involved in the contaminating of water supply
for domestic purposes. In order to ensure this three things are necessary
a. There should not be any cross connection anywhere between a pipe
containing potable water and pipe containing used or polluted water
b. There should be no back flow from any cistern or appliance towards the
source of supply. An adequate air gap, at least 15cm between the outlet end of
the supply pipe discharging water into the cistern and its Hood level rim
effectively prevents any occurrence of back flow
c. The water supply and the drainage pipes should not be laid very close to each
other.
The pipes and fittings should be thoroughly water-tight in order to protect the
building against possible damage due to leakage. Water tightness of joints
ensures minimum wastage of water and risk of contamination is also considerably
reduced
The pipe work should be amply protected against any possible damage. When laid
underground, as in the case of service pipe, it should have an earth cover of at
least 60cm, when laid above the ground or in exposed situations, it should run
clear of the wall with a clearance of 2.5 cm and when crossing wall or floor it should
be contained in suitable sleeves for entire length.
Water supply pipes should carry water inside building under adequate pressure in
the water main. However, where available pressure are insufficient i3nd it becomes
necessary to pump water, as in the case of multi-storeyed buildings separate
storage tanks may be used for providing necessary suction lift. The booster pumps
if used, should not be allowed in the service pipe as its suction lift decreases
pressure of water supply to the adjoining building.
115 BC2.5
"1
SECTION E
OVERVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What do you understand by intermittent and continuous water supply system?
2. Give the function of sluice valve in water supply line.
3. Differentiate between air relief and pressure relief valves.
4. Give the necessity of wrought iron main in water supply.
5. What is the use of ferrule and goose neck?
6. Give the necessity oftraps.
7. Where will you recommend gully trap?
8. What is the depth of seal in the trap?
9. What are the causes of breakage of seal in the trap?
10. Where will you use floor trap and intercepting trap?
116
BC2.5
SECTION B
TRUE FALSE TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Turbidity is a measure of the resistance of water to the passage of light through it
2. Turbidity rod is used to measure the turbidity in laboratory
3. The quantity of water passing per hour per unit horizontal area is known as the
surface loading
4. The main disadvantage of alum is that it is difficult to dewater the sludge formed
5. Filtration is the most important operation in the water purification process
6. The aim of disinfection is to kill all the microorganisms in water
7. The pH of water to be treated should be maintained at less than 7 to prevent great
. ionization of HOCI
8. The effective sterilizing compound HOCI is formed in greater quantities of low pH
than at high pH
9. The permanenthardness is also known as non carbonate hardness
10. The physical test carried on water include temperature, color, turbidity, taste and
odor
11. Taste and color is due to calcium, manganese, iron oxide and chlorides of sodium
12. Presence of calcium and magnesium in water causes hardness
13. Fungi grows in absence of sunlight
14. Algae grows in presence of sunlight
15. When pH is less than optimum the flocs formed by alum disappear
16. The coefficient of uniformity for rapid sand filter is less as compared to slow sand
filters
17. The yield of rapid sand filter is 30 times than that of slow sand filter
18. Disinfection involves removal of facultative bacteria
19. The permissible a mount of residual chlorine is 0.2 ppm
20. Zeolite process is suitable for iron and manganese removal
Answer key
1. T 2. F I 3. T I 4. T I 5. T 6. F I 7. T I 8. T 19.1i
To
.1l
II. T 12. T !13. T 114. T r ~ -T-+-16-.-Tt17 Ti 18 T \19. T!20. F I
123 BC2.5
SECTION C
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
01.
Enumerate the various methods which are adopted for treating public water
supplies drawn from a perennial river.
Ans:
The various methods or the techniques which may be adopted for purifying the
public water supplies are:
a. Screening
b. Plain sedimentation
c. Sedimentation aided with coagulation
d. Filtration
e. Disinfection
f. Aeration
g. Softening
h. Miscellaneous treatments, such as fluoridation, recarbonation liming,
desalination, etc.
02. Explain the principle of sedimentation.
Ans:
Most of the suspended impurities present in water have a specific gravity greater
than that of water. In stillwater, these impurities will, therefore, tend to settle down
under the gravity, although in normal raw supplies, they remain in suspension,
because of the turbulence in water. Hence as soon as the turbulence is retarded by
offering. storage to the water, these impurities tend to settle down at the bottom of
the tank, offering such storage. This is the principle of sedimentation. The basin in
which the flow is retarded is called the settling tank or sedimentation tank or
sedimentation basin or clarifier, and the theoretical average time for which the
water is detained in the tank is called the detention time.
03.
What are the factors which affect the settling of particles in sedimentation tank?
Ans:
The factor which affect the settling of particles in the sedimentation basin are:
1. The velocity of flow which carries the particle horizontally. The greater the flow
area, the lesser the velocity, and hence more easily the particle will settle
down
2. The viscosity of water in which the particle is traveling. The viscosity varies
inversely with temperature. Warm water is less viscous and therefore offers
less resistance to the settlement. However the temperature of water cannot be
controlled to any appreciable extent in 'water purification processes' and
hence this factor is generally ignored.
3. The size shape and specific gravity of the particle. The greater is the specific
gravity, more readily the particle will settle. The size and shape of the particle
also affect the settling rate. Very small particles will settle very slowly.
124
BC2.5
Q4. Why turbidity in water is considered objectionable?
Ans: If large amount of suspended matter such as clay, silt or some other finely divided
organic materials are present in water, the water will appear to be muddy, cloudy or
turbid in appearance. The turbidity depends upon the fineness and concentration
of particles present in water. Although the clay or other inert suspended particles
may not be harmful to health yet they are to be removed or reduced for aesthetic
and psychological reasons.
Q5. . Enumerate the factors affecting the dose of coagulant.
Ans: The dose of coagulant depends on following factors:
1. Turbidity of water
2. Color of water
3. pH value of water
4. Temperature of water
5. Time of settlement
Q6. What is the importance underlining the determination of total solids in a water
sample?
Ans: . Total solids are considered to be the sum of dissolved and suspended solids. In
water sources the dissolved solids which usually predominates consists mainly of
inorganic salts small amount of organic matter and dissolved gases. The
suspended solids contain. much of the organic matter any increase thereof tends to
increase the degree of pollution in water. The amount of total solids upto 500 mgll
in water generally makes it suitable for domestic use. Waters with higher content
upto 1000mgll are also acceptable, they sometimes lead to produce some
psychological effect on the human system unless its get adopted after some use.
Q7. What do you understand by sedimentation with coagulation? Name some
common coagulants.
Ans: The process of adding chemicals to water in order to form floc ( insolt,.lble
gelatinous substance) for quick sedimentation and rapid removal of fine particles
is called sedimentation with coagulation. If water contains large quantities of very .
fine and light colloidal impurities whose hydraulic settling value is very small, it is
practically very difficult to eliminate them by plain sedimentation with in a
reasonable short period' of detention. This is done by adding a desired amount of
chemical compounds to water. Then this is followed by mixing. Due to the addition
ofthese chemicals, the fine and thin particles grow in size and become heavier and
then settle down.
The insoluble gelatinous substance obtained by adding chemicals is called floc,
and the process is called flocculation
These chemical compounds are called coagulants and their process is called
coagulation.
125 BC2.5
Common coagulants are:
1. Aluminium sulphate calledAlum
2. Iron salts (Ferrous sulphate, Ferric chloride)
QB. What is thedifference between disinfection and sterilization?
Ans: Disinfection is the process of treatment of water with chemicals to kill the infectious
bacteria and make it safe for drinking. /n sterilization total destruction of all living
things (harmful and useful bacteria) is done by boiling the water before using it. Its
use is limited because of the expense involved
Qg. What are the requirements of good disinfectants?
Ans: The requirements of good disinfectants are:
1. They should be able to destroy all the harmful pathogenic bacteria and make
the water safe for use.
2. They should be economical and easily available
3. They should be able to kill all the germs within required time at normal
temperature
4. After their treatment the water should not become objectionable and toxic to
the customers
5. The disinfectant dose should be such that it may leave some residual
concentration for protection against contamination in the water
Q10. Explain different methods of disinfection.
Ans: The different methodsof disinfection are:
1. By heating or boiling of water
2. Treatment with excess lime
3. Treatment with ozone
4. Treatment with bromine and iodine
5. Treatment with ultra violet rays
6. Treatment with potassium permanganate
7. Treatment with silver called Electra-Katadyn process
Q11.
Write short note on various forms of chlorine.
Ans: Chlorine is generally available in following forms
1. Intheformofliquidchlorine
2. In the form of gaseous chlorine
3. In the form of chlorine dioxide
4. In the form of chloramines
5.. In the form of bleaching powder
126
BC2.5
These forms may be applied by the following methods
1. Dry chlorine gas- It may not be drawn from the liquid chlorine it is directly
applied to the water supplied through submerged diffuser. This method is not
satisfactory because its results in corrosion of pipes.
2. Chlorine solution or liquid chlorine- Liquid chlorine is applied through the water
supply through a discharge line. This method is very commonly used.
3. Powder form- In the form of bleaching powder is commonly used in small
water plants and is directly mixed in water.
Q12.What is the effect of pH on chlorination?
Ans: The pH value of water along with temperature and presence of residual chlorine in
I:
the form of free available or combined available have a definite effect on the
1'1
effectiveness of the chlorine. Thus in the pH range of 7.0- 8.5 a minimum of 0.05
I.
mgll free available can be effective with water temperature between 5-22 degree
centigrade. Disinfection proceeds very slowly at lower water temperature and with
pH value above 8.5. Also whereas free available chlorine is effective in
concentration of 0.05mgll for a reaction period of 10- 20 minutes. The combined
available chlorine to be comparatively effective within the reaction period, requires
a higher concentration upto about 1.80mg/l. .
Q13. Explain pre chlorination and post chlorination.
Ans: Pre chlorination-It is the application of chlorine before filtration. It may be added in
the suction pipes or in the mixing basins. It reduces bacterial load on filters, this
results increased filter runs and oxidizes excessive organic matter. This helps in
removing taste and odor and make the water fit for use.
Post chlorination- When the chlorine is added in the water after all treatments, it is
known as post chlorination, it is generally done after filtration. The chlorine is
commonly added in clear water reservoir. The minimum contact period should be
half an hour, before use of water.
Q 14. What do you understand by dechlorination of water? What are the chemicals used
for dechlorination?
Ans: The process of removing excess chlorine from water is called dechlorination. It
. must be done in such a way that some residual chlorine remains in water.
Dechlorinating agents OF chemicals used are
1. Potassium permanganate ., ,J j
2. Sodium bisulphate
3. Sodium thiosulphate
4. Sodium sulphite
5. Sulphur dioxide etc.
BC2.5
127
,I
'1
I
SEcrlON D
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
Q1. Classify various types of filters. Differentiate between slow sand and rapid sand
filters. . . .
Ans. Filters may be classified as follows:
1.. Gravity Filters-
a. Slow sand filters
b. Rapid sand filters
2. Pressure Filters
Comparison between rapid sand filter and slow sand fllter
S.No Item Slow sand filter 1 Rapid sand filter
'1. Rate of filtration 100-2001lhrlsqm of filter area 3000-60001lhrlsqm of filter area
'.
2. Size of one unit 30m*6Om area varies from 6m*8m to 8m*10m area varies
1 5OO-2OOOsqm from 40-80sqm
1 I
3. Depth of filter 30cm gravel, 90-105cm 45cm gravel, 75cm or less
media sand, sand, I
4. Effectiv.e size of 0.25-0.35mm Cu=1.75 0.45-0.8mm Cu =1.6
sand
5. Under drainage 1 Open jointed pipes or ! Strainer pipes laterals
i system i covered drains . 1 discharging into CI mains
9cm initial to 1.2 m final I 0.3m initial to 2.1 m final \6. 1Loss of head
, .
7. Cleaning period 20- 60 days ! 24-60 hours I
8. Method of Scraping of surface and Scour by back washing and
1
I
I
9.
cleaning washing down by hoses
Amount of wash 0.2-0.6% of water filtered
water used in
cleaning
10. Cost of Higher I Lower
i construction
1 11 . iCost of operation ILower IHigher
removal of dislodged particles
U W by r pad flow
1- 4 % of water filtered
128 BC2.5
12. Ouality of raw It may not be treated with
Size of one unit !30m*60m
~ ..
02. What do you. understand by loss of head and negative head in a rapid sand
filter? What are the permissible values?
I.
! i '
'H
Ans. The loss of head in the 'filter operation is caused by the frictional resistance offered
by the filtering medium and the under drains to the water flow. The value of head
loss is equal to the vertical distance between water level on the filter bed and the
elevation of the hydraulic grade line at the filter outlet. The loss of head
I
immediately after washing should not be more than 10- 15 cms. When sand bed
I
gets choked up with impurities the rate of discharge falls down and it is necessary
I
to wash it to regain its original clean conditions and the stipulated rate of discharge.
In the filters provided with loss of head indicators this choked up condition is shown
by increase in the loss pf head so that ~ e n it reaches a certain figure generally
about 1.8 m the filter requires washing.
When the loss in the top layers of the sand becomes greater than the head of water
above the sand bed (due to choking) and the water column below such layers acts
as a draft tube and partial vacuum is created .. This condition is known as negative
head. Thus the negative head at ~ n y point in a filter is equal to the intensity of
vacuum at the point and is usually a maximum at the point where the water enters
the under drainage system.
129 BC2.5
chemical, but should not
have turbidity more than
50ppm
Very large
Simple
Not possible
Not required
!
Efficient in removal of
bacteria and suspended
impurities
Treatment with coagulant is
essential
Small area
Complicated
Possible
Most essential
Cannot remove all bacteria,
disinfection necessary. More
efficient in removal of color,
odor and taste
6m*8m to 8m*10m
I
03.
Explain in detail the working of rapid sand filter.
Ans:
Coagulation
tank
Rapid sand filter
The pretreated water from the coagulation sedimentation tanks through the inlet
valve is admitted into the filter units. It is distributed by the troughs which remains
submerged while working over the entire bed area. The water then percolates
through the sand and gravel layers and thereby the fine suspended and colloidal
impurities present in it are arrested by the sand layer. After this it enters the laterals
through the strainers or holes and then leaves the filter unit via the manifold.
In the beginning the loss of head of filter is about 15- 22cm. As the filtering media
goes on getting clogged with arrested impurities, the resistance to passage of
water and hence the loss of head increases. Usually a maximum loss of head 2
2.5m is permissible. If it increases further till it may pack the sand so tightly as to
cause difficulties in back washing or may cause the water to break through sand
without filtration. The filter unit is then washed, the clogging is removed and normal
working resumed
04.
Explain in detail the construction and working of slow sand filter.
Ans:
Slow sand filter consists of open tanks 2000to 4000sq. m in plan and 3 to 4 m
deep, containing 600-900mm thick bed ofsand supported on 300mm thick gravel
layer. The effective size of sand is 0.35mm with a uniformity coefficient of about
1.75. The top of 150 mm layer ofthe filtering media is of a finer variety 0.25mm. the
gravel size varies from 4.7 to 12mm and is placed in layers with the smallest size
particles at the top and the largest on the bottom.
130
BC2.5
I
i
I
I' ..
I!
\i
I
13 I
!
14
15.
16
17
!
water
Area
Construction
Flexibility in
operation
Skilled
supervision
Efficiency
Slow sand filter
The sand and gravels are laid over a system of open jointed underdrains placed 3
to 6 m apart on the bottom floor sloping towards a main covered drain constructed
along the center or side of the filter tank.
Settled waterfrom plain- sedimentation tank is distributed uniformly over the filter
bed. It percolates through the sand bed and the gravels and get purified during the
process of filteration. The under drainage system collects the filtered water and
passes it on to the clear water reservoir. As the filter media gets clogged the
resistance to the passage of water .and the head loss increases. The water in the
filter tank is first drained, the thick layer of impurities collected over the surface is
then scrapped and washed clean with water jets from hoses. The filter is then put
back into normal operation.
Name various disinfecting methods and explain anyone ofthem in detail.
05.
Ans:
Various disinfecting methods are as follows
1. Chlorination
2. Ozonization
3. Ultraviolet ray method
4. Excess lime process
5. Application of silver
6. Iodine or bromine
7. Potassium permanganate
Ozonization- The effectiveness of ozone in the disinfection of water lies in its high
oxidizing power. Ozone is an unstable isotope of oxygen containing three atoms of
oxygen which while changing to the stable molecular form O2 releases nascent
oxygen. The nascent oxygen reduces organic matter present in the water without
the production of objectionable tastes and odors as with chlorine. The ozone dose
is 2-3mgll to give a trace of 0.1 mgtl' residual after 1 Ominutes contact.
BC2.5
131
Ozonization is regarded as a natural means of disinfecting. water and is particularly
useful in disinfecting water containing bacterial spores. It is however costly to
manufacture, has very little residuals present and is not quite suitable for highly
turbid waters.
06. What do you understand by chlorination? Explain its action in killing of bacteria.
Ans: The process of applying small quantities of chlorine or chlorine compounds to
water is called chlorination. The chlorine dose applied is generally 1ppm so as to
produce residual chlorine of quantity varying from a trace to about 0.05-0.2 p p m ~
The chlorine demand is defined as the difference between the amount of chlorine
added and the amount of chlorine remaining at the end of a contact period of 15-30
minutes.
Action of chlorine:
Chlorine reacts with water to produce hypochlorous acid (HOCI) and hypochlorite
ion (OC!), which are together known as free available chlorine. The chemical action
may be represented as
CI
2
+ H
2
0 = HOCI + HCI
HOCI =H+ + ocr
If ammonia is also present in water, the other compounds fonned are
monochloramine (NH
2
CI) and Dichloramine (NHCI
2
) which are together known as
combined available chlorine. These resulting chlorine compounds either in the
form of free or combined available chlorine interfere with certain enzymes in the
bacterial cell wall forming a toxic chloro corn pound thus destroying the bacteria
completely. The effect of chlorine as a disinfectant is principally dependent upon
the period of contact and the concentration of chlorine in water.
07. Explain chlorine ammonia treatment for diSinfecting drinking water. What are the
advantages of it.
Ans: Use of chloramines or use of chlorine With ammonia-
Chloramines are the disinfectant compound which are formed by the reaction
between the ammonia and chlorine. These compounds are quite stable and
remain in the water as residuals for a sufficient time. Hence they can produce a
greater safeguard against future pollution, although they are comparatively
weaker disinfectants compared to free chlorine. Doses of ammonia and chlorine
used will depend upon the local characteristics of water. Ammonia should be
properly applied and mixed with water about 20 min to 1-2 hours earlier than
applying chlorine.
Advantages:
1. They do not cause bad taste and odor when left as residual as is caused by
chlorine alone.
2. They are very useful when phenols are present in water. The reaction of
phenol with chloramines do not result in bad taste of water
3. Can remain in water as residual for sufficient time
132 BC2,5