A modied wall boundary condition for multi-perforated walls

Ph. Grenard

, D. Scherrer
ONERA The French Aerospace Lab, FR-91761 Palaiseau, France
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 25 April 2013
Received in revised form 17 July 2013
Accepted 24 July 2013
Keywords:
Effusion cooling
Model
Multiperforation
Full coverage lm cooling
CFD
a b s t r a c t
In this work, an analytical solver has been developed to evaluate the mass, momentum and energy trans-
fer from the high pressure (generally cold) side to the low pressure (generally hot) side of a multiperfo-
rated plate. This solver has been implemented into a CFD code to connect the boundary conditions on
both sides of the plate. It takes into account the thermal behaviour of the cooling device through the ana-
lytical resolution of a differential equation for the plate and uid temperature through the holes. The goal
is to develop a robust and simple yet accurate model that can take effusion cooling into account. The
behaviour of the model was evaluated with respect to some parameters. The model was then applied
to a complex geometry.
2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
In modern air-breathing engines, combustion chambers and
turbine blades have to sustain really high heat uxes that would
lead to considerable damages if not cooled. A lot of techniques
have been developed to achieve a sufcient cooling to keep reason-
able mechanical properties of the walls sustaining high tempera-
tures. Such devices can consist in lm cooling, where a cold uid
is going through a few rows of holes and develops a cooling lm
on the hot side of the plate. Another device consists in transpira-
tion cooling where the cold uid propagates through a porous
material. However, even if transpiration cooling is one of the most
effective way to cool a plate, porous plates cannot sustain heavy
mechanical stresses while the lm created by lm cooling some-
times disappears too quickly. An alternative way to cool a plate
is to use so-called full coverage lm cooling (or sometimes effusion
cooling). This is done by piercing thousands of small (diameter less
than 1 mm) holes per square meter into a solid plate. With this
technology, high mechanical loads can be achieved and the cooled
lm is constantly supplied with fresh uid.
Concerning full coverage lm cooling, several experimental
studies have been conducted to evaluate correlations for specic
hole designs [1,3] or more general dependence on adimensional
parameters [2,5]. Other experimental work permits quality de-
tailed measurements of aerodynamic behaviour on the vicinity of
a hole and/or thermal efciency behind a hole or on several row
of holes [4,68,13,12]. These experimental data are usually used
to generate global correlations to describe thermal behaviour of
full coverage lm cooling.
Numerical studies generally use unsteady methods (LES or
DNS) through one hole with periodic pattern [9,10] or with ther-
mal coupling to the wall [15]. These approaches are limited to a
few number of holes for RANS methods, not to speak of LES ap-
proach. Indeed, from a numerical point of view, a computation
of a whole combustion chamber with thousands of small holes
is unthinkable due to the differences in the size of the holes com-
pared to the full geometry and the size of the resulting mesh.
However it is mandatory to recover the effect of the lm from
both the thermal and uid mechanics point of view in order to
get reasonable results.
This paper is oriented towards a global approach: the goal is to
limit the use of global correlation but also to avoid high compu-
tational costs by developing a boundary condition coupling an
analytical thermal model for the plate to a full 3D stationary
CFD of the ow outside of the holes. Such approach has already
been followed by Mendez and Nicoud [10] for example for the
aerodynamic part. The real interest of this boundary condition
is the coupling with the thermal problem, which is the real prob-
lem in combustion chamber design. Moreover, this new model is
interesting in terms of numerical cost since it is completely
analytical.
A coupled wall-uid thermal and mechanical quasi-steady 1-D
problem is analytically solved to get all the plate and hole physical
description from both the cold and hot sides of the plate. This mod-
el has been used to compute a full 3-D case representative of a test
bench combustion chamber to validate its behaviour.
0017-9310/$ - see front matter 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2013.07.078

Corresponding author. Tel.: +33 (0)1 80 38 60 02; fax: +33 (0)1 80 38 61 62.
E-mail addresses: philippe.grenard@onera.fr (Ph. Grenard), dominique.scher-
rer@onera.fr (D. Scherrer).
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 67 (2013) 1624
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer
j our nal homepage: www. el sevi er . com/ l ocat e/ i j hmt
2. Computational problematics
The boundary condition developed in this paper has been de-
signed to take into account both the aerodynamics (mass, impul-
sion and energy uxes at the perforated wall) through the holes
and the thermal behaviour of the multiperforated plate. This is
achieved by solving a coupled system of differential equations on
the temperature of both the uid and the solid through the plate.
In order to come up with an analytical solution for the model, sim-
ple assumptions have been made.
The replacement of a full computational approach to the simpli-
ed model is illustrated in Fig. 1. Both meshes of cooling hole and
solid plate are replaced by an explicit set of equations solved ana-
lytically. This also permits larger cells at the wall and thus a possi-
bility to compute a full plate and not only a few holes for the same
computational effort.
The rst cells on both sides of the multiperforated plate are rep-
resented. The computational uid dynamics resolution gives the
state of the uid on both sides, that is the pressure, temperature,
velocity, mass fractions and turbulent properties for both internal
cells (1) and (2). These are the inputs of our model.
The basic idea of the model is to link these two cells for the
aerodynamics (with mass ow and impulsion uxes applied on
the wall faces of the cells) and for the thermal behaviour (wall tem-
perature computed from the model and imposed as a boundary
condition for the uid). These uxes and wall temperatures have
to be modelled so that they can be computed explicitly from the
uid state on both sides of the plate.
Fig. 2 presents the nomenclature used in the following equa-
tions.
1
will always refer to the local high pressure side (low tem-
perature, generally for the cooling) while
2
will refer to the local
low pressure side (high temperature, inner part of the combustion
chamber for example). With these notation,
1
will always be the
succion side whereas
2
will be the blowing side of the plate as the
uid only goes from high pressure to low pressure regions. Sec-
tion 3 will present the thermal model formulation. Section 4 will
present the submodels used here which are really simple for this
rst step. Effort is to be undertaken on these models to get more
accurate results. Section 5 will nally present the model behaviour
as well as the test cases computed to evaluate the feasibility of this
approach for full 3D, two phase ow, turbulent and reactive Na-
vierStokes computation.
3. Model formulation
All geometric parameters are represented in Fig. 3. Only the
main equations are presented in this section. For more precisions
on the geometric parameters and balance equation formulations,
see Appendix A.
The porosity e
p
is dened in the rest of the paper as the total
area of the holes cross sections per area of multiperforated plate
bearing these holes, i.e. the area of the hole sections in a plane
List of Symbols
Latin
C
P
heat capacity
d hole axis direction vector
e plate thickness
h heat transfer coefcient
n density of holes
P pressure
P
e
equivalent perimeter
r hole radius
S surface area
T temperature
u velocity vector
V
f
bulk velocity in the holes
z direction vector normal to the plate
Greek
a angle between holes and plate normal: cos a d n
e
p
porosity
k thermal conductivity of the plate
q density
h temperature difference (between plate and uid)
Subscript
aw adiabatic wall
f uid
w wall (solid part)
1 high pressure side of the plate
2 low pressure side of the plate
Fig. 1. Representation of the simplied approach. Fig. 2. Nomenclature used in the wall model.
Ph. Grenard, D. Scherrer / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 67 (2013) 1624 17
perpendicular to the axis of these holes divided by the area of the
plate bearing these holes. If n is the density of holes in the plate, i.e.
the number of holes per area of multiperforated plate, the porosity
reads e
p
npr
2
. In order to put in equation the coupled thermal
systembetween the plate and the holes, we need to dene the uid
and wall sections (respectively S
f
and S
w
) of one pattern normal to
the z direction as well as an equivalent perimeter P
e
of exchange
between the uid and plate. These parameters are dened as:
S
f

pr
2
cosa
; S
w
pr
2
1
e
p

1
cosa
_ _
; P
e

2pr
cosa
: 1
Considering that the uid is mainly driven by convection and
that diffusion is negligible, the heat equation in the uid is a con-
vection-source equation, which takes the form:
qV
f
C
p
f
pr
2
dT
f
dz
P
e
h
f
T
w
T
f
; 2
where h
f
is the heat transfer exchange coefcient between the plate
and the uid into the holes. This value has to be modelled and is
supposed to be independent with respect to z. qV
f
is the mass ow
rate per surface unit through one hole and pr
2
represents the cross
section of one hole.
As there is no convection in the plate, the heat equation in the
solid part is a conduction-source equation which reads:
pr
2
1
e
p

1
cosa
_ _
k
w
d
2
T
w
dz
2
P
e
h
f
T
w
T
f
; 3
where k
w
is the plate thermal conductivity.
When deriving the uid Eq. (2) and substracting from Eq. (3),
one can write the following equation on the variable h T
w
T
f
:
d
2
h
dz
2

2h
f
r cosaqV
f
C
Pf
dh
dz

2h
f
e
p
rk
w
cosa e
p

h 0: 4
This equation may raise several particular cases. The rst one is
r ! 0. Physically, this means that the hole does not exist anymore
and we have only a solid plate. The equation (and even the deni-
tion) of qV
f
, the mass ow rate of the uid in the hole has no more
meaning. This case will not be treated. We will therefore consider
r > 0.
The second particular case would be cosa ! 0. As a represent
the angle of the holes to the normal of the plate, this would mean
that the holes are tangent to the plate, which has no meaning. This
case is not physically possible, and we will assume cosa > 0.
The last particular case is cosa e
p
! 0. But the denition of
the porosity gives e
p
npr
2
which would lead to
pr
2
cosa

1
n
. The left
hand side of this last equation is the plane surface of the hole while
the right hand side is the total surface (plate + hole) of one pattern:
this equality is impossible unless there is no plate, which is out of
the scope of this work. In the following we will therefore assume
that cosa e
p
> 0.
Another particular case is qV
f
! 0 which can happen with high
probability during computation. We will consider that qV
f
> 0 and
the asymptotic behaviour of the solutions will be addressed in
Appendix C.
To fully solve this set of coupled differential equation, we need
at least 3 boundary conditions (2 for the second degree equation
for T
w
and 1 for the rst degree equation for T
f
). These boundary
conditions are chosen as follows:
hj
z0
T
w1
T
f 1
; 5
dT
w
dz

z0

h
1
k
w
T
w1
T
aw
1
; 6
dT
w
dz

ze

h
2
k
w
T
w2
T
aw
2
: 7
h
i
and T
aw
i
are respectively the heat transfer coefcient and adia-
batic wall temperature of both sides of the plate. These quantities
are computed by the uid solver with, for example, a wall function
approach.
Eq. (4) has an analytical solution and using the set of boundary
conditions (5)(7), one can obtain analytical function for T
w
z and
T
f
z. Using the fact that, in one hand, T
w2
T
w
e and, on the other
hand, introducing the solution T
w
z in the Eq. (7), we can obtain
two equations coupling T
w1
and T
w2
which can be inverted to ex-
press the values of temperature on both sides of the plate, used
as thermal boundary conditions for the uid solver. Details of the
resolution as well as for the analytical expression of these temper-
atures are given in Appendix B.
4. Submodels
From the coupled equation and boundary conditions (Eqs. (4)
(7),) the thermal solution of the problem (values of T
f
2
, T
w
1
and T
w
2
)
can be analytically computed from T
aw
1
, T
aw
2
, T
f 1
as well as the
knowledge of the mass ow rate qV
f
and of the heat transfer coef-
cients h
f
, h
1
and h
2
. While T
aw
1
, T
aw
2
, T
f 1
, h
1
and h
2
are given by the
uid solver, qV
f
and h
f
need to be modelled.
4.1. Mass ow rate
The mass ow rate is taken as qV
f
C
D

2qDP
_
where
DP P
1
P
2
> 0. The discharge coefcient C
D
takes into account
several effects such as then inclination of the holes in respect to
the incoming ow eld (the change of direction of the uid creates
a head loss d
a
), the friction along the wall of the holes (this is a
function of the Reynolds number inside the hole and of l=D. This
head loss is modelled through d
f
) and the real geometry of the hole
compared to an ideal geometry (this is done through the use of a
coefcient C
geom
). The mass ow rate into the hole is thus given
by a formula of the form:
qV
f
C
0
D
C
geom

1 d
a
d
f
_

2qDP
_
: 8
The values of the different parameters have been evaluated through
the use of detailed computations on several holes with meshing of
the holes and thermal coupling to the wall.
4.2. Heat transfer coefcient inside the holes
As the owinside these holes is turbulent, for long tubes (
l
D
) 1)
this Nusselt number can be expressed as Nu 0:023Pr
0:33
Re
0:8
Dh
(Colburn correlation). However, this is only the limit as
l
D
) 1 and
for reasonable values of the Reynolds number, which is barely the
case for thin plates where we have roughly
l
D
1 ! 10. As a rst
Fig. 3. Geometric parameters used in the wall model.
18 Ph. Grenard, D. Scherrer / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 67 (2013) 1624
step, we decided to choose Mills Nusselt correlation [11] which is
basically the Colburn formula multiplied by a corrective function
which depends on
l
D
:
Nu 0:023Pr
0:33
Re
0:8
Dh
1
7:48
l=D

26:5
l=D
2

58:6
l=D
3

49:3
l=D
4
_ _
: 9
A review of several other correlations is made by Nguyen and Dori-
gnac [12]. The heat transfer coefcient inside the holes is then de-
ned as h
f
Nu
k
D
.
5. Validation
5.1. Model behaviour analysis
The model behaviour was evaluated with respect to 3 parame-
ters: the plate thickness e, the porosity e
p
and the hole diameter d.
All other parameters have been xed to usual values for such a
cooling device. Nominal values of e; e
p
and d are denoted with a
0 index. Fig. 4 presents the proles of reduced temperature for
the uide (g
f
) and the solid (g
w
) dened as g
i

T
i
T
1
T
2
T
1
with
z/e
0
f
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
e=e
0
/4
e=e
0
/2
e=e
0
e=2e
0
e=4e
0
z/e
0
w
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
e=e
0
/4
e=e
0
/2
e=e
0
e=2e
0
e=4e
0
Fig. 4. Reduced temperature (left: uid, right: solid) proles for different plate thickness.
z/e
0
f
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
p
=
p
/4
p
=
p
/2
p
=
p
p
=2
p
p
=4
p
z/e
0
w
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
p
=
p
/4
p
=
p
/2
p
=
p
p
=2
p
p
=4
p
Fig. 5. Reduced temperature (left: uid, right: solid) proles along the hole for different porosity.
z/e
0
f
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
d=d
0
/4
d=d
0
/2
d=d
0
d=2d
0
d=4d
0
z/e
0
w
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
d=d
0
/4
d=d
0
/2
d=d
0
d=2d
0
d=4d
0
Fig. 6. Reduced temperature (left: uid, right: solid) proles along the hole for different hole diameter.
Ph. Grenard, D. Scherrer / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 67 (2013) 1624 19
i f ; w. In Fig. 4, for small values of plate thickness, the proles are
almost linear. The prole of wall temperature is nearly centred
around a reduced temperature of 1/2 (a bit less due to the cooling).
As the plate thickness increases, more exchange occurs between
the coolant uid and the wall, leading to curved proles and higher
amplitude for the temperature variations inside the hole and in the
plate.
Fig. 5 exhibits the evolution of the temperature proles for the
uid and the wall with all parameters to their nominal value ex-
cept the porosity. With a xed hole diameter, a higher porosity
leads to a higher exchange surface between the uid and the plate
inside all the holes: the plate is thus better cooled, leading to lower
values of temperature and non-linear proles.
Fig. 6 highlights the effect of a diameter change of the holes at
xed porosity and xed plate thickness. The total section of the
holes per surface unit of perforated wall is then xed. When the
diameter increases (respectively decreases), the number of holes
per surface unit decreases (resp. increases) proportionally to d
2
.
The surface of exchange is however linked to the number of holes
multiplied by their perimeter, so that the surface of exchange be-
tween the plate and the uid is linked to the inverse of the diam-
eter. Thus, at xed porosity, an increase in diameter leads to lower
heat exchange for the plate. This effect is visible on the right part of
Fig. 6. With higher solid temperature, one would also expect higher
uid temperature for a given hole. When the diameter of the hole
increases, the mass ow of uid inside a single hole is higher (pro-
portional to d
2
). This effect tends to lower the temperature of the
uid because the enthalpy given by the plate to the uid becomes
small compared to the enthalpy introduced by the uid ow. Since
the rate of convected enthalpy is linked to d
2
while the exchange of
enthalpy with the wall is linked to d, the global effect on the uid
temperature inside a single hole is to decrease the uid tempera-
ture when the hole diameter increases (every other parameters
being kept constant), which is shown in the left part of Fig. 6.
Fig. 7 presents the heat exchanged between the plate and the
uid inside a single hole, for different plate thickness, porosity
and hole diameters. For a single hole, increasing plate thickness
leads to higher exchange. This effect is enhanced by higher hole
diameter as the surface of exchange is higher in that case. On the
contrary, increasing the porosity with xed diameter leads to a
smaller exchange inside a given hole, caused by a lower plate tem-
perature leading to a smaller difference of temperature between
plate and uid. However, an increase in porosity with xed hole
diameter also means a higher number of holes: as shown in
Fig. 8 which presents the heat exchange for the whole plate, an in-
crease in porosity leads to higher global exchange per surface unit
of perforated plate.
The heat exchange is closely linked to the surface of exchange
between the uid and the solid. For the whole plate, the number
of holes is proportional to e
p
=d
2
, and the surface of exchange of a
single hole is proportional to e d, so that the full surface exchange
is proportional to e
p
e=d. In fact, Fig. 9 presents all data for e ie
0
,
e
p
je
p0
and d kd
0
with i; j; k 2 1; 10
3
. These data are plotted
versus the dimensionless parameter e
p
e=d. The small dispersion
of the data shows that the global heat exchange is mainly piloted
by that parameter. In order to maximize heat exchange in such de-
vices, the parameter e
p
e=d has thus to be maximized and may be
used to dene a priori effectiveness of that kind of device.
5.2. Application to an industrial-type geometry
The model has been applied to a ramjet-like geometry, with
meshing of technological effects such as injectors geometry, evol-
utive cooling channel geometry, air intakes details, . . . . This geom-
etry consists in two air intakes on the side of a combustion
chamber, which resembles the research ramjet described in [14].
The symmetry plane behind air intakes will be referred to as 0
while the symmetry plane between air intakes will be 90.
On this complex geometry, measurements of pressure on both
sides of the multiperforated plate along with temperature on the
cooling side of the plate have been performed.
We rst computed test cases without combustion (as tested on
the test-bench). A result for a middle pressure condition is shown
in Fig. 10: the pressures computed on both sides of the plate and on
two lines along the engine shows very good agreement with
measurements.
e/e
0
Q
/
Q
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
p
=
p0
p
= 3
p0
p
= 5
p0
p
= 7
p0
p
= 9
p0
d
0
3d
0
p
9d
0
7d
0
5d
0
d
Fig. 7. Heat exchanged inside 1 hole versus plate thickness for different porosity
and hole diameters.
e/e
0
Q
/
Q
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
0
5
10
15
20
25
p
=
p0
p
=4
p0
p
=8
p0
d=d
0
d=4d
0
d=8d
0
Fig. 8. Heat exchanged for the whole plate versus plate thickness for different
porosity and hole diameters.
p
e/d
Q
/
Q
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
0
5
10
15
20
25
Fig. 9. Heat exchanged for the whole plate versus dimensionless factor epe=d.
20 Ph. Grenard, D. Scherrer / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 67 (2013) 1624
Two ight conditions have then been treated with liquid drop-
lets injections and turbulent combustion model: low pressure (LP)
and high pressure cases (HP). Pressure evolution and temperature
on the cold side of the plate are given in Fig. 11 for the low pressure
case and in Fig. 12 for the high pressure case. To take into account
lateral diffusion, a post processing involving a gaussian lter on the
surface temperature was used. The gaussian lter uses a typical
length d

ke
2h
_
issued from a simplied local heat equation. The l-
tered data is designed as smoothed on Figs. 11 and 12.
Both low pressure (Fig. 11) and high pressure (Fig. 12)
computations exhibit a quite good agreement with test bench
measurements, leading to a satisfactory resolution of the plate
temperature despite the simplications introduced by the model.
The location of high temperature and the shape of the proles
are quite well recovered, which is satisfactory taking into account
the physical complexity (droplets evolution, evaporation, turbu-
lence, combustion, perforated wall). Although the model still lacks
accurate predictability on temperature levels, these results allowed
Fig. 10. Pressure evolution on both sides of the plate for the middle pressure case on a realistic geometry (no combustion).
Fig. 11. Pressure evolution (up) and temperature evolution (down) for the low pressure case.
Ph. Grenard, D. Scherrer / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 67 (2013) 1624 21
its use in order to help create a new design for the chamber by
understanding and limiting the high temperature zones.
Since the temperature proles obtained by the computations
are so different depending on the position of the cutting plane
(0 or 90), transversal conduction may have an averaging effect
on the temperature, augmenting lower temperatures (obtained
for 0) and diminishing the higher one (obtained for 90). The
sharpness of the temperature prole near high values might also
be averaged by this effect. This would probably lead to more pre-
cise results. This remark can be reinforced by the fact that in zones
where the temperature evolution is slowand the difference of tem-
perature between 0 and 90 proles is limited, the model gives a
more accurate value of the temperature if the pressure prole is
accurately obtained. This effect is shown by the differences be-
tween smoothed and initial proles in Figs. 11 and 12.
6. Conclusion and perspectives
By solving a coupled set of stationary equations on both the
uid and the solid of the multiperforated plate, a global model
for both heat and mass transfer through the perforated plate was
achieved. This model needs, in addition to the external uid state
from both sides of the plate, some submodels to give analytical
evaluation of uid mass ow, momentum and temperature
through the plate and solid temperature on both sides of the plate.
Some of these submodels come from well-known correlations, oth-
ers have been derived from detailed computations on multiple
holes. This model was then applied to a full coverage lm cooled
chamber on two run condition and proved to show satisfactory re-
sults in respect to the level of simplication.
Boundary conditions from this model are given through the
evaluation of the inlet uid temperature inside the holes as well
as the heat transfer coefcient and adiabatic wall temperature on
both sides of the plate. To the author point of view, this model
could be largely improved by modifying the treatment of the near
wall ow based on boundary layer prole for porous plate with
succion or blowing (the classical u

1
j
lny

C formulation is
no more valid in case of blowing or succion, leading to biased eval-
uation of friction and heat transfer coefcient). That evolution may
permit to get more accurate results on the wall temperature on
both sides of the plate with a reasonable computational cost com-
pared to coupled computations.
Appendix A. Balance equation development
Different geometric parameters are used in the balance equa-
tions for both the uid and the plate. They are presented in Fig. 3
and described hereafter.
Hole parameters
The volume and side surface of an inclined hole are respectively
given by pr
2
e= cosa and 2pre= cosa. In order to put in equation
the thermally coupled problem between the uid in the holes and
the plate, the privileged direction is z, and not the classical hole
direction d. Thus, the elementary element between z and z dz is
a piece of the inclined hole of thickness dz in place of the full thick-
ness e (see Fig. 3): its volume and surface are similarly given by
dV pr
2
dz= cosa and dS 2prdz= cosa. One can thus dene
Fig. 12. Pressure evolution (up) and temperature evolution (down) for the high pressure case.
22 Ph. Grenard, D. Scherrer / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 67 (2013) 1624
an equivalent section of uid S
f
and an equivalent perimeter of ex-
change P
e
such that dV S
f
dz and dS P
e
dz. With this denition,
S
f
pr
2
= cosa and P
e
2pr= cosa.
Plate parameters
For porous medium, the porosity is classically dened as the ra-
tio of holes volume to the total volume of the medium. Moreover,
for homogeneous material (translation invariant properties), this
denition is equivalent to the ratio between holes section to the
medium section (perpendicular to the normal direction). However,
for multiperforated plate, as all holes are similar (both in angle and
direction), another denition of the porosity is also often used.
According to this denition, the porosity is the total area of the
holes cross sections per area of multiperforated plate bearing these
holes, i.e. the area of the hole sections in a plane perpendicular to
the axis of these holes divided by the area of the plate bearing
these holes. This is the denition that is considered in this paper.
If n is the density of holes in the plate, i.e. the number of holes
per area of multiperforated plate, the porosity reads e
p
npr
2
.
We also need to express the surface of uid normal to z
(S
f
pr
2
= cosa, as dened previously) as well as the surface of
wall material S
w
normal to z. This is obviously done using the fact
that S
f
S
w

1
n

pr
2
ep
leading to: S
w
pr
2 1
ep

1
cosa
_ _
.
Balance equation for the uid
We consider the variation of temperature of the uid through
the wall to be one-dimensional. Thus the temperature of the uid
will read T
f
z. We also assume that the convection is much larger
than conduction in the mean direction of the ow for the uid and
we are looking for a steady state formulation. A balance on a small
inclined hole of angle a and height dz can be written:
qu SC
Pf
T
f
z dz T
f
z h
f
T
w
T
f
dS A:1
with u V
f
d, S S
f
z and dS P
e
dz. The scalar product on the left
hand side can then be written u S V
f
S
f
d z V
f
pr
2
. Using
dz ! 0 in Eq. (A.1) leads to Eq. (2).
Balance equation for the solid
We consider only one pattern of the solid, of section S
w
and
thickness dz. We also assume the temperature of the solid to be
one-dimensional and in a steady state: T
w
T
w
z. As there is no
convection in the plate, the balance equation on the elementary
element is:
S
w
k
w
dT
w
dz

zdz
k
w
dT
w
dz

z
_ _
h
f
T
w
T
f
dS A:2
Using previous expression of dS and using the fact that dz ! 0:
S
w
k
w
d
2
T
w
dz
2
P
e
h
f
T
w
T
f
A:3
Substituting the expression of S
w
in Eq. (A.3) leads to Eq. (3).
Appendix B. Equations solution
h-Equation solution
Since cosa e
p
> 0, Eq. (4) can be rewritten as
d
2
h
dz
2
2s
0
dh
dz
p
0
h 0;
with s
0

h
f
r cosaqV
f
C
Pf
; p
0

2h
f
e
p
rk
w
cosa e
p

: B:1
Lets also introduce a
0
dened by a
0

1
p
0
s
2
0
_
: we have s
0
< 0;
p
0
< 0; a
0
> 1.
The discriminant of this equation is d s
2
0
p
0
s
2
0
a
2
0
> 0. Thus
the system has a generic solution of the form:
h h

e
s
0
1a
0
z
h

e
s
0
1a
0
z
: B:2
Eq. (5) gives
h

T
w1
T
f 1
: B:3
Calculating the derivative of hz, with
dT
f
dz
2s
0
h, the derivative of
T
w
at z 0 can be expressed as
s
0
a
0
h

s
0
h

h
1
k
w
T
w1
T
aw
1
: B:4
This system is equivalent to:
h

T
w1
T
f 1
;
h

h
1
s
0
a
0
kw
T
w1
T
aw
1

T
w1
T
f 1
a
0
:
_
B:5
Noting a

a
0
1
2a
0
, a

a
0
1
2a
0
, e

z e
s
0
1a
0
z
and e

z e
s
0
1a
0
z
, the
function h is given by:
hz T
w1
T
f 1
a

z a

z
h
1
T
w1
T
aw
1

2s
0
a
0
k
w
e

z e

z:
B:6
Expression of T
w
and T
f
Eq. (2) is equivalent to
dT
f
dz
2s
0
h. By integration from 0 to z,
we obtain the expression of T
f
z. Since we also have T
w
h T
f
,
we nally obtain, with h
0

ep cosa
cosaep
qV
f
C
Pf
k
w
s
0
a
2
0
1
2
:
T
f
z T
f 1
T
w1
T
f 1

z e

z
a
0

h
1
h
0
T
w1
T
aw
1
1
a

z a

z; B:7
T
w
z T
f 1
T
w1
T
f 1
a

z a

z
h
1
h
0
T
w1
T
aw
1
1 a
0
a

2
e

z a
0
a
2
e

z; B:8
dT
w
dz
T
w1
T
f 1
2a
0
s
0
a

z e

z
h
1
k
w
T
w1
T
aw
1
a

z a

z: B:9
To simplify the expressions we will consider the following nota-
tions: e

e and e

e.
Using the fact that T
w2
T
w
e along with boundary condition
(7) leads to:
T
w2
A
1
T
w1
B
1
T
f 1
C
1
T
aw
1
T
aw
2
;
T
w2
A
2
T
w1
B
2
T
f 1
C
2
T
aw
1
;
_
B:10
with:
B
1

h
0
h
2
e

a
0
;
C
1

h
1
h
2
a

;
A
1
B
1
C
1
;
B
2
1
h
2
h
1
C
1
;
C
2

h
1
h
0
1 a
0
a

2
e

2
e

;
A
2
1 B
2
C
2
:
_

_
B:11
For A
1
A
2
this system can be inverted to express
T
w1

B
1
B
2
A
2
A
1
T
f 1

C
1
C
2
A
2
A
1
T
aw
1

1
A
2
A
1
T
aw
2
; B:12
T
w2

A
2
B
1
A
1
B
2
A
2
A
1
T
f 1

A
2
C
1
A
1
C
2
A
2
A
1
T
aw
1

A
2
A
2
A
1
T
aw
2
: B:13
The particular case A
1
A
2
(which has no obvious physical mean-
ing) is numerically avoided by considering a lower bound value
for jA
2
A
1
j. On the test cases computed so far, this only happens
during the transient phase of the computation, not for the steady
state solution. The expression of T
f
also gives the value of T
f 2
:
Ph. Grenard, D. Scherrer / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 67 (2013) 1624 23
T
f 2
T
f 1
T
w1
T
f 1

a
0
2
h
1
k
w
T
w1
T
aw
1
s
0
1 a
2
0

1:
B:14
Appendix C. Asymptotic behaviour
A singular case can happen in the equations when qV
f
! 0. The
probability to have this particular case during the computation is
not negligible, even if only during the transition to the steady state.
In this case, the equation for the uid would need to take diffusion
into account. However, the physical solution for such a case would
be T
w
T
f
. This is also the solution given by our convection-source
equation for the uid since the equation for the uid is derived for
the asymptotic solution in time: with no mass ow, the uid and
solid will eventually reach a thermal equilibrium.
When the value of the mass ow rate through the holes tends to
zero, the equation for the solid becomes
@
2
Tw
@z
2
0. The rst deriva-
tive of T
w
is thus constant, and using boundary conditions (6)
and (7) leads to
@T
w
@z

h
1
k
w
T
w1
T
aw
1

h
2
k
w
T
w2
T
aw
2
; C:1
T
w2
T
w1

h
1
e
k
w
T
w1
T
aw
1
: C:2
This can be inverted to get, with h
s

h
1
h
2
e
kw
T
w1

hsh
1
hs h
1
h
2
T
aw
1

h
2
hs h
1
h
2
T
aw
2
;
T
w2

hsh
2
hs h
1
h
2
T
aw
2

h
1
hs h
1
h
2
T
aw
1
;
_
_
_
C:3
which is the exact solution in the plate when qV
f
0.
When using the complete model, we can calculate Taylor series
near qV
f
0. We can express s
0

s
1

with ( 0. s
0
varies as
h
f
qV
f
and h
f
varies as Re
0:8
(Colburn correlation, see Section 4.2), then
varies as qV
f
_ _
0:2
. This gives the following for the different inter-
mediates of the model:
e

exp
s
1
e

! 0; e

1
p
1
e
2s
1

5
o
10
;
a

1
p
1
4s
2
1

6
o
11
; a

p
1
4s
2
1

6
o
11
;
a
0
1
p
1
2s
2
1

6
o
11
; h
0

kwp
1
2s
1

5
exact;
A
1

h
1
h
2

p
1
h
1
ekw
2s
1
h
2

5
o
6
;
A
2
1
h
1
e
kw
o
5
;
B
1

kwp
1
2s
1
h
2

5
o
10
; B
2

p
1
e
2s
1

5
o
6
;
C
1

h
1
h
2
1
p
1
e
2s
1

5
_ _
o
6
; C
2

h
1
e
kw
o
5
:
_

_
C:4
If we only keep terms in O1 this gives for T
w1
and T
w2
, with
h
s

h
1
h
2
e
kw
,
T
w1

hs h
1
hs h
1
h
2
T
aw
1

h
2
hsh
1
h
2
T
aw
2
;
T
w2

hs h
2
hs h
1
h
2
T
aw
2

h
1
hsh
1
h
2
T
aw
1
:
_
_
_
C:5
which is the same result as the one obtained in Eq. (C.3). Our model
gives a correct asymptotic behaviour for this limit.
References
[1] L. Arcangeli, B. Facchini, M. Surace, L. Tarchi, Correlative analysis of effusion
cooling systems, J. Turbomach. 130 (2008).
[2] M.K. Harrington et al., Full coverage lm cooling with short normal injection
holes, J. Turbomach. 123 (2001).
[3] N. Hay, S.E. Henshall, A. Manning, Discharge coefcients of holes angled to the
ow direction, J. Turbomach. 116 (1994).
[4] G.B. Kelly, D.G. Bogard, An investigation of the heat transfer for full coverage
lm cooling, in: Proceedings of ASME Turbo Expo 2003 Atlanta, Georgia, USA,
June, 2003, pp. 1619.
[5] B. Leger, G. Schott, G. Grienche, Experimental study of geometric effect for
design of multihole cooling for combustion chamber walls, in: RTO AVT
Symposium on Advanced Flow Management: Part B Heat Transfer and
Cooling in Propulsion and Power Systems Loen, Norway, 711 May 2001.
[6] B. Leger, P. Miron, J.M. Emidio, Geometric and aero-thermal inuences on
multiholed plate temperature: application on combustor wall, Int. J. Heat Mass
Transfer 46 (2003) 12151222.
[7] Y. Lin, B. Song, B. Li, G. Liu, Measured lm cooling effectiveness of three
multihole patterns, J. Heat Transfer 128 (Feb.) (2006).
[8] J. Ling, P.T. Ireland, L. Turner, Full coverage lm cooling for combustor
transition sections, in: Proceedings of ASME TURBO EXPO 2002, Amsterdam,
Netherlands, 36 June 2002.
[9] S. Mendez, F. Nicoud, Large-eddy simulation of a bi-periodic turbulent ow
with effusion, J. Fluid Mech. 598 (2008) 2765.
[10] S. Mendez, F. Nicoud, Adiabatic homogeneous model for ow around a
multiperforated plate, AIAA J. 46 (10) (2008) 26232633.
[11] A.F. Mills, Experimental investigation of turbulent heat transfer in thermal
entrance region of a circular conduit, J. Mech. Eng. Sci. 4 (1) (1962).
[12] P.H. Nguyen, E. Dorignac, Experimental study of convective exchange in a low
aspect ratio perforation: application to cooling of multiperforated wall, Exp.
Therm. Fluid Sci. 33 (2008) 114122.
[13] B. Petre, E. Dorignac, J.J. Vuillierme, Study of the inuence of the number of
holes rows on the convective heat transfer in the case of full coverage lm
cooling, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 46 (2003) 34773496.
[14] A. Ristori, A. Cochet, Research ramjet program: an initiative to improve
knowledge on ramjet reactive owelds, in: 4th ONERA/DLR Aerospace
Symposium, Kln, Germany, 1314 June 2002.
[15] F. Zhong, G.L. Brown, A 3-dimensional, coupled, DNS, heat transfer model and
solution for multi-hole cooling, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 50 (2007) 1328
1343.
24 Ph. Grenard, D. Scherrer / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 67 (2013) 1624