1

STATIC AEROELASTICITY -
LIFT DISTRIBUTION
2
Static Aeroelasticity
Study of flexible aircraft structures under aerodynamic loads
Aerodynamic loads affect structural shape and vice versa
Forces and motions are considered to be independent of time
Only steady aerodynamics needs to be considered
Static aeroelastic deflections flight wing shape
Estimation of jig shape from desired flight shape
Loads in steady flight conditions
Lift distribution
Drag forces (and hence range)
Effectiveness of the control surfaces
Aircraft trim behaviour
Static stability and control characteristics
Two critical phenomena
Divergence
Control reversal

Aerodynamic
loads
Wing bending
and twist
3
Static Aeroelastic
Behaviour of 2D Rigid
Aerofoil with Spring
Attachment
4
Iterative Analysis (1)
Aerofoil initial incidence
o
and elastic twist
Moment

Potential energy

Generalised moment

Lagrange

Assuming that pitching moment is not changed by twist
Twist causes new aerodynamic moment
Need to step between determining new load, new twist etc.

2 2 2 2
1 0 1 0 1 0
1 1
M V ca ec V ec a qec a
2 2

= u = u = u
`
)
2
1
U K
2
u
= u
( )
( )
( )
( )
2
1 0
2
1 0
qec a
W
Q qec a
u
c u ou
c o
= = = u
c ou c ou
2
2
1
1 0 0 0
qec a
K qec a qR
K
u
u
u = u u = u = u
2
1
ec a
R
K
u
=
5
Iterative Analysis (2)
1
st
iteration include initial incidence and elastic twist
potential energy term stays the same
Moment

New Twist Angle

Further Iterations
Repeat above process


In the limit

Approach analogous to coupled CFD / FE models (time marching)


2
1 0 0
M qec a ( qR ) = u + u
2
1 0 0
(1 qR)
qec a qR(1 qR)
K
u
+
u = u = + u
( ) ( ) ( )
2 3 4
0
qR 1 qR qR qR qR
(
u = + + + + + u

0
qR
(1 qR)
u = u

6
Single Step Analysis
Same aerofoil as before let incidence include unknown twist
Moment

Potential energy

Generalised moment

Lagrange

Twist

Same result as iterative analysis will use direct approach
2
1
U K
2
u
= u
2
1 0
M qec a ( ) = u +u
( )
( )
( )
( )
2
1 0
2
1 0
qec a ( )
W
Q qec a ( )
u
c u +u ou
c o
= = = u +u
c ou c ou
2 2 2
1 0 1 1 0
K qec a ( ) K qec a qec a
u u
( u = u +u u = u

2
1
0 0
2
1
qec a qR
K qec a (1 qR)
u
u = u = u

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
0
2
4
6
8
10
E
l
a
s
t
i
c

T
w
i
s
t

/

I
n
i
t
i
a
l

I
n
c
i
d
e
n
c
e
q/q
w
7
Divergence
Consider elastic twist

Twist increases with q
As q 1/R twist goes to infinity
Physically, the wing twists off
Aerodynamic moment overcomes the restoring moment
Divergence




Langleys Aerodrome failed due to divergence
How to increase the divergence speed?

0
qR
(1 qR)
u = u

div
2
1
K 1
q
R
ec a
u
= =
div
0
div
q
q
q
1
q
u = u

2
1
ec a
R
K
u
=
8
Static Aeroelastic
Behaviour of Fixed
Root Flexible Wing
9
Fixed Root Rectangular Wing (1)
Rectangular wing
Flexural axis ec aft of aero centre

Assume linear twist

Lift of incremental strip

Total lift

Potential energy

Incremental WD

T
y
s
u = u
W 0 T
y
dL qca ( )dy
s
= u + u
s
W 0 T W 0 T
0
y s
L qca ( )ds qca (s )
s 2
= u + u = u + u
}
2
2
s s
2 T
T
0 0
1 d 1 GJ
U GJ dy GJ dy
2 dy 2 s 2s
| | u u | |
= = = u
| |
\ .
\ .
} }
s s
2 0 T
W 0 T W T
0 0
s s y
W dL ec qca ( )dyec qec a
s 2 3
u u | |
o = ou = u + u ou = + ou
|
\ .
} }
T
y
s
ou = ou
KE = 0
10
Fixed Root Rectangular Wing (2)
Total incremental WD

Lagranges equations


Elastic tip twist

Dynamic pressure at divergence

Observations
Reduce eccentricity or increase torsional rigidity to increase divergence speed
If flexural axis = aerodynamic centre there is no twist and no divergence
If flexural axis forward of aero centre then tip twist downwards - divergence
Later two designs not usually possible for aircraft

s s
2 2 0 T
W 0 T T W T
0 0
s s y y
W dL ec qc a ( )dye qec a
s s 2 3
u u | |
o = ou = u + u ou = + ou
|
\ .
} }
2 2 2 0 0 T T
W W T W
s s GJ s GJ s
qec a qec a qec a
s 2 3 s 3 2
u u u u | | (
= + u =
|
(
\ .
( )
2 2
W
T 0
2 2
W
3qec s a
6GJ-2qec s a
u = u
W
2 2
W
3GJ
q
ec s a
=
11
Lift Distribution Along Wing
Combining and

Lift per unit strip becomes



In terms of the divergence speed
Total lift




As q L

( )
2 2
W
T 0
2 2
W
3qec s a
6GJ-2qec s a
u = u
W 0 T
y
dL qca ( )dy
s
= u + u
( )
2 2
W
W 0 T W 0
2 2
W
3qec s a dL y y
qca qca 1
dy s s
6GJ-2qec s a
| |
| |
|
= u + u = + u
|
|
\ .
\ .
W
W 0
W
q
3
q
dL y
qca 1
dy s
q
2 1
q
| |
| |
|
|
|
\ .
= + u
|
| |
| |
|

|
|
|
|
\ .
\ .
\ .
s
W
W 0
0
W
q
3
q
dL
L dy qcsa 1
dy
q
4 1
q
(
| |
( |
\ .
(
= = + u
(
| |

(
|
(
\ .

}
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
0
2
4
6
8
L
i
f
t

p
e
r

s
t
r
i
p

/

L
i
f
t

p
e
r

s
t
r
i
p

a
t

r
o
o
t
Distance along semi-span
q/q
w
= 0.2
q/q
w
= 0.5
q/q
w
= 0.8
12
Effect of Trim on Static
Aeroelastic Behaviour
In practice, change of airspeed will require trim to be adjusted via
elevators to maintain height
Idealised rigid aircraft
able to undergo heave and pitch motions
wings the same as considered previously, symmetric aerofoil
thrust and drag in-line
Generalised coordinates
heave z, wing root incidence
o
, wing twist

13
Effect of Trim (1)
14
Effect of Trim (2)
Potential energy

WD through incremental distances z,
o
and



Apply Lagrange to all 3 generalised coordinates

2
2
s s
2 T
T
0 0
1 d GJ
U 2 GJ dy GJ dy
2 dy s s
| | u u | |
= = = u
| |
\ .
\ .
} }
KE = 0
( ) ( )( )
s
T T 0 W 0 W 0
0
W L z l W z 2 qca ( )dy z l ec o = o + ou + o + u +u o + ou + ou
}
T
z T W 0
( W)
Q 0 L W 2qcsa
( z) 2
u c o | |
= = = + u +
|
c o
\ .
0
T
T T W 0 W
0
( W)
Q 0 L l 2qcsa l
( ) 2
u
u c o | |
= = = + u +
|
c ou
\ .
2 0 T
T W
2GJ
Q 2qec sa
s 2 3
u
u u | |
= u = +
|
\ .
15
Effect of Trim (3)
Eliminate L
T

Tip twist


Divergence speed increases


Root incidence


Negative incidence beyond q
w
Unlikely to get to divergence as aircraft will run out of trim first

( )
T W W
0
W T
2 2
W W T
Wl 2qcsa qcsa
l l
2 GJ
qec sa qec sa 2
0 3 s
(
u

(
+ =
` ` | |
(
u
) |

(
\ . )
| |
T T W T
W
4GJ q
Wl /(l l ) 1
ecs 4q
( | |
u = +
( |
\ .
( )
T
0 W
T W W W
Wl q q
1 2qcsa 1
l l q 4q
( ( | | | |
u =
( ( | |
+
\ . \ .
A W
2 2
W
12GJ
q q 4q
ec s a
= = =
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
0
10
20
30
T
i
p

T
w
i
s
t

/

T
i
p

T
w
i
s
t

(
q

=

0
)
q/q
w
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
-20
-10
0
10
20
T
h
e
t
a
0

/

T
h
e
t
a
0

(
q

=

q
w
/
2
)
q/q
w
q
W -ve incidence
Combining expressions for and
o


Lift per unit span


Linear variation along wing
Area under slope constant
Zero lift at root for q = q
w
Negative lift in-board for q > q
w
slope for q = 4q
w
= q
A
As lift moves outboard
root BM increases

For symmetric aerofoil, wing and tailplane lift constant with airspeed
Tailplane lift

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
-5
0
5
10
L
i
f
t

P
e
r

U
n
i
t

S
p
a
n
Normalised Position on Chord
q/q
w
= 0.5
q/q
w
= 1.0
q/q
w
= 2.0
16
Effect of Trim on Lift Variation
( )
T
T W W W
dL Wl q y q
2 3 2 4s 1
l l q s 4q dy
( (
| | | |
| |
= +
( ( | | |
+
\ .
\ . \ .

( )
T T T 0 E
L qS a a = u + q
17
Effect of Wing Sweep on
Static Aeroelastic
Behaviour
18
Wing Sweep
Aircraft have swept-back wings
Increases speed at which shock waves are formed
Delays onset of associated drag
Reduces effective thickness to chord ratio

Swept forward wings
Similar drag reduction possible
Flow separation starts at wing root better than swept-back where flow
separation occurs near tip and diminishing aileron performance

Very few forward swept wing aircraft
Static aeroelastic problems
19
Effect of Wing Sweep on Angle of Incidence
Consider swept rectangular wing in uniform flow
Upwards bending of wing

Streamwise sections AC,AD,AB

No sweep (AC)
Bending doesnt effect incidence
Sweepback (AD)
Incidence reduces as bending moves D higher than A
Sweepforward (AB)
Incidence increases as bending moves A higher than B

20
Effective Streamwise Angle of Incidence
due to Flapping / Pitching
Consider rigid wing with two root springs
Span and streamwise chord
constant with sweep angle
Consider flow over
streamwise strip
21
Elemental Streamwise Strip
Effective incidence depends upon
Difference in deflection of p and r
Geometry of p,q,r


Pitch nose-up
Increase in incidence due to sweepback
Sweep in either direction decreases incidence

Flap downwards
Sweepback increases incidence / sweep forward decreases incidence
In practice flap is upwards (- ) so opposite effect occurs
Flap (bending) dominates changes in effective incidence

FLAP
PITCH
pitch
c cos
cos
c
u A
Au = = u A
Flap
c sin
sin
c
k A
Au = = k A
22
Effect of Sweep on Divergence Speed (1)
Consider rigid two spring wing
Lift on incremental strip

Incremental WD




Potential Energy


Lagrange

| |
w 0
dL qa cdy ( ) cos sin = u +u A+ k A
| |
| |
s
w 0
0
s
w 0
0
y csin
W qa cdy ( ) cos sin vertical movement of lift
cos 4
ccos
qa cdy ( ) cos sin moment ve nose up
4
A | |
o = u +u A+ k A + ok
|
A
\ .
A
+ u +u A+ k A ou +
}
}
2 2
1 1
U K K
2 2
k u
= k + u
| |
( )
2 2
w 0
2
w 0
cs c ssin
K qa ( ) cos sin
2cos 4
c s cos
K qa cos sin
4
k
u
| | A
k = u +u A+ k A +
|
A
\ .
A
( u = u +u A+ k A

23
Effect of Sweep on Divergence Speed (2)
In matrix form





At divergence


Divergence speed

2 2 2
2
w w
w
0
2 2 2 2 2
w w w
s tan cssin s cssin cos
s cssin cos
K qa c qa c
qa c
2 4 2 4
2 4
qa sc sin cos qa sc cos qa sc cos
K
4 4 4
k
u
(
| |
| | | | A A A A
| | A A
+ + +
( | + | |
| |
k \ . \ . ( \ .
\ .
= u
` `
(
u
| | ) A A A A
(

|

(
)
\ .

( )
2 2 2 2 2
2
3 w
w w
qa sc cos s tan cssin sin cos s cssin cos
K qa c K qa sc 0
2 4 4 4 2 4
k u
| || | | | | | A A A A A A A
+ + + + =
| | | |
|
\ . \ . \ . \ .
div
2 2 2 2 2
w
2K K
V
sc cos cs tan c sin
a K K
4 2 4
u k
k u
=
| |
| | A A A
+
|
|
\ .
\ .
Divergence speed
Increases with
sweepback
Decreases with
sweepforward


Forward Swept Aircraft
Divergence speed becomes limiting case
Very few aircraft with forward swept wings
Need to use aeroelastic tailoring to counteract effect
X29 / Sukhoi 47



-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
Sweep Angle (deg)
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
s
e
d

D
i
v
e
r
g
e
n
c
e

S
p
e
e
d
24
Effect of Sweep on Divergence Speed (3)
25
Summary
Lift Distribution
Lift distribution varies along wing due to flexibility
Divergence Speed
Speed at which static instability occurs
Aerodynamic moment overcomes structural restoring force
Trim
Consideration of trim angle increases divergence speed compared to single
wing case
Sweep Angle
Wing bending and twist affect effective angle of attack
Sweepback increases divergence speed
Sweepforward reduces divergence speed
Certification
Divergence and any undue loss of stability and control should be investigated