Waste Management & Research

http://wmr.sagepub.com/ The use of waste materials in asphalt concrete mixtures

Mustafa Tuncan, Ahmet Tuncan and Altan Cetin Waste Manag Res 2003 21: 83 DOI: 10.1177/0734242X0302100202 The online version of this article can be found at: http://wmr.sagepub.com/content/21/2/83

Published by:
http://www.sagepublications.com

On behalf of:

International Solid Waste Association

Additional services and information for Waste Management & Research can be found at: Email Alerts: http://wmr.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts Subscriptions: http://wmr.sagepub.com/subscriptions Reprints: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.nav Permissions: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav Citations: http://wmr.sagepub.com/content/21/2/83.refs.html

>> Version of Record - Apr 1, 2003 What is This?

Downloaded from wmr.sagepub.com at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia on November 3, 2012

Waste Manage Res 2003: 21: 8392 Printed in UK all rights reserved

Copyright ISWA 2003

Waste Management & Research

ISSN 0734242X

The use of waste materials in asphalt concrete mixtures

Mustafa Tuncan Ahmet Tuncan Altan Cetin
Department of Civil Engineering, Anadolu University, Iki Eylul Kampusu, 26470, Eskisehir, Turkey. Keywords: Waste tyre, crumb rubber, waste plastic, Marshall stability, indirect tensile strength, moisture susceptibility, wmr 5064.

The purpose of this study was to investigate (a) the effects of rubber and plastic concentrations and rubber particle sizes on properties of asphalt cement, (b) on properties of asphalt concrete specimens and (c) the effects of fly ash, marble powder, rubber powder and petroleum contaminated soil as filler materials instead of stone powder in the asphalt concrete specimens. One type of limestone aggregate and one penetration-graded asphalt cement (75-100) were used. Three concentrations of rubber and plastic (i.e. 5%, 10% and 20% of the total weight of asphalt cement), three rubber particle sizes (i.e. No. 4 [4.75mm] 20 [0.85 mm], No. 20 [0.85mm] 200 [0.075mm] and No. 4 [4.75mm] 200 [0.075mm]) and one plastic particle size (i.e. No. 4 [4.75mm] 10 [2.00mm]) were also used. It was found that while the addition of plastic significantly increased the strength of specimens, the addition of rubber decreased it. No. 4 [4.75mm] 200 [0.075mm] rubber particles showed the best results with respect to the indirect tensile test. The Marshall stability and indirect tensile strength properties of plastic modified specimens increased. Marble powder and fly ash could be used as filler materials instead of stone powder in the asphalt concrete pavement specimens.

Corresponding author: Mustafa Tuncan, Department of Civil Engineering, Anadolu University, Iki Eylul Kampusu, 26470, Eskisehir, Turkey. Fax: 90-222-323 95 01 E-mail: mtuncan@anadolu.edu.tr Received 23 January 2003, accepted in revised form 18 February 2003.

Introduction
Disposal of industrial wastes is a worldwide problem. Environmental awareness of the drawbacks of landfill sites is forcing nations to look for better ways to recycle industrial wastes. The use of industrial wastes as additives in asphalt mixtures is not a new technique. Additives have been used in road construction for more than 80 years (AlAbdul-Wahhab & Al-Amri 1991). They are incorporated in asphalt mixtures to enhance the properties and performance of asphalt concrete pavements. Large scale use of rubber from waste tyres in asphalt mixtures appears attractive and promising from the engineering and environmental point of view. Pavements made of rubber and plastic

modified asphalt concrete have better skid resistance, less cracking and a longer pavement life in comparison to conventional asphalt pavements (Al-Abdul-Wahhab & AlAmri 1991, Flynn 1993). Studies have been done to investigate the effects of rubber particles from tyres in the preparation of asphalt concrete mixtures in the laboratory. In these investigations, scrap rubber was used to modify the asphalt at 10%, 20% and 30% of aggregate weight (Haas et al. 1983). Khedaywi et al. (1994) reported that while the softening point of the binder increased, penetration and ductility of the binder decreased with increasing rubber content.

Downloaded from wmr.sagepub.com at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia on November 3, 2012

Waste Management & Research

83

Mustafa Tuncan, Ahmet Tuncan, Altan Cetin

Many studies have shown that the addition of rubber to asphalt concrete mixtures in amounts ranging from 10% to 30% of the asphalt binder increases the viscosity and resistance to moisture damage and reduces the susceptibility to temperature and the tendency to flow (Haas et al. 1983, Lalwani et al. 1982, Oliver 1982). Addition of crumb rubber to hot-mix asphalt concrete was reported by several authors to improve rheological properties of the asphalt such as viscosity, softening point, penetration, temperature susceptibility, strength and durability (Khedaywi et al. 1994). Deterioration of asphalt pavements leading to permanent deformation or rutting is one of the major problems in Turkey. It has considerably reduced the service lives of pavements and increased maintenance costs. In hot weather, the dynamic stiffness of the asphalt pavement decreases and thus higher stresses are transmitted to the layers below, resulting in greater deformation (Brown 1978). Using industrial wastes in the asphalt concrete pavement can not only decrease environmental problems but also improves some properties of the pavement. Several authors investigated the effects of fly ash on properties of asphalt mixtures (Ali et al. 1996). Results of these studies indicated that fly ash could be used as a mineral filler to improve the resilient modulus characteristics and stripping resistance. The New Jersey Environmental Engineering Protection department conducted a study to evaluate the feasibility of using petroleum contaminated soil in the production of hot-mix asphalt (Meegoda et al. 1996). Test results showed that this asphalt produced a much better paving material with higher stability values than standard hot-mix asphalt. The durability of the asphalt against freezing and thawing was the same as that of the control mixtures. In this study, the effects of waste materials as additives and filler materials on the properties of asphalt concrete pavement mixtures were investigated.

used in Turkey. This asphalt was obtained from the Asphalt Work Site of the Municipality of Eskisehir, Turkey. This type of asphalt was chosen because it is widely used in pavement construction in the city of Eskisehir. Table 2 gives a summary of the test results obtained from the asphalt cement in the laboratory. Amounts of saturates, aromatics, resins and asphaltenes in the asphalt cement are 5.1%, 63.8%, 18.6% and 12.5%, respectively.
Crumb rubber

Crumb rubber used in this study was obtained by chopping scrap automobile and truck tyres. The specific gravity of the rubber is 1.11. Crumb rubber from three size ranges, No. 4-20, No. 20-200 and No. 4-200 was used as a modifier at 5%, 10% and 20% by total weight of asphalt cement. Grain size distributions of crumb rubber are given in Fig. 2. The scanning electron microscopy picture of a crumb rubber particle between the No. 40 and No. 60 sieves is shown in Fig. 3a.
Plastic

Discarded plastic grocery bags, dry cleaning bags and household plastics were used. The use of polymers to modify the characteristics of the asphalt pavement in asphalt cement mixtures is acceptable in the highway construction industry (Flynn 1993). Some of the concerns about the use of recycled plastic as an asphalt cement modifier are performance and durability, cost effectiveness, availability, recyclability, health and environmental impacts. The plastic generally comes from grocery bags and household plastics. In this study, plastic from a single size range between the No. 4 and No. 10 sieves was used as a modifier at 5%, 10% and 20% by total weight of asphalt cement. The scanning electron microscopy picture of a plastic particle is shown in Fig. 3b.
Filler materials

Materials
Aggregate

Industrial wastes such as fly ash, marble powder and petroleum contaminated soil (PCS) were used as filler materials to prepare asphalt concrete mixtures. Some properties and hydrometer analyses of fly ash, marble powder and PCS are given in Table 3 and Fig. 4 respectively.
Fly ash

One type of limestone aggregate was used in this study. This aggregate is the most commonly used for asphalt concrete pavement construction in Turkey. The gradation and some other properties of the aggregate determined in the laboratory are given in Fig. 1 and Table 1 respectively.
Asphalt cement

One penetration-grade asphalt cement 75-100 is widely

Fly ash is an industrial residue of the coal burning process. It was obtained from a coal fired power plant near the city of Ankara, Turkey. This fly ash is a fine silt size material consisting of spherical glassy particles and is composed of 45.68% silicon oxide, 9.04% aluminum oxide, 7.04% iron oxide and 15.20% calcium oxide. The total amount of silicon, aluminum and iron oxides is 61.76%. The minimum

84

Waste Management & Research Downloaded from wmr.sagepub.com at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia on November 3, 2012

The use of waste materials in asphalt concrete mixtures

Fig. 1: Grain Size Distributions of Aggregate and Upper and Lower Limit Specifications of Turkish General Directorate for Highways 1994.

Table 1: Properties of Aggregate. Properties Los Angeles Abrasion Test [%] (ASTM C131) Soundness [% loss of Na2SO4 ] (ASTM C88) Flakiness Index [%] (BS 812) Stripping Resistance [%] (ASTM D1664) AC (60-70)* AC (150-200)# *AC (60-70): Asphalt cement penetration of 60-70 #AC (150-200): Asphalt cement penetration of 150-200 Values 24 1.0 11

Laboratory study
Experiments were conducted at the laboratories of the Department of Civil Engineering at Anadolu University in Eskisehir, Turkey. In this study, the optimum asphalt cement content in the regular asphalt concrete without any waste was found to be 4.5%, using the Marshall stability test. Therefore, an asphalt cement content of 4.5% by weight of aggregate was used for all specimens regardless of the amount of rubber or plastic added to the asphalt cement. The Marshall stability test procedure was used to prepare test specimens. A total of 160 rubber and plastic modified specimens were prepared. Five specimens of each industrial waste modified mixtures were tested. A total of 220 industrial waste modified specimens were prepared. The Marshall stability and flow test (ASTM D1559), the indirect tensile test (AASHTO T283) and the compressive strength test (ASTM D1074) were performed to determine the mechanical properties of industrial waste modified asphalt concrete specimens. The moisture susceptibility test (AASHTO T283) was also performed by using both the Marshall stability and the indirect tensile tests for conditioned and control specimens. Softening point, penetration and ductility of rubber and plastic modified asphalt cement were determined using ASTM D36, ASTM D5 and ASTM D113, respectively.

55-60 50-55

acceptable requirement is 50% to be a type C fly ash (Conner 1990). Type C fly ash, used in this study, has a higher lime content than type F fly ash and therefore it can be self-cementing.
Petroleum contaminated soil (PCS)

Petroleum drilling waste was used as petroleum contaminated soil. Wastes contain drilling mud and cuttings. Drilling mud is normally classified as oil-based or waterbased (Rogers 1963). Drilling cuttings are the solid cuttings which are brought to the surface from a well during boring. PCS consists of chloride, barite, bentonite clay, caustic soda, carboxyl methyl cellulose and crude oil.

Downloaded from wmr.sagepub.com at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia on November 3, 2012

Waste Management & Research

85

Mustafa Tuncan, Ahmet Tuncan, Altan Cetin

Fig. 2: Grain Size Distributions of Crumb Rubber.

Preparation of rubber and plastic modified asphalt cement mixtures

First, asphalt cement was heated in an oven at a temperature of at least 160C. Second, the required amount of asphalt was weighed into the beaker, then the amount of rubber and plastic required to yield the desired rubber-toasphalt ratio or plastic-to-asphalt ratio was added. The beaker was placed on a hot plate to maintain a mixing temperature of at least 160C. Third, the laboratory mixer was
Table 2: Properties of Asphalt Cement. Properties Penetration [0.1 mm] at 25C, 100 g, 5 s (ASTM D5) Softening Point [0C], ring and ball (ASTM D36) Ductility [10 mm] at 25C (ASTM D113) Specific Gravity (ASTM D70) Values 83 45 100+ 1.024

placed so that the propeller was about 15 mm above the bottom of the beaker. The mixer was then started, and the prepared amount of rubber or plastic was added gradually to the beaker while stirring. The speed of the mixer was increased up to 500 rpm. The mixing was continued for at least 30 minutes until a homogeneous rubber or plastic modified binder was obtained. Finally, the rubber or the plastic modified asphalt cement was mixed with the heated aggregate to prepare rubber or plastic modified asphalt concrete mixtures.
Preparation of industrial waste modified asphalt concrete mixtures

Five percent of stone powder was replaced by an equal weight of industrial waste finer than the No. 200 sieve. These wastes were oven dried at 105C before using as fillers. Specimens were prepared according to the Marshall test procedure (ASTM D1559).

Table 3: Properties of Filler Materials. Type of Filler Specific Gravity (ASTM D854) 2.33 2.66 2.72 pH (EPA Method 9045) 12.34 8.74 9.69 Electrical Conductivity [mS/cm] (Wilcox 1946) 10.38 35.8 0.24 Organic Matter Content [%] (ASTM D2974) 1.1 6.51 1.5

Fly ash Petroleum Contaminated Soil Marble Powder

86

Waste Management & Research Downloaded from wmr.sagepub.com at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia on November 3, 2012

The use of waste materials in asphalt concrete mixtures

Table 4: Marshal Stability Test Results of Control Specimens. Properties Asphalt Content [%] Bulk Specific Gravity Void Total Mix [%] Flow [mm] Stability [kN] Values 4.5 2.470 2.33 2.44 15.53

Experimental results
The effect of rubber and plastic concentration and rubber particle size on properties of asphalt cement

Fig. 3: Scanning Electron Microscopy Pictures of : (a) Crumb Rubber Sample (between No. 40 and No. 60); (b) Plastic Sample.

Fig. 5a shows that the softening points of the asphalt cement increases with an increase in the amount of rubber and plastic added. In the case of plastic, there is a chemical reaction between the asphalt and plastic. Therefore, plastic modified asphalt cement has a very high softening point. Addition of rubber and plastic reduces susceptibility to temperature of asphalt cement according to softening points. Fig. 5b shows that the penetration decreases with an increase in the amount of rubber and plastic in the asphalt cement. Asphalt cement with No. 4-20 rubber particle sizes shows higher penetration, whereas asphalt cement with No. 4-200 and No. 20-200 rubber particle sizes shows the lowest penetration. Addition of rubber generally improves the viscosity of asphalt cement. Fig. 5c shows that the ductility of asphalt cement decreases with

Fig. 4: Hydrometer Analyses of Industrial Wastes.

Downloaded from wmr.sagepub.com at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia on November 3, 2012

Waste Management & Research

87

Mustafa Tuncan, Ahmet Tuncan, Altan Cetin

The effect of rubber and plastic on asphalt concrete mixtures

Marshall stability and flow test

The Marshall stability test results of control specimens prepared with an optimum asphalt cement content of 4.5% are given in Table 4. The variation of Marshall stability and flow values are given in Fig. 6. It was found that while the addition of rubber decreased the Marshall stability, the addition of plastic increased it. This is because plastic melts in the asphalt cement and therefore binds the aggregates. Marshall stability of rubber modified asphalt concrete specimens are above the limit value of 8.83 kN (Standard 1994), except with the addition of 20% rubber between No. 4 and No. 20 sieves. Marshall stability significantly decreased after adding 10% rubber. Addition of rubber increased the flow properties of asphalt concrete mixtures. However, the addition of plastic decreased it. When the Marshall stability and flow test standard is applied, the flow values of modified mixtures are within the limits of 2 mm and 4 mm (Standard 1994). While the flow values of crumb rubber particle sizes between No. 20 and No. 200 sieves and between No. 4 and No. 200 sieves were within the limits, those of No.4-20 rubber particle sizes were above the limits. Therefore, this mixture was not suitable for the asphalt concrete pavement. The addition of rubber above 10% did not show good results according to the Marshall stability test (Al-Abdul Wahhab & Al-Amri 1991).
Indirect tensile strength test

Fig. 5: Effect of Rubber or Plastic Content on : (a) Softening Point; (b) Penetration; (c) Ductility of Asphalt Cement.

increasing rubber and plastic content. Asphalt cement with finer than No. 100 rubber particle size shows slightly higher ductility, whereas asphalt cement with No. 4-20 rubber particle sizes shows the lowest ductility. Asphalt cement with finer than No. 100 and No. 20-200 rubber particle sizes are more homogeneous than that of No. 4200 and No. 4-20 rubber particle sizes. Addition of coarse rubber particles reduces the penetration and ductility of asphalt cement. Addition of plastic in the asphalt cement also decreases the penetration and ductility to around zero and makes the asphalt cement very hard, stiff and brittle.

The indirect tensile strength test is very useful in predicting long-term flexible pavement performance (Foxworthy et al. 1996). The variations of indirect tensile strength with rubber and plastic content are given in Fig. 7. Indirect tensile strength of mixtures decreased as the amount of rubber increased. Addition of 20% rubber between No. 4 and No. 200 sieves decreased indirect tensile strength values by 7%. However, the largest decrease (36%) occurred by mixing rubber particle sizes between No. 20 and No. 200 sieves. This was because of the fine rubber particles in the mixture. When the rubber consisted of coarse rubber particles, indirect tensile strength increased. This occurred when the rubber particle sizes were used between No. 4 and No. 200 sieves. Tensile strength of plastic modified asphalt cement was increased, with an increase in the amount of plastic. Asphalt cement with 20% plastic increased the indirect tensile strength value by 69%. A chemical reaction occurred between the plastic and asphalt cement and also between the crumb rubber and asphalt cement, therefore, the strength of specimens increased.

88

Waste Management & Research Downloaded from wmr.sagepub.com at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia on November 3, 2012

The use of waste materials in asphalt concrete mixtures

Fig. 7: Indirect Tensile Strength of Rubber or Plastic Modified Specimens.

Fig. 6: (a) Marshall Stability; (b) Flow Values of Rubber or Plastic Modified Specimens. Fig. 8: Compressive Strength of Rubber Modified Specimens.

Compressive strength test

The compressive strength test results are given in Fig. 8. While additions of 5% and 10% rubber increased the strength values by 10% and 5% respectively, compared to the control specimens, addition of 20% rubber decreased its value by 12%. Addition of rubber increased the strain capacity of specimens. Therefore, addition of rubber increased the flexibility and toughness. These results showed that the addition of rubber improved the strength of the pavement, as long as the amount added in the trial did not exceed about 12%.
Moisture susceptibility test

Damage to asphalt concrete pavements caused by moisture is an important problem. The moisture damage in asphalt concrete is due to the loss of adhesion or the loss of cohesion, but both mechanisms are interrelated (Hicks 1991). It can be seen from Fig. 9a that Marshall stability of rubber and plastic modified and conditioned specimens were slightly increased and decreased, respectively, compared to the control specimens. Indirect tensile strength of rubber

and plastic modified and conditioned specimens were slightly decreased compared to the control specimens (see Fig. 9b). Moisture susceptibility of the plastic modified and conditioned specimens was stronger than that of the rubber modified and conditioned specimens. While indirect tensile strength of rubber modified and conditioned specimens decreased compared to the control specimens, the Marshall stability of rubber modified and conditioned specimens increased. In fact, the Marshall stability of rubber modified and conditioned specimens should decrease compared to the control specimens. Therefore, Marshall stability did not show a good indication of the strength variations of rubber modified asphalt concrete mixtures. However, the indirect tensile strength test showed more reliable results than the Marshall stability test.
The effect of industrial wastes as filler material on asphalt concrete mixtures

Stone powder was replaced by fly ash, marble powder, rubber powder and petroleum contaminated soil (PCS) as a filler material. These wastes were sieved to pass the No.

Downloaded from wmr.sagepub.com at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia on November 3, 2012

Waste Management & Research

89

Mustafa Tuncan, Ahmet Tuncan, Altan Cetin

Fig. 9: (a) Marshall Stability; (b) Indirect Tensile Strength of Rubber or Plastic Modified Conditioned Test Specimens and Control Specimens.

Fig. 10: (a) Marshall Stability; (b) Flow Values of Industrial Waste Modified Specimens.

200 sieve. The Marshall stability and flow test, the indirect strength test, the compressive strength test and the moisture susceptibility test were performed on these industrial waste modified asphalt concrete mixtures.
Marshall stability and flow test

pared to the control specimens. It can be concluded that PCS negatively affects the asphalt concrete pavement. This is because it consists of bentonite clay and organic matter. The addition of fly ash showed the best result according to this test.
Compressive strength test

Marshall stability and flow test results are given in Fig. 10. While addition of rubber significantly reduced the Marshall stability value by 73%, addition of marble powder increased its value by 10% compared to the control specimens. Addition of PCS and fly ash decreased the Marshall stability values by 1% and 6%, respectively. When the Marshall stability and flow test standard is applied, the flow values of mixtures were within the limits of 2 mm and 4 mm (Standard 1994), except for rubber powder modified specimens. The addition of marble powder showed the best results according to the Marshall stability test.
Indirect tensile strength test

It can be seen from Fig. 12 that addition of marble powder and PCS decreased the compressive strength values by 11% and 27% respectively. However, there was no change with the addition of fly ash. There was a similarity between the results of the unconfined compressive test and the indirect tensile test. Addition of fly ash showed the best result for this test.
Moisture susceptibility test

The indirect tensile test results are given in Fig. 11. While addition of fly ash increased the indirect tensile strength value by 1.9%, additions of marble powder and PCS decreased its values by 0.7% and 25%, respectively, com-

While the addition of fly ash increased the Marshall stability of conditioned specimens compared to control specimens, the addition of other wastes decreased it (Fig. 13a). The addition of wastes decreased the indirect tensile strength of conditioned specimens (Fig. 13b). The addition of fly ash showed the best results according to the Marshall stability test. However, none of the wastes showed a good

90

Waste Management & Research Downloaded from wmr.sagepub.com at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia on November 3, 2012

The use of waste materials in asphalt concrete mixtures

result according to the indirect tensile test.

Conclusions
Addition of crumb rubber

Fig. 11: Indirect Tensile Strength of Industrial Waste Modified Specimens.

Fig. 12: Compressive Strength of Industrial Waste Modified Specimens.

(1)Addition of rubber increased the softening point and decreased the penetration and ductility of asphalt cement. Addition of coarse rubber particles disturbed the homogeneity and also reduced penetration, softening point and ductility of asphalt cement. Viscosity and susceptibility to temperature of asphalt cement were also improved. (2)Addition of rubber decreased the Marshall stability but increased the flow properties. All Marshall stability and flow values of rubber modified asphalt concrete specimens were within the limits of 8.3 kN and 2-4 mm (Standard 1994), respectively, except for addition of 20% rubber particle sizes used between No. 4 and No. 20 sieves according to the Marshall stability and flow test method. Marshall stability were reduced when the amount of rubber was more than 10%. (3)Addition of 10% rubber particle sizes between No. 4 and No. 20 sieves in modified specimens showed the best results according to the indirect tensile strength test. Indirect tensile strength values of 5% and 10% rubber modified mixtures were the same as those of the control specimens. (4)Addition of rubber increased strain capacity. Therefore, flexibility and toughness were improved. Compressive strength were reduced when the amount of rubber was more than 12%. (5)While the Marshall stability of conditioned specimens were slightly increased, indirect tensile strength of conditioned specimens decreased by 25% compared to the control specimens. Therefore, indirect tensile test apparently showed more reliable results than the Marshall stability test. Marshall stability test does not show the decrease in the stability of conditioned specimens.
Addition of plastic

Fig. 13: (a) Marshall Stability; (b) Indirect Tensile Strength of Industrial Waste Modified Conditioned Test Specimens and Control Specimens.

(1)Addition of plastic significantly increased the softening point and decreased the penetration and ductility of asphalt cement. Therefore, susceptibility to temperature and viscosity of asphalt cement were significantly increased. (2)While the addition of plastic to asphalt cement significantly increased Marshall stability and indirect tensile strength, it decreased the flow properties. This is because plastic melts when it is mixed with asphalt

Downloaded from wmr.sagepub.com at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia on November 3, 2012

Waste Management & Research

91

Mustafa Tuncan, Ahmet Tuncan, Altan Cetin

cement, therefore, stronger mixtures are obtained. This is due to the chemical reaction between the plastic and the asphalt cement. It also makes the asphalt cement very hard, stiff and brittle. (3)Addition of plastic significantly increased the indirect tensile strength of specimens.
Using industrial wastes as filler material

Additions of fly ash and marble powder showed the best results among the industrial wastes used in this study. However, addition of rubber powder showed the worst

result among them because of its very low specific gravity compared to the others. Fly ash and marble powder can be safely used instead of stone powder as a filler material in the asphalt concrete pavement. While the addition of petroleum contaminated soil (PCS) significantly decreased the indirect tensile and compressive strength, it did not decrease Marshall stability. This is because PCS contains bentonite clay and organic matter. It can be concluded that the indirect tensile test showed more reliable results than the Marshall stability test.

References
Annual Book of ASTM Standard (1993) Paving management technologies,Road and Paving Materials. Vol. 04.03, Philadelphia, Pa, USA: ASTM. AASHTO guide for design of pavement structures (1993) American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), Washington, D.C. Al-Abdul-Wahhab, H. & Al-Amri, G. (1991) Laboratory evaluation of reclaimed rubber asphaltic concrete mixes. J. of Materials in Civil Engineering, ASCE, 3(3), pp. 189203. Ali, N., Chan, J.S., Simms, S., Bushman, R. & Bergan, A.T. (1996) Mechanistic evaluation of fly ash asphalt concrete mixtures. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, ASCE, 8 (1), pp. 1925. Brown, S.F. (1978) Material characteristics for analytical pavement design. Development in Highway Pavement Engineering, Applied Science Publishers Ltd., London, England,1, pp. 4192. Conner, J.R. (1990) Chemical fixation and solidification of hazardous wastes. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 692. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (1986) Test methods for evaluating solid waste. U.S. Office of Solids Waste, Vol. 1 and 2, SW 846, 3rd Ed., Washington, D.C. Haas, R.C., Thompson, E., Meyer, F. & Tessier, G.R. (1983) The role of additives in asphalt paving technology. Proceeding of the Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, 52, pp. 324344. Hicks, R.G. (1991) Moisture damage in asphalt concrete. NCHRP Synthesis of Highway Practice 175, Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, Washington, D.C. Flynn, L. (1993) Recycled plastic finds home in asphalt binder. Roads & Bridges, pp. 4148. Foxworthy, P .T., Nadimpalli, R.S. & Seals, R.K. (1996) Phosphogypsum slag aggregate-based asphaltic concrete mixes. Journal of Transportation Engineering, ASCE, 122(4), pp. 300307. Khedaywi, T.S., Tamimi, A.R., Al-Masaeid, H.R. & Khamaiseh, K. (1994) Laboratory investigation of properties of asphalt-rubber concrete mixtures. Transportation Research Record. No. 1417, Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., pp. 9398. Lalwani, S., Abushihada, A. & Halasa, A. (1982) Reclaimed rubber-asphalt blends measurement of rheological properties to access toughness resiliency, consistency and temperature sensitivity. Proceeding of the Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists. 51, pp. 562579. Meegoda, J.N., Mueller, R.T. & Palise, F. (1996) Salvaging petroleum-contaminated soils for highway construction. In: Transportation Research Board, TR News, National Research Council, 184, pp 4042. Oliver, J.W. (1982) Optimising the improvements obtained by the digestion of comminuted scrap rubbers in paving asphalt. Proceeding of the Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, 51, pp. 169188. Rogers, F.W. (1963) Composition and properties of oil well drilling fluids. Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, Texas, 178. Turkish General Directorate for Highways (TCK) (1994) Standard for highways. No.170/2, Ankara, Turkey, 435 (in Turkish). Wilcox, J.C. (1946) Determination of electrical conductivity of soil solution. Science Agronomy, 32, pp. 107117.

92

Waste Management & Research Downloaded from wmr.sagepub.com at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia on November 3, 2012