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Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Part I:
Aircraft Performance
Chapter 1
1. INTRODUCTION TO FLIGHT MECHANICS
Flight Mechanics involves: Performance Stability Aeroelasticity Performance: take-off, climb, cruising, range & endurance, decent and landing Stability: static and dynamic stability, flight control Aeroelasticity: The effect of structural flesxibility on performance, stability and control In this course we focus on Aircraft Perfomance Static Stability
An aircraft is analised as point mass flying under the effect of weight, aerodynamic forces, thrust, atmospheric.
Basic knowledge on: 1. Aircraft components 2. Basic aerodynamics 3. International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) and altitute 4. Engineering mechanics are required.
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
1.1 AIRCRAFT MAJOR PARTS Fuselage Wing Emphenage Power Plant Landing Gear
The function of the major parts: Fuselage It is a space to accommodate internal systems and components, payload, pilot and others in a systematic manner. Should be low in drag, and also function as an attachment for wing, tail and powerplant. Common component seen in the fuselage: Cockpit Pilot sit. Also known as `flight-deck, or `crew-cabin for large transport aircraft Canopy Cockpit cover Tailboom structure to carry emphennage Nacelle space for engine Nose front part of fuselage
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Wing To generate lift which able the aircrafte to float. Common component seen in the wing: Wing aerofoil to give lift force, drag force and pitching moment.. Flap trailing edge control surface use to increase lift and stall angle. Slat extended control surface located at the leading or trailing ende of wing section use to modify the wing aerodynamic characteristics. Aileron control surface to make aircraft roll. Terms and notation for wing: S b cr ct c AR wing area wing span root chord tip chord mean chord taper ratio (ct/cr) aspect ratio (b2/S or b/c) sweep angle
Emphenage Emphenage is used to stabilize the aircraft and to control the aircraft motion. Allow aircraft to move in a control manner and safe. Component of emphenage: 1. Vertical Tail-provide directional stability. Also known as fin. 2. Horizontal Tail provide pitching stability. Also known as tailplane or stabilizer. 3. Elevator-a control surface located at the trailing edge of the horizontal tail use to control the aircraft angle of attack. 4. Trim Tab-a control surface located at the back of an elevator use to reduce stick force experience by pilot. 5. Rudder- a control surface located at the back of vertical tail use to control yaw angle.
Powerplant Powerplant generates power to drive aircraft toward its direction. There are four types of powerplant engine: piston-prop, turbo-prop, turbo-fan dan turbo-jet. a) Piston-prop Proston-prop engine is using a reciprocal combustion engine to produce power. Ouput power is measured in Horse Power (HP). The power is not depend on aircraft speed but varies with altitude and throttle. The fuel consumption is proportional to horse power. Propeller converts the shaft power to thrust power. Thrust power is equals to the product of thrust force and aircraft speed.
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
b) Turbo-Jet The thrust is produced from the expansion of the hot gas combustion through nozzle. The thrust produce is a function of altitude and speed. Normally this type of engine is installed to high speed aircraft. c) Turbo-Fan Turbo-fan is a turbo-jet furnished with fan to increase the driving efficientcy of a low and medium speed aircraft. The operasion of the turbo-fan is quite similar to turbo-jet which is a thrust producing engine.
d) Turbo-Prob Turbo-prob is a piston and turbo-fan engine using propeller to convert engine power to thrust. The operasion of the turbo-prob is quite similar to piston-prob which is power producing engine. Fundamentally both the turbo-fan and turbo-prob engine is a turbo-jet engine where the combustion gas is expanded fully in the turbine in order to produde extra power from what is required to run the compressor. The excess power is used to run the fan. To simplify the study of powerplant, the type of powerplant is classified into two types. 1) Power producing engine which comprises of piston-prob, turbo-prob. 2) Thrust producing engine which comprises of turb-jet and turbo-fan.
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Chapter 2
AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE
2.1 Introduction
Aircraft performance is a measure of the ability of an aircraft to do its specific mission. Civil Aircraft Operation - focus on operational cost and contribution to economical in operation Military Aircraft Operation - under combat conditions, manoeuvring time, optimization time to target, range, manoeuvrability and payload; is a measure of effectiveness and superiority. Performance is also a measure of flight safety. While maintaining an access thurst in level flight, an aircraft must be able to increase potential energy to climb. If the performance of an aircraft is not able to maintain both altitude and airspeed in climbing and decent, clearly this will limit the safety margin and limit the safe operation. The performace aspect is the consideration of airworthiness, airworthiness practices, and performance which they are related. Is not the purpose of airwothiness to limit or creates conflict in determining aircraft performance and flight safety. It gives the code of practice and not to stop an aircraft to have a performace beyond the limit of code of practice. For that the airwothiness code of practice is to determine in a practical way, the safety limit of the aircraft operation for the risk of unsafe operation can be reduced to minimum level. Code of practice varies with aircraft size, number of engine, country of registration, operation requirement and time. In aircraft performance the study is divided into two: Estimation and Measurement. Performance Estimation: Estimation of aircraft performance from the design consideration in aerodynamics, powerplant and state of operation. Applicable for a new designed or modification of existing aircraft. Performance Measurement: Flight performance measurement in true atmospheric, in which the pressure and temperature are different compare to design process, and data variation refer to ISA.
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
The International Standard Atmosphere (I.S.A) represents the average climate/season atmosphere and geograhical atmosphere. An aircraft is assumed to operate far below the range from a cold artic climate to the hot tropical and the aircraft performance has to be estimated through this range. The atmospheric model design is describe of giving an 'off-standard' data of the atmosphere. Basically, the atmospheric model can be obtained through an addition of a temperature rise to the element of I.S.A atmospheric model with an adjustment to give a hot temperature, a cold temperature and the standard model. Figure 3 shows the model used in the 'airwothiness codes of practice' (JAR).
P = RT
If this equation is related to sea-level, the state of the ISA of the atmosphere is given by:
T P = Po o To
Or can be written as
=
where
P Po
relative pressure
o
T To
relative density
relative temperature
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Isothermal Region
dP = g o dh
g dh dp g = o = o dh p RT RT
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
go dP = p1 P RT
p
h1
dh
ln
g p = o (h ho ) p1 RT
Or
( h ho ) p = e RT p1
go
But
p T = = p1 1T1 1
( hh ) = e RT 1
o
go
Gradient Region
T = T1 + a (h h1 )
dh =
1 dT a
dp g dT = o p aR T
p1
g T dT dP = o P aR T 1 T g p p = o ln p1 aR p1
go aR
ln
p T = p1 T1 But
T p = p1 1T1
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Then
T p T = = 1T1 p1 T1 T = 1 T1
(
go aR
go ) 1 aR
Where V is the true airspeed. So that V = Ve / gives the true relative velocity between aircraft and air mass. The characteristic of the airflow is given in Mach number, M, which gives the ratio between true airspeed and the speed of sound in free stream. M= V a
Where a is the speed of sound which has the relationship with air temperature as;
a = RT
For that the Mach number is not the value if air velocity measured by the instrumentation installed in the aircraft.
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Basic element of mission can be considered based on the engine thrust and fuel mission.
Table 2.1: Aircraft weight distribution (Ref: Ashelby M, Cranfield IT Lecture Notes)
Subsonic Transport Long Range Short Range % Weight F/mg % Weight F/mg 40.0 45.0 10.0 10.0 0.5 2.5 26.0 0.5 0.5 5.0 35.0 15.0 100.0 15,000400,000 0.2-0.3 0.15-0.25 0.06 0.02-0.05 0.15 0.5 0.2-0.3 2.5 0.2-0.25 11.0 0.08 0.5 0.02-0.05 0.5 0.15 5.0 20.0 25.0 100.0 30,000200,000 Fighter % Weight 45.0 20.0 1.0 21.0 0.5 2.5 25.0 10.0 100.0 15,00030,000 F/mg
Accessory Airframe Powerplant Fuel Takeoff Climb Cruise Decent Landing Reserve Total Fuel Payload Total Typical Weight (kg)
Reserve fuel depends on company policy and operation regulation. Typical for civil aircraft, reserve fuel is enough for 45 minutes loiter plus 10% of total fuel weight.
Takeoff Accelerate to reach takeoff speed within available takeoff distance. Normally required maximum thrust available. For military aircraft, full power is usually apply during takeoff and climb to reach operation altitude and March number in minimum time. Thrust to weight ratio is high around 1:1 and required 1% of aircraft weight for fuel burned (or 4% of total fuel). For transport aircraft require around 0.2 to 0.3 thrust-weight ratio and depend on number of engines. Four engine aircraft require two enjin memerlukan kurang dari 2 enjin dan pesawat 1 kerana kegagalan salah satu enjin menyebabkan kehilangan tujah di dalam kadar yang kecil. Typically around 5% of aircraft weight is used during takeoff as fuel burned. Climbing Civil transport aircraft climbs at slow rate and acceleration can be neglected when compare to military fighter aircraft. Typically between 5 to 10% of fuel is burned during takeoff.
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Cruise Cruise is normally the longest segment of flight mission where large amunt of fuel is used. Low thrust-wieght ratio, low specific fuel consumption is required in order to gain optimum range. Optimization process is complex which has to consider aerodynamic quality and powerplant. Decent Descent at low thrust rate which normally close to idle thrust. However, powerplant should be able to produce electrical power, hydraulic pressure and air bleed to limit the minimum engine speed. Fuel requires is typically low. Landing Thrust rate is considered high. This happened due to high drag configurationin order to avoid drag end part of drag curve fenomena. High thrust is necessary to ensure overall power required is able to produce.
Drag force
D = qSC L =
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
q V CL CD
- dynamic pressure (N/m2 ), - air density (kg/m ) - true aircpeed (m/s) - lift coefficient - drag coefficient
Lift and drag coefficient is a function of aircraft angle of attack, Mach number, Reynolds number and aerofoil shape. The typical CL curve is shown in figure The equation for drag polar is given by: 2 CL C D = C Do + A Re
C D is drag coeffficient, C L is total lift coefficient contribution of wing, fuselage and horizontal tail. C Do is known as parasite drag coefficient at zero lift (contribution of wing profile drag, friction and pressure drag of tail, fuselage, engine, undercarriage, and other parts expose to air flow.
Term C L / A Re is called induced drag which depends on lift force. While e is known as Oswald efficientcy factor, typical value of e is around 0.7 to 0.9.
2
At low Mach number (i.e. M<0.4), three types of drag are generated, profil drag, boundary layer drag and trailing edge vortex. At high Mach number (i.e. M>1), drag due shock wave exist.
Wing Loading
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
V L T
dH / dt
L = mg kos
& T = D + mg sin + mV
& dH / dt V T D = Excess Thrust = mg + = Potential Energy +Kinetic Energy g V
mg
&=0 Consider aircraft is flying in steady straight and level flight, so that = 0, V
L = mg
L mg = T D
and and
T =D
Lift to drag ratio = E
1 2
then
CL L CL = = D C D C Do + KC L 2
L d 2 KC L C Do D = 2 dC L (C D 0 KC L )
For
L maximum D
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
or
KC L = C Do
2
1 2
E mak =
1 2 KC Do
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Chapter 3
STEADY FLIGHT PERFORMANCE
3.1 Straight and Level Flight
Straight and level flight atconstant velocity is the simplest case in performance analysis. Forces that acting on the aircraft is lift force, L and aircraft weight, W in which they are acting vertically, thrust force,T and drag, D acting horizontally. T =D L =W 2 L=1 2 V SC L
2 W =L=1 2 V SC L
In equilibrium, thrust equals drag and lift equals weight Lift is given by Then for lift equals weight
3.2.1
This equation is true if assumed the aircraft is flying weight W and wing area S at specific altitude. The stall conditions occur at maximum lift coefficient CLmax. Stall speed is given by
V=
2W SC L max
3.2.2
V, is the minimum speed for the aircraft to maintain steady fligh. Value of CLmax is also depend on flap and landing gear. Stalling speed is normally determined from flight test.
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
2 V 2 = 1 2 oV E
1 2
3.3.1
V =
2W o SC L
3.3.2
V is proportional to
1 CL
With the weight and wing area the equivalent airspeed for straight and level flight is only depend on lift coefficient and not depend on air density and altitude. If the aircraft is flying at constant altitude or constant angle of attack, for that CL is constant, the estimation of indicated airspeed is equals to equivalent airspeed will indicates constant value.
Determine the relationship between drag force and minimum drag condition. D D = L L But in steady straight and level flight L = W, then
3.4.2
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
C Do + KC L 2 KC L = 0 C Do = KC L = C Di
2
3.4.3
At minimum drag condition value of CDo is equals to CDi. For value of CL at mimimum drag is given by: C Lmd = Vmd = C Do K W 1 SC Lmd 2 Vmd W 2 K 4 = 1 2 S C Do
1 1
3.4.4
3.4.5
3.4.6
and
L =W =
3.5.2
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
devided
Eq.(3.5.1) by Eq.(3.5.2)
W CL CD W L D
T CD = W CL
3.5.3
Thrust required
T=
3.5.4
T is usually label as TR
Thrust TR (N)
For a minimum drag condition, thrust required is mimimum where the aircraft is flying at minimum drag speed, Vmd
1 V 2 SC L 2 2W SC L
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
PR =
W CL CD
2W SC L
Then
1 V 2 S C Do + KC L 2 )V 2 2 C 1 1 = V 2 SC DoV + V 2 SV L 2 2 A Re 2W 2 1 1 V 2 S = V 3 SC Do + V 3 S 2 2 A Re 2W 2 1 1 VS = V 3 SC Do + V 3 S 2 2 A Re PR = TRV = DV =
3.6.1
3.6.1 Pistonprop and Turboprop
TA PA
Power produce by a shaft engine can be assumed constant with airspeed. For a propeller driven aircraft the performance is analyzed in the form of power available. At minimum drag the relation of CDo = KCDL is applied. Maximum endurance of a fan engine can be achived if the aircraft is flying at minimum power required speed, typically a little less than Vmd. While the thrust produce by the fan is inversely propotional with aircraft speed.
then,
T=
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
where is the fan efficiency (typically between 0.75~0.85) and 746 is the conversion unit from Horsepower to watt (i.e. 1 HP = 746 Watt)
Thrust produce by jet engine is constant with aircraft speed. Power produce is proportional to speed.
TA PA
For a jet angine aircraft, the performance depend on excess thrust (i.e. the different between thrust force and drag force). Maximum endurance is achieved when flying at minimum drag speed, Vmd. At this condition the drag is minimum, and relationship CDo = KCDL is used. The maximum range is achieved when the aircraft is flying at a speed little more than Vmd because at minimum drag, the value of drag is increase a little with speed where that the change of distance increases with fuel consumption.
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
As a conclusion for a maximum range and endurance, a jet engine aircraft needs a minimum drag and correspondence speed in a straight level flight. While for fan drive engine needs minimum power required in a straight and level flight.
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Chapter 4
CLIMBING FLIGHT
When aircraft is in steady climbing at a climb angle, with horizontal, the equilibrium equation of force parallel to the flight path is given T D mg sin dV =0 dt 4.1
The change of altitude with time is given by dH = V sin dt substitute sin term from Eq. 4.2 in Eq.4.1, gives (T D) = rearranged (T D) V dH V dV = + mg dt g dt dV mg dH +m dt V dt 4.3 4.2
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
and
b) Jet Engine
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
excess thrust FN D = mg mg mg
FN = mg
0.24; sin = 0.24 0.1 = 0.14; = 8.05o or Grad = 14.1% (grad% = 100 tan )
One engine inoperative 4 eng. 3 eng. 2 eng. 0.18 8 3.0 0.16 6 2.7 0.12 2 2.4
0.24 14.1 %
FN/mg ISA-15, SL
EXAMPLE
An aircraft with 16,380 kg weight, wing area S = 42 m2 and wing span 16 m has a drag polar CD = 0.014 + 0.05 CL2. This aircraft is installed with turboprop engine. Maximum speed at sea level is 270 m/s. Power available PAV is assumed not at maxium at the speed when it is occurred. Calculate the maximum rate of climb. Maximum speed occur when PAV = PREQ q= 1 1 V 2 = (1.226)(270) 2 = 44687.7 kg / ms 2 2 2
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
CL =
D =W
RC max =
PAV PREQ W
EXAMPLE
Given the characteristics of a jet engine aircraft M = 16380 kg, S = 42 m2, CL = 0.2352 CD = 0.014 + 0.05 CL2 If the thrust given by the engine is 26699 N at sea level. Calculate the maximum rate of climb RCmax and the related speed. Determine the climb angle.
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Solution
V = 2w = C L S (2)(16380)(9.81) = 163 m / s (1.226)(0.2352)(42)
sin =
T AV D = 0.0954, = 0.0954, W
= 5.5 o
sin =
T AV D , W
2
Dmin = W
CD CL
and
C D = KC L
0.014 = 0.05C L
C L = 0.529
= 0.1132
max = 6.5 o
V =
2W = 108.7 m / s .S .C L
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Chapter 5
TAKEOFF AND LANDING
5.1 Introduction
Take-off is the most critical flight phase and should pay more attention. The control system should be angle to rotate the aircraft at good climb position and can be trimmed. An aircraft should be able to demonstrate it ability to avoid yawing and maintain it direction. For example during crosswind disturbance and lost of engine power. Excess power is required for handling the operation and optimum climb speed.
Similar case is considered during landing. Aicraft should be able to rotate to at touchdown position where the aircraft nose can be lift off to required speed. Aircraft has to maintain wing level and crosswind landing. Aircraft has to demonstrate it ability to balance if engine losing power. In term of performance, optimum speed during approach and power for required slope. Touch down speed has to be known and other operation consideration at speed and configuration
5.2 Take-off
Take-off distance is the distance required for an aircraft to gain a lift-off speed and reach 35 ft (10.5 m) or 50 ft (15 m). Take-off distance is divided into two parts. First is the ground run distance, is a required distance to gain lift-off speed, and second is the airborne distance, is the distance from liftoff speed to reach height of 50 or 35 ft.
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Assume an aircraft is under a summation of force F from zero speed to lift-off speed, VLO.
Where
V LO = 1.2Vs = 1.2
2W SC Lmax
5.1
The change in distance the product of aircraft forward speed and time
dS = Vdt
5.2
5.3
5.4
Consider forces acting on aircraft during take-off are thrust (T), drag (D), lift (L), weight (mg) and friction (R). Figure shows forces acting on aircraft where is a runway slope which typically small around 5o, R is the reaction force on wheel is the friction coefficient.
Figure
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
(5.5)
(5.6)
T D (mg L) = ma
(5.7)
S = dV =
V a
V LO 2 2a
(5.8)
Generally T is constant (especially jet aircraft), W is also constant. Except L and D is a function of speed.
2 L=1 2 V SC L 2 CL D = V S C Do + A Re 1 2 2
is known as ground effect, exist when aircraft flow very low to ground and the effect of trailling vortex is reduced.
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
16h b = 2 16h 1+ b
h height from wing level to ground
b wing span
For simplicity assume t is constant and average value of drag and resistant is reduced to
[D + (W l )]ave
The effective force substitute
Feff = T [D + (W l )]ave = cons tan t F = Feff VLO m SG = 2{T [ D + (W L)]ave }
2
and
[D + (W l )]ave = [D + (W l )]0.7 v
Lo
Conclusion
1. Lift-off distance is sensitive to aircraft weight (reduce with w2). If double the weight, the takeoff distance increase 4 times. 2. Takeoff distance is depend on air density
SLo
3.
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
(5.9)
1 2
mVh 2 + mgh
] [
1 2
mVLO + 0
2
Vh 2 VLO 2 mg + h = (T D) ave S A 2g then the airborne distance V2 2 VTD 2 mg SA = + h (T D) ave 2g where h is the screen height.
ST = S L + S A
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
5.3 Landing
5.3.1 Landing Ground Distance
Ground distance is a distance required for an aircraft to slowing from touchdown, VTD speed until stop. VTD = 1.3 Vs = 1.3 At touchdown, assumed thrust, T=0 2W SC Lmax
D (W L) = ma
V2 V S = dV = a 2a Substitute a from Eq.(5.11) in Eq.(5.12) VTD m SL = 2[D + (W L)]ave where
2
(5.11) (5.12)
[D (W L)]ave = [D (W L)]0.7V
TD
Estimate the takeoff distance of aircraft B on tarmac of = 0.02. During takeoff the CL maximum is not higher than 1.0. The wing level ground clearance is 1.83 m. Solution: h 1.83 = = 0.17 b 10.91
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
(16 h b )2 2 1 + (16 h b )
= 0.88
V Lo = 1.2Vs = 1.2
T = 16236(2) = 32472
AR = b 2 16.25 2 = = 8.94 s 29.54 W 2 g V Lo = 2{T [D + (W L)]ave }0.7V = K= 1 1 = = 0.044 AR e (8.94)(0.81)
S Lo
Lo
= 1113.2 meters
Example
Estimate landing distance at sea level for aircraft B. Reverse thrust is not use during (assume T = 0). Spoiler is used during landing which result of L = 0 and zero lift drag increase by 10%. CLmax during landing at maximum flap 2.5. Assume CLmax is used during landing. Assume fuel tank in landing is at zero state and pilot apply brake which give effect of = 0.4.
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Aircraft empty weight, 8984 2862 = 6122 kg VTD = 1.3VS = 1.3 2w 2(6122)(9.81 = 1.3 = 47.35 m/s 1.225(29.54)(2.5) SC Lmax
CDo = 0.02 +
L =0,
CL = 0 , CD L = 0
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Chapter 6
RANGE AND ENDURANCE
6.1 Range
Range covers climb, cruise and decent distance. The cruise range of an aircraft is equal to the total range covers with respect to fuel quantity. Specific range is given by range per unit weight in meter per unit kilogram. specific range =
6.1.1
m kg
Specific range or distance can be written as m meter per hour (m hr ) V V m / hr = = = = kg fuel flowrate (kg hr ) CT CD (kg / N .hr ).N (6.1)
C is the specific fuel consumption (sfc) in weight per unit thrust per unit hour (kg/N.hr) and D= W D = W L/D L
V L C D is known as range factor, measure range efficiency from aerodynamic and propulsion
system.
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
R = wi
R=
m w V L dW dW = wi f C D W kg
(6.3)
w V L log e i CD wf
6.1.2
C is the specific fuel consumption in kg fuel per horsepower per hour (kg/BHP. hr)
m = kg V V = THP C DV C
m 1 L 1 = = . kg C D C D W BHP Break horse power THP Thrust horse power [1 horse power (HP) = 746 Watt]
(6.5)
m dW kg
R = w f C D W
R=
wi
L dW
wi wf
L
CD
log e
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
6.2 Endurance
Endurance is a measure of the flight duration specific endurance = hour fuel N
For a maximum endurance, the minimum fuel flow rate per unit time is required. As sfc is assumed constant, the drag should be at minimum for jet engine. Minimum value of thrust horse power THP is required for a propeller driven aircraft.
6.2.1
Endurance
hour
1 L dW
E=
w 1 L log e i CD wf
(6.7)
C and
An aircraft is required to fly at minimum drag condition to gain a high endurance, i.e. , wi/wf is L high, maximum. D
6.2.2
Endurance: E = wi
w
1 THP C
dW = wi f
C DV
dW = wi f
1 dW C DV W
L is a ratio of lift to thrust power required and the value is not constant. DV
but
L=W=
1 2
V2SCL
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
then
V=
2W SC L
wi
E = w f C C D
CL
SCL dW
2 W3 2
2 CL 3 2 S C CD 2
12
[W ]
1 2 wi wf
For maximum endurance 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. High propeller efficiency Low sfc High Wf , where Wo = Wi + Wf C Fly at L CD
32
maximum
Range
1) JET
C = s.f.c x
1 g 1 g
2) PROP C = s.f.c x
Endurance 1) JET
C = s.f.c x
1 g 1 g 32
2) PROP C = s.f.c x
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Example
CL
C CD
log e
Wi Wf
given
s.f.c. = 0.204 kg/HP. hr C= 0.204 g 0.204 9.81 = 746 3600 746 3600 1 = 7.450 x 10 -7 m
CDo = KCL2
1 CL2 ARe
A =
CL = 0.025 AR e = 0.68
CL C D
CL
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
= 1940772.5 m = 1940.7 km E=
Endurance,
CL3/ 2
C CD
(2 S )
1 1 1 1 W f 2 Wi 2
C 32 L CD
= 12.8 max
Maximum endurance can be achieved if aircraft is flying at sea level = 1.225 kg/m3 E =
0.8 7.456 10
7
(12.8)(2(1.225)(16.17))1/2
1171.41
1337.63 1
= 164242.56 secs
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
AIRCRAFT DATA
AIRCRAFT A (BRITISH AEROSPACE JETSTREAM) Power plant = 2 engine propeller driven Power Rating = 900 horse power per engine Wing span, b = 15.85 Wing area, S = 25.1 m Wing chord, c = 1.71 m CDo = 0.0175 Oswold efficiency factor, e = 0.82 Fan efficiency = 0.82 Aircraft gross weight = 5570 kg Fuel Capacity = 635 kg gasoline type Specific fuel consumption, s.f.c = 0.204 kg/HPhr
AIRCRAFT B (CESSNA 650 CITATION III) Type = Executive Jet Aircraft Powerplant = 2 turbofan engine Power Rating = 16236 N per engine Wing Span, b = 16.52 m Wing Area, S = 29.54 m Gross Weight = 8984 kg Fuel Capacity = 2862 kg kerosin Specific fuel consumption, s.f.c = 0.272 kg/N hour CDo = 0.02 Oswald Efficiency Factor, e = 0.81
AIRCRAFT C (CESSNA SKYLANE) Type = Private Light Aircraft Powerplant = 1 propeller driven engine Power Rating = Single Piston 230 HP at sea level Wing Span = 10.91 m Wing Area = 16.17 m Gross Weight = 1337.6 kg Fuel Capacity = 166.22 kg (gasoline) Specific Fuel Consumption, s.f.c = 0.204 kg/HP hour CDo = 0.025 Oswald Efficiency Factor, e = 0.8 Blade Efficiency = 0.8
Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
AICRAFT D (Scruggs-Plummmet SP10-99 Tri-cruiser) WEIGHT Gross Weight Empty Weight Maximum Payload Maximum Fuel Weight
DIMENSION Wing Area (gross) Wing Span Horizontal Tail Area Overal Length
415 m2 54 m 99 m2 56 m
AERODYNAMIC DATA Cruise CDo CDL o fuselage 0.0145 0.0540 -4 deg 5.4/rad 1.6 Takeoff/Climb Landing 0.0180 0.0585 -6 deg 5.4/rad 0.0225 2.0 0.0470 0.0620 -8 deg 5.4/rad 0.0225 2.5
dCL / d
POWERPLANT 3 Engine Aircraft, Pratt & Witney NBG-20 Maximum Thrust, Sea Level I.S.A Specific Fuel Consumption, sfc, Sea Level I.S.A Cruise Thrust, 35000 ft, Mach 0.85 Specific Fuel Consumption, 35000 ft, Mach 0.85 179 KN 10.6 mg/Ns 48 KN 18.2 mg/Ns
= 1.225 kg/m3