Proceedings of the 2nd Australian & New Zealand Critical Criminology Conference

19 - 20 June 2008 Sydney, Australia

Presented by the Crime & Justice Research Network and the Australian and New Zealand Critical Criminology Network Edited by Chris Cunneen & Michael Salter

Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1333994

 Publishedby TheCrimeandJusticeresearchNewtork UniversityofNewSouthWales December,2008 http://www.cjrn.unsw.edu.au NationalLibraryofAustraliaCataloguinginPublicationdata Proceedingsofthe2008CriticalCriminologyConference[electronicresource]:conductedbythe CrimeandJusticeResearchNetworkandtheAustralianandNewZealandCriticalCriminology Network/editorsChrisCunneen,MichaelSalter. ISBN:9780646507378(pdf) Subjects:CriminologyCongresses. Authors/Contributors:Cunneen,Chris.Salter,Michael.UniversityofNewSouthWales.Crimeand JusticeResearchNetwork.AustraliaandNewZealandCriticalCriminologyNetwork. DeweyNumber:364

Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1333994

TABLE OF CONTENTS
FORWARD
CHRISCUNNEEN MICHAELSALTER

LATEMODERNDEVELOPMENTSINSENTENCINGPRINCIPLESFOR INDIGENOUSOFFENDERS:BEYONDDAVIDGARLANDSFRAMEWORK
THALIAANTHONY

ACRITICALPERSPECTIVEONMENTALHEALTHDISORDERSANDCOGNITIVE DISABILITYINTHECRIMINALJUSTICESYSTEM 30
EILEENBALDRY,LEANNEDOWSE,PHILLIPSNOYMAN,MELISSACLARENCEANDIANWEBSTER

WOMENCENTREDCORRECTIONS:ANAIVEVIEW
LILLIANM.BARRY

46

THEEFFECTOFTERRORISMANDTERRORISTTRIALSONAUSTRALIAN PRISONREGIMES
DAVIDBROWN

61

ISOLATIONASCOUNTERINSURGENCY:SUPERMAXPRISONSANDTHEWAR ONTERROR 77
BREECARLTON

COLONIALGENOCIDEANDSTATECRIME
MICHAELGREWCOCK

91

EXTREMETRANSPORT:CUSTODIALTRANSPORTINWESTERNAUSTRALIA& BEYOND 107

CLIFFHOLDOM

USINGAFLASHPOINTSMODELOFPUBLICORDERPOLICINGININDIGENOUS COMMUNITIESTOEXPLORETHESTRUCTURESANDPRACTICESOF INTERNALCOLONIALPOWERRELATIONSINAUSTRALIA 124

CHRISTINEJENNETT

VICTIMSASSURVIVORS
JANJORDAN

141

THEGROWTHOFVICTIMAGENCYINAUSTRALIANJURISPRUDENCE: LIMITATIONSANDCHALLENGES
TYRONEKIRCHENGAST

159

THERISEOFAGLOBALCARCERALCOMPLEX:FROMGARRISONSTATETO GARRISONPLANET184
JUDEMCCULLOCH

FROMCARETOCRIMECHILDRENINSTATECAREANDTHEDEVELOPMENT OFCRIMINALITY 207

KATHERINEMCFARLANE

WOMENSBODIES,MORALPANICANDTHEWORLDGAME: SEXTRAFFICKING,THE2006FOOTBALLWORLDCUPANDBEYOND
SANJAMILIVOJEVIC

222

ORGANISEDABUSEANDTHEPOLITICSOFDISBELIEF
MICHAELSALTER

243

EXPLORINGTHEGROUPIDENTITYFUNCTIONOFCRIMINALLAW
MOLLYTOWNESOBRIEN

285

LOSINGTHEWARONDRUGS:PROHIBITIONANDPROLIFERATION
MARGARETPEREIRA

311

TRAFFICKINGINPERSONSASLABOUREXPLOITATION
MARIESEGRAVE

322

STUNNINGDEVELOPMENTS:SOMEIMPLICATIONSOFTASERSIN AUSTRALIA
EMMARYAN

341

PRISONERS,WORKANDRECIPROCALREINTEGRATION
ROBWHITEANDGARRYCOVENTRY

361

RESEARCHINGCCTV:SECURITYNETWORKSANDTHETRANSFORMATIONOF PUBLICSPACE 383

DEANWILSON

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Forward
Wearepleasedtopresenttherefereedproceedingsofthe2008CriticalCriminology ConferenceonbehalfoftheCrimeandJusticeResearchNetworkandtheAustralia andNewZealandCriticalCriminologyNetwork. Theseproceedingsshowcasethediversecriminologicalviewpointspresentedatthe conferencethisyear.Fortyfivepapersweredeliveredacrosstwodaysby researchersfromAustraliaandoverseas,withoveronehundredandfifty academics,policymakersandstudentsinattendance. The2008conferencewasthesecondCriticalCriminologyconference.The proceedingsofthefirstconferenceheldatSydneyLawSchoolis2007arecurrently publishedbyFederationPressasTheCriticalCriminologyReader,editedbyChris CunneenandThaliaAnthony.Theannualconferenceisemergingasthekeyforum forcriticalcriminologyintheAustralasianregion Wewouldliketothankthecontributorstothiscollectionandtoacknowledgethe refereeswhogaveuptheirtimetoreviewthesepapers,including:AlexSteele,Gary Coventry,EileenBaldry,BreeCarlton,DavidBrown,SharonPickering,Michael Grewcock,JulieStubbs,RobWhite,JanJordon,CaitlinHughesandJudeMcCulloch. ChrisCunneen MichaelSalter FacultyofLaw UniversityofNewSouthWales Sydney

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LatemoderndevelopmentsinSentencingPrinciplesforIndigenous Offenders:beyondDavidGarlandsframework
ThaliaAnthony FacultyofLaw UniversityofSydney t.anthony@usyd.edu.au ThispaperexploresthelatemodernshiftsinthecharacterisationofIndigenous offendersinsentencingjudgmentsandlegislationinNewSouthWales(NSW)and theNorthernTerritory(NT).ItconsiderswhetherDavidGarlands(2001)thesis (developedinrelationtotheUnitedKingdomandtheUnitedStates)appliesto judicialandpoliticalconceptualisationsofIndigenousoffenders.Garlandidentifies ofashiftincriminaljusticeconceptualisationsfrompenalwelfarisminthePost WWIIperiodwhenoffendersarecontextualisedinsocialrelationstolawand orderinlatemodernity(1970s)whenoffendersaredecontextualised. ThispaperwillarguethatGarlandsframeworkdoesnotfullyexplainrationalitiesin sentencingoffendersinIndigenouscommunities.Whilejudicialdiscoursesin sentencingIndigenousoffendersresonatewithGarlandsobservationsaboutthere emergenceofemphasisonthevictimsinterest,retributionandprotectionofthe widercommunityprotection,itdoesnotaccountforachangingviewaboutthe functionalityofIndigenouscommunities.Apostcolonialnarrativeofsentencingin latemodernityintheNTandNSWidentifiestheongoingcontextualisationof Indigenousoffenders.However,thiscontextisadysfunctionalcommunity.The communityisbothcondemnedandinneedofrescue,particularlythroughabolder assertionofpostcolonialcrimecontrol.Thescapegoatintheserescueeffortsisthe Indigenousoffender.

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GarlandsCultureofControlandthecontrolAustralianIndigenousculture IntheCultureofControl,Garland(2001)claimedthatinthepostWWIIperiod, offenderswereconceivedofandtreatedasproductsofsocialrelationships.They werecapableofreformandrehabilitation.Inthe1970s,armedwithanothing worksattitudetopenalwelfarismaswellasthebroaderwelfarestate,politicians, andeventuallyjudges,begantoviewtheoffenderasmorallycorruptandbeyond repair(alsosee:Melossi2000).Punitiveurgesweregivenfreerreigninpublic discoursesoncrimecontrol,offenderswerecondemnedandharshersentences werehandeddown. Garlandsthesisthatalawandorderdiscourseemergedinlatemodernpoliciesis silentoncrimepoliciesastheyrelatetoIndigenouspeopleorracialminorities.In theCultureofControl,whichcomparestheUnitedKingdomandtheUnitedStates, theonlymentionofraceisthatthesituationforethnicminoritiesisworsebecause theyarepartofanexcludedunderclassthathasbeenintensivelytargetedbylaw enforcersinlatemodernity(Garland2001). DoubtshavebeenraisedaboutwhetherAustralianIndigenousoffenders experiencedpostWarpenalwelfarism(Hogg2001;Broadhurst1987).Assimilation policiesreignedintheAustralianpostWarWorldIIcontext.Indigenouspeoplewere decontextualisedfromtheircommunitiesandalignedwiththeexpectationsofthe nonIndigenouscommunity.EnforcementofIndigenousassimilationpolicieswas farfromliberal;therewasforcedunpaidlabour,forcedremovalofchildrenfrom theirIndigenousfamiliesandrestrictionsonmovement,marriageandthepractice ofculture(ALRC1986). Nonetheless,astheprotectionistaspectsofassimilationpolicieswitheredawayin the1960s,andtheliberalaspectsseepedin,incarcerationratesforIndigenous peoplesoared.ThiswasbecauseIndigenouspeoplewerereleasedfromthe strangleholdofgovernmentsettlementsandchurchmissions,andallowedtolivein

4
towns.Indoingso,theymovedintotheambitofthestreetpoliceandintoprisons (Hogg2001).Bythelatetwentiethcentury(whichDavidGarlandwouldregardas latemodernity),incarcerationrateshadescalated.Thiswasrevealedbythe1991 reportoftheRoyalCommissionintoAboriginalDeathsinCustody.Indigenous peoplecontinuetobedramaticallyoverrepresentedincustody(Joudo&Curnow 2008,3;ABS2007,6).1 While,theshifttoIndigenousincarcerationinprisonsandpolicycustody(as opposedtogovernmentsettlementsandmissions)wasamatterofIndigenous policiesratherthancrimepoliciesinthe1960sand1970s,therehavebeeninmore recenttimesahardeningofjudicialviewsandgovernmentsentencingpolicies towardsIndigenousoffenders.Sincethelate1990s,sentencesforIndigenous offendershavebecomeharsherascourtsandgovernmentshavesoughttomakean outcastofthem.ThisculminatedinCommonwealthlegislationin2007that removedthecapacityofcourtstotakeintoaccountIndigenousculturaland customaryfactorsinsentencingNorthernTerritoryIndigenousoffenders(Northern TerritoryNationalEmergencyResponseAct2007(Cth)s91).Itisfromthelate1990s forwhichthispaperconsiderswhetherGarlandslawandorderframeworkexplains thetougherstanceonsentencingtowardsIndigenousoffenders. ThispapersuggeststhatGarlandsframeworkintheCultureofControldoesnot accountforprocessesofcolonialandpostcolonialcontrolofIndigenouspeoplein settlersocieties.Whilehisschemaisabletoexplainthecondemnationofthe offender,itisunabletoaccountfortheparticularjudicialandgovernment rationalisationofharshsentencingofIndigenousoffenderstocondemnnotonlythe individual,butalsotheIndigenouscommunity.Also,itisnotonlythefailureof penalwelfarismthatrequiresatougherapproachtosentencing,butalsothefailure ofpostcolonialsocietyandpoliciesincontrollingIndigenouspeople.Notably,the

JoudoandCurnow(2008)reportthat26.3%ofpeopleinpolicecustodyareIndigenous.Ratesfor Indigenousyouthandwomenareespeciallysoaring.TheABS(2007,6)notesthatIndigenousadults arethirteentimesmorelikelythannonIndigenouspeopletobeimprisoned.

5
failedpolicyofselfdeterminationneedstobeaddressedthroughthereassertionof paternalistpolicies. AparadoxhasemergedwheresentencingseekstoprotecttheIndigenous communityneedsfromtheoffender,whileatthesametimetheoffender representsthedysfunctionalcommunity.Inotherwords,theoffenderis condemnedforharmtothecommunity,butinturnthecommunityisalso condemnedforhavinganoffenderamongitsranks.Sentencinghasbecome increasinglyharshduetotheneedtoteachboththeoffenderandtheIndigenous communityalesson. Methodologyandsometrends ThispaperwillanalysesentencingprinciplesappliedtoIndigenousoffendersin NSWandtheNT,whereIndigenousfactorshavebeenatissue.Itaddressesthe changingapproachfromthe1970suntil2008,includinglegislativechanges governingthesentencingofIndigenousoffendersincourts.Itdemonstratesthatin the1970swhenIndigenousfactorsfirstemerged,courtsconsideredsocio economichardship,crossculturalbreakdownfromahistoryofcolonisationand differentculturalexpectations(especiallyinmoretraditionalcommunities)as mitigatingfactors(NSWLawReformCommission2000,[2.26]). Sincethelate1990s,duetotheperceivedfailureofIndigenouscommunitiesand Indigenouspolicies,beingIndigenoushasemergedinsomecasesasanaggravating factor.SentencinghasbecomeavehiclefordealingwiththefailedIndigenous societies.Mostrecently,theapproachhasbecomeoneofunderminingcultural factorsirrespectiveofwhethertheyareaggravatingormitigating.Thisrepresents anobjectivewhichperhapsGarlandsapproachismostunequippedtoexplain:the efforttoundermineanyrecognitionofculturaldifferencethroughsentencing.

6
i. Whyfocusonsentencing? Sentencingisarelativelyminorcontributortotheoverrepresentationof Indigenouspeopleincustody.Factorssuchaspolicingaredescribedasfarmore significantinincarcerationrates(RoyalCommissionIntoAboriginalDeathsIn Custody1991,[13.2.20];Cunneen2001,85).However,ananalysisofsentencing revealstherationalisationforpunishment.Unlikepolicediscretion,theuseof judicialdiscretioninthesentencingprocessistransparent,inthesensethatjudges mustprovidereasonsandthesereasonsaremadepublic.Inthepast,discretionhas beenusedtotakeintoaccountanoffendersIndigenousbackgroundorcommunity circumstances. Judicialsentencinginterplayswithgovernmentpolicyonsentencing.Itmayignitea reactivepolicyresponseinordertocurbdiscretion.Forexample,theCrime (SentencingandBail)AmendmentAct2006(Cth),whichremovedcustomarylawand culturalfactorsinsentencing,canbeseenaresponsetocasessuchasTheQueenv GJ[2005]NTCCA20)thattookthesefactorsintoaccount.Ontheotherhand, sentencingmaypreemptrestrictivesentencinglegislation.Forexample,RvJurisic 45NSWLR209,whichsetdownguidelinesentences,preemptedtheCrimesAct 1900(NSW),ss52Aand52AAthatlegislatedsentencinggrids.Therefore, sentencinginfluencestrendsinpublicpolicyandillustratesthecompeting characterisationsofIndigenouspeoplesininformingthetrends. ii.HowhavecourtsaccountedforIndigenousfactorsinsentencing? Judgescangenerallyexercisediscretionintakingintoaccountabroadrangeof factorsthataggravateormitigateacriminalsentence.Theseincludethegravityof theoffence,thenatureofthevictim,theimpactoftheoffenceandthecharacterof theoffender.Legislationalsoprovidesforsuchdiscretionandinsomejurisdictions

7
listsasetofinexhaustivecriteriathatmaybeconsideredinsentencing.2Where specificfactorsarementionedsuchasinNSWandNTsentencinglegislation,there isadditionallygeneraljudicialdiscretiontotakeintoaccountanyotherrelevant factors.3 Untilrecently,nosentencinglegislationforadultoffendersreferredtoIndigenous orcustomarylawfactors,andotherthantheCrimes(Sentencing)Act(ACT)s33(m), nojurisdictionreferredtotheculturalbackgroundoftheoffender.Itiswithinthe legislativeprovisionsallowingforotherfactorstobeconsideredinsentencingthat Indigenousbackgroundhasbeenraised(Fougere2006,4243).4Accordingly, Indigenousmitigatingfactorshavedevelopedthroughthecommonlaw.The situationchangedin2006whenlegislationwasenactedtospecificallycurb considerationofcustomarylawandculturalpractisesinsentencingCommonwealth andNToffences. iii.WhyacomparativeapproachtosentencinginNSWandtheNT? TherehasbeenatendencytofocusonremoteorurbanIndigenouscommunitiesin explainingthesentencingofIndigenousoffenders.Recently,policymakers,the mediaandcommentatorshavehadafascinationwiththesentencingofIndigenous childsexoffendersinremoteIndigenouscommunities(seeBrough2007,22; Ruddock2006,1819;Hawke2006;Douglas2005).Acomparativeapproachallows forabroaderappreciationofthetrendinIndigenoussentencingandthejudicial representationofIndigenouscommunitiesoutsideremotecommunities.
SeeCrimes(SentencingProcedure)Act1999(NSW)s21A;SentencingAct1995(NT)ss5,6,6A; SentencingAct1991(Vic)s5;SentencingAct1995(WA)ss78;SentencingAct1997(Tas)s80;Criminal Law(SentencingAct)1988(SA),s29A;PenaltiesandSentencesAct1992(Qld)s9. 3 InNewSouthWales,thecourthasdiscretiontotakeintoaccountanyotherobjectiveorsubjective factorthataffectstherelativeseriousnessoftheoffence(Crimes(SentencingProcedure)Act1999 (NSW)s21A).IntheNT,thereare20factorsthatmaybetakenintoaccountaswellasotherrelevant factors(SentencingAct1995(NT)ss5,6,6A). 4 Forexample,courtshavetakenintoaccountcustomarylawunders5(2)(s)oftheSentencingAct (NT),whichstatesthatanyotherrelevantcircumstancemaybetakenintoaccountwhen sentencinganoffender.
2

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NSWandtheNTgiverisetodivergentstockstoriesaboutIndigenouscommunities andcrime.Ontheonehand,lawyers(andsubsequentlyjudges)relyontradition andlackofcivilisationorunderstandingofnonIndigenouslawandconceptsto explainoffendinginNTcommunities(seeNorthAustralianAboriginalJustice Agency2006,1).ThejudicialapproachesintheNTalignwithwhathasbeen describedascriminologysvulgarisedculturalheritageapproach(seeBroadhurst 1997,413).Certainly,criticshaverecentlyhighlightedthecrudewayinwhich informationaboutcultureissubmittedtothecourts(seeDouglas2005). Ontheotherhand,lawyersinNSWpointtothebreakdownoftraditionalstructures inNSWIndigenouscommunities;theinabilityofcommunitymemberstoconform withaforeignpostcolonialsociety,andasusceptibilitytoitspostcolonialvices suchasalcoholism.ThejudicialapproachesthatdevelopedinNSWresonatewith thecriminologyparadigmsofconflicttheoryandstraintheory. Acomparativeapproachcanrevealadeeperrationaleinsentencingbeyond addressingaparticularcrimeproblem,andtowardsabroadanxietyaboutthe failureofIndigenouscommunitiesexperiencingvariousphasesofinteractionwith thepostcolonialstate.InbothNSWandtheNTthereareappealcourtdecisionson IndigenousfactorsinsentencingthatillustratetheshiftawayfromIndigenous factorsinsentencing. SentencingdevelopmentsinNSWandtheNTfromthe1970stothelate1990s andbeyond Fromthelate1970stothelate1990s,thecourtsrationalisedIndigenousoffending intermsofprevailingcriminologicalcategorisationssuchasstrain,conflictor culturaltheories.Thissectionaddresseshowthesecharacterisationsemergedin NSWandtheNT.Whilethisperiodofhighandincreasingcustodylevelsfor IndigenouspeoplecannotbedescribedasconcomitantwithGarlandspenal welfarism,itnonethelesssawanapproachinsentencingthatrecognisedthat

9
IndigenouspeoplewereintegratedintoIndigenouscommunities.Garlandstresses thatpenalwarfarismischaracterisedbythesearchfordeepsocioeconomiccauses ofcrime. Fortwentyyearsfromthelate1970s,NSWandNTCourtswouldreasonthat communitywasalegitimatefactorinIndigenouspeopleslives,includingthatof offenders.Evidenceofcommunitytieswassubmittedandacceptedtoexplainboth causationandprospectsofrehabilitation.Afactorthatmayexplainthelegitimacy oftheIndigenouscommunityasasentencingfactoristheprevailingpolicyofself determination.Whilethereisnodirectconnection,itmayatleastbeseenasan environmentthatcondonedajudicialapproachthatsawanoffendersmembership ofanIndigenouscommunityasapotentialmitigatingfactorinsentencing. i.DevelopmentsIndigenoussentencingfactorsinNSW:socioeconomicfactors AleadingcasesthatinfluencedthedevelopmentofIndigenousmitigatingfactorsin NSWcommonlaw,wastheHighCourtdecisioninRvNeal(1982).Thiscase concernedaconflictbetweenanonIndigenousofficeroftheDepartmentof AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderAffairsandtheChairmanoftheYarrabah communitycouncil.TheIndigenousoffenderwasconvictedofunlawfulentryand assault(throughspitting).TheHighCourtreducedthesixmonthimprisonment termtotwomonths.Twoofthefourjudges(MurphyandBrennanJJ)heldthatthe paternalisticandracistenvironmentofthereserveshouldmitigatethesentence. TheirHonourswereconcernedtohighlightthetensionsbetweenthepostcolonial systemandtheIndigenouscommunity.TheMagistrate,whosesentencewas reinstatedbytheHighCourt,consideredNealscommunityasfunctional.His Honourstatedthatordinarily,theAboriginalpeopleinthecommunityliveahappy life(citedinRvNeal1982,315perMurphyJ).Nonetheless,theHighCourtaccepted thatwithinthesecommunitieswasracisttensionthatcouldprovokeviolentcrimes againstnonIndigenousstateofficers.

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ThecaseofRvNealhadwascitedasauthoritybyJusticeWoodoftheNSW SupremeCourtwhenhelaiddowntheFernandoprinciples.Theseinfluential principlesrecognisedthestraincausedinIndigenouscommunitiesbyvirtueof socioeconomicdisadvantage,dispossession,alienationandalcoholism(Omeri 2006,76).InRvFernando(1992),anAboriginalmaninWalgettacommunity describedasbeleagueredwithalcoholismandsocioeconomicdisadvantage stabbedhisdefactopartnertotheneckandlegafterexcessivealcohol consumption.Hewasasemieducatedman,whohadbeenremovedbywelfareand senttoanisolatedproperty,andhehadacriminalhistoryforoffencesrelatedtothe excessiveconsumptionofalcohol.Thiscontextmitigatedhissentencetonine monthsimprisonment,withanadditionalthreeyearparoleperiod. Indeliveringhisjudgment,JusticeWooddevelopedeightprinciplesforsentencing Indigenousoffendersfromdysfunctionalcommunities.JusticeWoodemphasised thatAboriginalityisnotamitigatingfactorbutmaythrowlightonthe circumstancesoftheoffenceand/oroffender(RvFernando1992,62).Justice Wood(1992,62)emphasisedtheneedtosendamessagetothecommunitythat domesticviolencewillnotbetolerated.However,thiswasbalancedwitha contextualappreciationofthecircumstancesoftheoffenderandthelimitedutility ofalongprisonsentence.HisHonour(1992,62)stated,ForAboriginaloffenders whohavecomefromadeprivedbackground,includingcommunitieswithalcohol abuse,orwhoha[ve]littleexperienceofEuropeanways,alengthyimprisonment termmaybeparticularly,evenunduly,harshandconsiderationshouldbeto rehabilitation.

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ii.DevelopmentsIndigenoussentencingfactorsintheNT:culturalfactors IntheNorthernTerritory,theFernandoprinciplesrelatingtocommunity dysfunctionhavenotbeenappliedascommonlyasinotherstatesandterritories acrossAustralia.Astrongersentencingpatternemergedthataccountedfor Indigenouslaws,culturalexpectationsandpunishment.Theregulatoryimpactof traditionalsocietieswasnotprivilegedoverAngloAustralianlawinthatitdidnot provideadefenceforcriminalliabilitybutcouldbeafactorinsentencing.Inthis limitedwayforaccommodatingIndigenouslaws,judgesviewedIndigenouslaws andcommunityexpectationsasalegitimatefactorbearingonthedefendant. ThetendencytoaccountforculturalfactorsintheNTgainedmomentuminthe 1980swhentraditionalpunishmentwastreatedasamitigatingfactorin sentencing.CourtsfactoredintraditionalpunishmenttoaccountfortheIndigenous communityscondemnationoftheoffence.Itreflectedrecognitionofthecontextof Indigenouspeople.However,itsseedswereplantedinKriewaldtJsjudgmentsin the1950s(Rogers1999;Finnane2006).Anearlycasethatdealtwiththeissueof traditionalpunishmentinreducingasentencewasJackyJackyAnzacJadurinvThe Queen(1982)(seeCaseNote1982).There,theFederalCourtstatedthatto acknowledgethecommunitysretributionisnottocondoneitbuttorecognise certainfactswhichexistonlybyreasonofthatoffendersmembershipofa particulargroup(JadurinvTheQueen1982,429). Afewyearslater,inRvCharlieLimbiariJagamara(Unreported,SupremeCourtof theNorthernTerritory,28May1984;SeeFisher1985),atraditionalWarlpiriman, aged75,wasconvictedofmanslaughterforunintentionallykillingamanwithwhom hiswifewasassociating.Hespearedthemaninordertoteachhimalessonfor bringingshametohimselfandthecommunitybyviolatingthecommunity'slaws relatingtotraditionalmarriage.Theverytraditionalaccused,whohadlivedbyhis communityslawsinWillowraandhadnotencounteredanonIndigenousperson untiltheageof30years,waspunishedforthekilling.Theaccusedwasbanished

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fromhiscommunity,speared,cut,stabbed,beatwithanullanullaandhitwitha tomahawk. InsentencingCharlieLimbiariJagamara,MuirheadJtookintoaccountthe backgroundoftheoffenderandthetraditionalpunishmenttoreducehissentence merelytotherisingofthecourt(amountingtoamatterofmoments).Justice Muirheadheld, IfIimposeasentenceofimprisonment,andinthiscaseIhavenowishtodo so,theproblemsoftheAboriginalpeoplewouldprobablybeexacerbated, andhiswithdrawalfromAboriginalsocietywouldincreasethedifficulties. Thisistrulyaculturalmatterwhichhasbeentackledenergeticallybythe people.Theaccusedhasalreadysufferedpunishmentsfarmoreseverethan anythatIwouldbeauthorisedtoinflict...(citedinFisher1985). InRvMinor(1992,181),theNTCourtofCriminalAppealheldthatIndigenous punishmentshouldbetakenintoaccountwhereitcanbeshowntobeofpositive benefittothepeaceandwelfareofaparticularcommunity.Itwouldallowforthe communitytoputtheepisodebehindthemandremovefeudsarisingfromthe defendantsactions(RvMinor1992,181perAscheCJcitingthetrialjudgesremarks withapproval).JusticeMildren(1992,193)stated: Inmyopinion,asentencingJudgeisentitledtohaveregardnotonlytothe interestsofthewidercommunity,butalsotothespecialinterestsofthe communityofwhichtherespondentisamember. Finally,inRvJaneMiyatatawuy(1996),anAboriginalwomanstabbedherhusband inthechest,therebypuncturinghislung.Theoffencewasinbreachofa recognisancetobeofgoodbehaviour,whichhadbeenimposedontheoffenderfor anearlierconvictionofassaultuponherhusband.Therewasevidencethata custodialsentencewoulddestroythemarriageintheeyesoftheAboriginal

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communityandtheoffenderhadalreadybeendealtwithundercustomarylaw.The Courtreleasedtheoffenderonagoodbehaviourbond.MartinCJ(1996,575) stated: Amostsignificantcircumstancebearinguponthesentencewasthatconcerning theresolutionorsettlementofmatterswithintherelevantaboriginal communityandtheintegralrehabilitationoftheoffender. TheseNorthernTerritoryjudgmentsrevealthatnotonlywastheoffender contextualisedwithintheIndigenouscommunitytoexplaintheoffendingand punishment,butthecommunitywasalsoviewedasaneffectivesitefordealingwith crimesandoffenders.Thecommunitysauthoritywasimportantnotonlyfor restorationoftheoffender,butalsorestorationofthecommunity.Thisisa dimensionofpunishmentthatisnotaccountedforinthepenalwelfaremodel, whichisonlyfocusesontheroleofrehabilitatingandreintegratingtheoffender withinmainstreamsocialrelations. Judicialreactions:refocusonmorallycorruptindividualsandcommunities Fromthelate1990s,therewasanotableretreatfromanapproachthatprivileged restorationofoffendersandcommunitiesinjudicialsentencing.5Viewinghopeless attemptstoreducecrimealongwithabroaderideologythatperceivedthefailures ofIndigenouspoliciesjudgesrepositionedtheIndigenousoffenderwithinthe widernonIndigenouscommunityanditsexpectations.Thisstagealignswith Garlandslatemodernturn,whereoffenderswerecondemnedasmorallycorrupt andbeyondreform,andthevictimiselevatedinsentencingconsiderations. However,forIndigenouspeopleitalsowenthandinhandwitharejectionofthe offendersIndigenouscommunityandthevalidityoftheirIndigenousidentity.

Asopposedtocirclesentencing.

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IntheNorthernTerritory,judgesbegantoviewtraditionalIndigenous communitiesasdysfunctionalandgivingrisetoacrimephenomenon.Theyneeded todispensewithculturalaspectsthatviolatedAngloAustralianlaws.InNSW, judgesregardedIndigenouscommunitiesasnolongerIndigenousenough.Despite thefactthatmanymembersofAboriginalcommunitiesaroundNSWconsider themselvespartofanAboriginalcommunity,judgesviewedthebreakdownof cultureassosevere,Aboriginalfactorswouldhavenobearingontheirlives. However,whereculturewasviewedastraditionalenough,judgestooktheview thatitshouldnthaveabearingontheirlivesandhavemadesentencesharshto conveythismessage.So,inbothjurisdictions,thereisagrowingjudicialviewthat culture,customorhistoricaldisadvantagearenolongerlegitimatecontextsfor explainingoffending. i.NSW:DownplayingtheFernandoprinciples Intheearly21stcentury,theNSWCourtofCriminalAppealconfinedtheapplication oftheFernandoprinciples.CommentatorshavecriticisedtheCourtforpresenting theoffenderorthecommunityasnotAboriginalenough(seeFlynn2005,18; Edney2006).ThejudgesdrawartificiallinesbetweenfullandpartAboriginal peoplethatareinconsistentwiththelegaldefinitionofAboriginality(seeShawv Wolf1999).Also,theAboriginalcommunitymustberemote,itappears,tofitwithin theFernandoprinciples.ThenotabledecisionsofRvCeissman(2001),RvWalter& Thompson(2004)andRvNewman,RvSimpson(2004)willbediscussedbelow. InCeissman(2001),theNSWCourtofCriminalAppealrejectstheapplicationofthe FernandoprinciplestoanAboriginalmanfromadisadvantagedbackground.Wood CJnotesthefactthattheoffenderisnotfromaremotecommunityorevena particularlocalorruralsetting(2001,[30]).HisHonourstatesthatthefactthatthe respondent'sgrandfatherwaspartaboriginalwouldnotattractspecial consideration(2001,[33]).NotonlyisAboriginalitynotenoughtojustifyleniency becauseitwouldcreateaspecialclassofpersonsthatwouldbediscriminatory

15
(2001,[32]);butalsothisoffendersAboriginalitywasnotenoughtoactivate considerationoffactorsleadingtoleniency. Indissent,SimpsonJnotesanumberoffactorsthatinvoketheFernandoprinciples: therespondentgrewupinextremepoverty;hereceivedlittleeducation;his parentsweredrugaddictswithacriminalhistoryandhelivedwithhis grandparents;hewitnessedseriousphysicalviolencebetweenhisparents;his grandmotherdiedattheageof10yearsandhisparentsbothdiedwithinthenext year;whenhewas14hisgrandfatherdied(2001,[55][56]).Theoffenderwas ultimatelyimprisonedtofourandahalfyears(nonparole)fortraffickingcocaine duetotheguidelinesentencesinNSW. Walter&Thompson(2004)wasanappealagainstsentencesimposedontwo Aboriginalmen.Theybothpleadedguiltytorobbery(ofapairofjeans,abaseball cap,mobilephoneand$35)andactualbodilyharm.Theycommittedtheseoffences afterbeingrefusedtoletthementeralocalnightclub,allegedlybecauseofthe colouroftheirskin(Flynn2005,17).Theoffenceswereagainstawhitebystander waitingtoentertheclub.Theoffenderswereundertheinfluenceofalcoholatthe timeoftheoffence. AnissuebeforetheNSWCCAwaswhetherthetrialjudgeerredinapplyingthe FernandoprinciplesbecauseThompsondidnotcomefromadysfunctionalfamily anddidnothaveahistoryofdeprivedsocioeconomiccircumstancesorofalcohol abuse(2004,[58]perGrove,SullyandKirbyJJ).Thiswasdespitetheadmissionof evidencethatThompsonwasadoptedintoawhitefamilyattheageofthree monthsandphysicallyandemotionallyabusedbyhisstepmotherwhocalledhim littleblackbastard.However,thedysfunctionwasinsufficientandtheCrown appealwassuccessful. InthejudgmentsofRvNewman,RvSimpson,threeoffenderspleadedguiltyto enteringintoadwellingwithintenttocommitaseriousoffence.Theoffenderswent

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intothehouseofa67yearoldvictiminGriffith,NSW.Theoffenderswere intoxicatedatthetimeandlookingformoneytobuyalcohol.JusticeHowie recognisedthattheAboriginaldefendantshadahistoryofdrugandalcoholabuse. However,hisHonourwentontodistinguishtheseAboriginaldefendantsfrom defendantsinaremotecommunitywhoaremorelikelytosuccessfullyattractthe Fernandoprinciples.TheurbansurroundingsofGriffithwerenotsufficiently AboriginalfortheCourtofCriminalAppeal.Edney(2006,8)arguesthatthesecases attempttoconfinethereachofFernandobyfundamentallymisapprehendingthe natureofIndigenousidentityinapostcolonialsociety. ii.NorthernTerritory AlthoughtheFernandoprincipleshavenotbeenreliedonasoftenintheNTasin otherjurisdictions,theprincipleshavenonethelessbeendiminishedinsignificance overthepastdecade.Therehasbeenanincreasingrelianceonthenatureofthe offence.Ratherthanthesentencingprocesspickuponthecommunitycontextto lendleniencytotheoffender,thecommunityscrimeratejustifiestheharsher sentence.ThejudgmentsofAmagulavWhite(1998)andRvWurramarra(1999) revealthatbeinganoffenderinanIndigenouscommunitymayhavebecomean aggravatingfactorinsentencing,andtheoffenderisusedasanexampletostamp outviolence,irrespectiveoffactorsofremoteness,alcoholismanddysfunction. InAmagulavWhite(1998),acasewhereamanonGrooteEylandtwaschargedwith aggravatedassaultonhiswife,theNorthernTerritorySupremeCourtdidnotto applytheFernandoprinciplestomitigatethesentence.Rather,theCourttookthe viewthattheseriousnessoftheoffence(asimilaroffencetothatwhichoccurredin Fernando)warrantedaharshersentence.TheCourtemphasisedtheneedtosend thecorrectmessagetothecommunityandovercomethefairlywidespreadbelief a.CommunitydysfunctionanddownplayingtheFernandoprinciples

17
thatitisacceptableformentobashtheirwivesinsomecircumstances;thisbelief mustbeerased. ThisapproachwasechoedinRvWurramara(1999).ThiswasanothercaseatGroote Eyland,whereamanstabbedhiswifeandneighbour.Inthatcase,theNorthern TerritoryCourtofCriminalAppeal(1999,36)heldthatthefactthatanoffender and/orhisvictimmaycomefromanAboriginalcommunitywhichwasdeprivedor dysfunctionalandwherealcoholabuseandviolentcrimemaybemoreprevalent andmoretoleratedthaninthegeneralcommunity,bynomeansshouldleadtoa lowersentence.TheCourtstressedthatthevictimswereparticularlyvulnerablein deprivedanddysfunctionalcommunities,andareentitledtolooktothecourtsfor protection.Offencesofseriousviolencecallforcondignpunishment.Finally,The courtshavebeenconcernedtosendthecorrectmessagetoallconcerned,that isthatAboriginalwomen,childrenandtheweakwillbeprotectedagainstpersonal violence(1999,26). IntheNorthernTerritorytherehasbeenashiftingemphasisinconsiderationsof traditionalpunishmentinsentencing.Whiletraditionalpunishmentcontinuesto reduceasentence,itisnotsomuchbecauseofitsimportanceforrestoring communityrelations,butratherbecauseofthedoctrinalprincipleofdouble jeopardy.Inrecentcases,suchasRvRiley(2006)thecourtshavereluctantly providedtraditionalpunishmentasamitigatingfactorduetodoublejeopardy alone. Indicativeofthistrendisthehesitanceingrantingbailwherethereisastrong possibilitythattheoffenderwillfreelyreturntothecommunitytoreceive traditionalpunishment:Barnes(1997)andAnthony(2004).InBarnes(1997),BaileyJ refusedtograntthedefendantbailthatwouldallowhimtoreturntohiscommunity tobepunishedunderIndigenouslaw.HisHonoursreasoningwasthattheCourt b.Traditionalpunishment

18
cannotfacilitatewhatwouldamounttoacrimeanditwouldnotbeinthe defendant'sinteresttofacilitatehisreleasetobeunlawfullystabbedandbashed beforesubmittingtosuchsentenceasmaybeimposedaccordingtolaw(see McGrath19971998).InAnthony(2004),MartinCJdidnotallowtheapplicantto returntohiscommunityofLajamanubecausetheCourtcannotcondone traditionalpunishmentasitwasanunlawfulactundertheAngloAustralianlaw.6 ThismayindicateamovetowardsprosecutingIndigenouspeopleresponsiblefor administeringtraditionalpunishment,despiteconsentonthepartofthose involved. Since2003therehavebeentwomajorcaseswherefirstinstancejudgmentshave allowedpromisedmarriageasamitigatingfactorinstatutoryrapeoffences:Halesv Jamilmira(2003)andTheQueenvGJ(2005).Thesecontroversialdecisionswere overturnedonappeal.Theappealdecisionshaveemphasisedboththeneedto punishtheoffenderandsendamessagetothecommunitythatpromisedmarriage wasnotamitigatingfactorinstatutoryrape.Partofthewillingnessofthefirst instancecourtstoallowareductioninsentencesforpromisedmarriagecasesisthat until2003,underNorthernTerritorylegislation,itwaslawfultohavesexwitha minorifthesocalledoffenderwasmarriedtothevictimundercustomarylaw.7 Furthermore,until2003sexwithunderagedpromisedbrides(althoughoccurring formanyyears)wasnotprosecuted(HalesvJamilmira2003perMildrenJ). Nonetheless,theappealcourts(includinginthefirstcaseofitskindHalesv Jamilmira)havebeenunwillingtoconsiderpromisedmarriageasaculturalcontext formitigatingasentence.
(at[23],[25]) S.129(1) Criminal Code, Northern Territory read with the definition of unlawfully in s.126 and the definition of husband and wife in s1. This was noted in GJ(2005, [32]), Hales v Jamilmira (2003, [50]). As a result of amendments to the Code passed in 2004, it is no longer necessary for the prosecution to prove that the intercourse was "unlawful" in this sense. Further, the maximum penalty for statutoryrapehasbeenincreasedfromsevento16yearsimprisonment.
7 6

c.Customarylawandpromisedmarriages

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PromisedmarriageinNorthernTerritorycommunitieshasbeenregardedasa featureofcustomarylawintraditionalAboriginalsociety.Itisstillconsideredby somecommunitymemberstodayasessentialtothecontinuationofAboriginal cultureandceremonies(Kimm2004,62),andtothemaintenanceoftraditional economies(2004,66),althougharrangementsvaryamongcommunities.Generally, promisedbridesarearewardforinitiates.Girlsfromappropriateskingroupswere promisedtomenwhohadundergoneinitiationandprovidedfoodorpaymentto thepromisedwifesfamily.Assuchitsafeguardedthetransmissionofthelaw (2004,62).Younggirlsmaybeseenasthefoundationofsociety(2004,66). Alternatively,girlsareforcedinthearrangementandharshlypunishediftheyfailed intheirobligationsofmarryingolderhusbandswithoutcomplaintsometimesbya violentdeath(2004,62). Sexualrelationswithgirlsthathadreachedpubertywereallowedinmany Indigenouscultureswithcustomarymarriage,butsexualassaultwascondemned.In thecasesdiscussedbelow,theoffenderswereconvictedofstatutoryrapeontheir promisedwives.Theoffendershadweretraditionalmenandcustodiansof traditionalknowledge,withlittlecontactwiththenonIndigenoussystem(see HalvesvJamilmira2003,[13]perMartinCJ).Theywereawarethatthesexual intercoursewasnotrequiredundercustomarylawandinsomeinstancesthatit amountedtoanoffencebothundertheIndigenousandnonIndigenouslaws.Itwas alsoanoffenceintheeyesofthecommunity.Aftertheoffences,someofthe communitiessoughttoimposetraditionalpunishmentontheoffenders.Whilethe offendersacceptedthewrongfulnessoftheact,theydidnotconsidertheoffenceas seriousasitmayhavebeenifthegirlswerenotpromisedtothem. InHalesvJamilmira(2003),a49yearoldIndigenousmanfromManingrida,Jackie PascoeJamilmira,wasconvictedforstatutoryrapewitha15yearoldgirlwhowas hispromisedwife.Hewasalsoconvictedofdischargingafirearmlikelytoendanger others,whichwasseenasathreattothe15yearoldgirlandherfriends.Onappeal, Jamilmirasubmittedthathissentenceshouldbemitigatedonthegroundsthatit

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wascustomarypracticetohavesexwithapromisedwifeirrespectiveofherage. Initiallythesentencewas15months,thenonappealtotheNorthernTerritory SupremeCourt,24hours. OnappealtotheNorthernTerritoryCourtofCriminalAppeal,themajoritywas unwillingtofindthattheactwasnecessitatedbycustomarypractice.Ittherefore heldthatthe24hoursentencewasmanifestlyinadequate.TheCourtallowedthe Crownappeal.However,theCourtwasstillconstrainedbythefactthatNorthern Territorylegislationatthetimeallowedunderagedsexwithincustomarymarriage, andtraditionalpunishmentwouldbeinflicted.TheCourtthereforehandeddowna sentenceof12monthsthatcouldbesuspendedafteronemonthhadbeenserved. TheCourtdidnotrelyoncustomarylawfactorsinmitigatingthesentencebecause therewasnoevidencethattheoffenderwasrequiredtodowhathedidevenifthe offenderbelieveditgavehimcertainrights(seeDouglas2005,189).TheCourtheld thatitsrolewastoprotectAboriginalwomen,deterothersinthecommunityand servethepublicinterest(HalesvJamilmira2003,[34]perMartinCJ).TheCourtalso soughttopositiontheIndigenousoffenderwithinthecontextofthebroader Territorycommunity.MartinCJ(2003,[26])recognisesthatfordecadestheaverage offirsttimemothersatManingridawas15years,however,theperspectiveofthe widerTerritorycommunity[ofthese]breachesisagoodreasontoreinforce theoperationsofthelaw.HisHonourgoesontonotethattheprotectionofgirls undertheageof16isavalueofthewidercommunitywhichprevailsoverthatof thissectionoftheAboriginalcommunity(2003,[26]). InTheQueenvGJ(2005),a55yearoldmanwithnopriorconvictionswascharged withunlawfulassaultandstatutoryrapeofa14yearoldgirlintheYarralin communitywhowashispromisedwife.Theaccusedlivedaccordingtohis Aboriginallaws,withlittlecontactwiththenonIndigenoussociety.Englishwashis fourthlanguageandhadnotmetanonIndigenouspersonuntiltheageof30.The circumstancesoftheoffencewerethatthevictimsgrandmotherhadsentthe

21
victimtobewiththeaccused(herpromisedhusband),asshebelieveditwasthe victimsobligationundercustomarylaw.Theaccusedsuspectedthatthevictimwas havingasexualrelationshipwithayoungboy,andwenttothevictimarmedwith twoboomerangs(2005,[11][12]).Theaccusedhitherandhadanalintercoursewith her(2005,[17]).FromtheoutsetGJassertedthathehadactedwithinhis traditionalrights(2005,[12]).Atfirstinstance,MartinCJimposedasentenceof24 months(5monthsforaggravatedassault,19monthsforintercoursewithaminor). Thesentencecouldbesuspendedafterservingonemonthsimprisonment. TheNorthernTerritoryCourtofAppealallowedtheCrownsappealandrejected traditionallawasamitigatingfactor.Thesentencewasincreasedtothreeyearsand 11months,whichcouldbesuspendedafterserving18months.Thefocusofthe Courtonthevictim.ThiswasprojectedinRileyJsobservation.Whentaking submissionsfromtherespondentabouttherighttopreservecustomandtradition, hisHonourasked,Butwhataboutthevictim?Hasanyoneaskedherifshewantsto preservecustomsandtraditions?(citedinBrown2007,14). DeterrencetoIndigenouspeopleinthecommunitywhomayseektofollow traditionallawsinthiswaywasalsoasignificantfactorinthesentencingofGJ. MildrenandSouthwoodJJstressedtheneedtoteachpeopleinGJscommunityto betterunderstandtheseimportantprinciplesofthecriminallaw(TheQueenvGJ 2005,[37],[67]).SouthwoodJ(2005,[73])stated: Wheresentencingandthemannerofsentencinghasthepurposeof educatingboththeoffenderandthecommunitycaremustbetakento ensurethatanoffenderisnotseentobedoublypunishedandisnotmadeto shoulderanunfairburdenofcommunityeducation. TheaccusedsoughtleavetoappealthedecisiontotheHighCourtofAustralia. However,suchleavewasrefused(GJvTheQueen[2006]HCATrans252(19May 2006)).Assuch,thecourtshaveensuredthatpromisedmarriageisnotacontext

22
thatmitigatestheseverityofthecrime.Onefactoristheelevationofthevictim,as DavidGarlandslatemodernframeworkreveals.However,Garlandssuggestion thattheoffenderisdecontextualisedisnotrealised.IntheNorthernTerritory,there isregardtotheIndigenousoffenderscontextbutforthepurposesof condemnationratherthanacceptanceorreintegration. 6.Somedevelopmentsinsentencinglegislation OnefactorthatinfluencedtheharshersentencinginTheQueenvGJwasa legislativeamendmentthatrequiredsexoffendertoservealongercustodial sentencethanJamilmira,aswellastheillegalisationofunderagesexwithin customarymarriage.8AnothermajorpolicychangeintheNorthernTerritorywas thehigherburdenplacedonthedefendantinadmittingculturalorcustomary evidenceundertheSentencingAmendment(AboriginalCustomaryLaw)Act2004 (NT).9However,thisdidnotprovideanybarriersforthedefencelawyersinGJ. However,oneoftheclearestindications,thatthesentencingIndigenousoffenders hasnotjustbeenaboutharsherpenalties,whichGarlandsapproachwouldsuggest, butratheraboutdiminishingtheroleofcommunitycontextinsentencingisthe NorthernTerritoryNationalEmergencyAct2007s91.10ThisCommonwealth statutoryprovision(whichappliestotheNorthernTerritoryandoverridesany conflictingTerritorylaw)excludestheconsiderationofcustomarylaworcultural practiceswhensentencingforNorthernTerritoryoffences.Theprovisionmeans thatthesefactorscanneitherserveasaggravatingnormitigatingfactors.Thus,the purposeisnotonlytomakesentencesharsher,buttoremovetheroleof Indigenousfactors.
Themaximumpenaltyforstatutoryrapeincreasedfromsevento16years. This inserted s104A into the Sentencing Act. The intention of the amendment was to prevent the introduction by nonIndigenous lawyers in the main of information to the courts that was ill informedorincorrectintermsofcustomarylaw(Calma2007,84). 10 ThereisasimilarprovisionthatappliestoCommonwealthoffencesundertheBailandSentencing Act2006(Cth).
9 8

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Indigenousoffendersaretobeconceivedonlyasamemberofthebroadernon Indigenouscommunity.PrimeMinisterHoward(2006)explainedthatthesereforms weremeanttoovercomethecourtsmisguidednotionofAboriginallawor customarylaw,ratherthanAngloAustralianlaw.11Thelawservestooverridethe roleofIndigenouscommunitiesinsentencingontheapprehensionthatthese communitiesaredysfunctionalandtheredecliningrole(asevidencedbytheinter generationalconflict)andsuchdeclineshouldbehastenedtoconformwithnon Indigenouspostcolonialsociety. 7.Conclusion DavidGarlandsthesisintheCultureofControl(2001,12)resonateswiththe sentencingofIndigenousoffendersintermsofidentifyingthereemergenceofthe urgetopunish,toallocateblame,condemnandexcludeandtoavengethevictim andaboveallprotectthepublic.However,judicialapproachestoIndigenous offendersisnotsimplypartofaconceptionofthefailedwelfarestateandpenal welfarism(seeGarland2001,20).ItisalsopartofaviewthatIndigenous communitiesaredysfunctionalandgiverisetomorallycorruptindividuals. Indigenouscommunitiesareconceivedasdysfunctionaleitherbecausetheirculture hasbrokendownorbecausetheircultureistooheavilyexpressed.However,judges seektoprotecttheIndigenouscommunityatthesametimethattheycondemnthe Indigenouscommunityforgivingrisetoacrimeproblem.Thecommunityneedsto beprotectedfromitself.Sentencesaretodetertheindividualbutalsotodeterthe Indigenouscommunity.Crimecontrolthereforegoeshandinhandwithpost colonialcontrolbeyondtherationalitiesoflatemodernurgestopunish.

ThereformsweresupportedinFebruary2008andbythecurrentFederalgovernment: SpokespersonforJennyMacklin,IndigenousAffairsMinister,inKarvelasandKearney(2007).

11

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References AustralianBureauofStatistics2007,PrisonersinAustralia,ABSCatNo.4517.0. AustralianLawReformCommission1986,TheRecognitionofAboriginalCustomary Lawshttp://austlii.law.uts.edu.au/au/other/IndigLRes/1986/3/2.html Broadhurst,Roderic1987,ImprisonmentoftheAborigineinWesternAustralia, 19571985,inHazlehurst,KayleenM(ed)Ivoryscales:BlackAustraliansandthe law,UniversityofNSWPress,Sydney. HarryBlagg(2008),ColonialCritiqueandCriticalCriminology:IssuesinAboriginal LawandAboriginalViolenceinThaliaAnthonyandChrisCunneen(eds),The CriticalCriminologyCompanion,HawkinsPress,Sydney. Brough,Mal2007,SecondReadingSpeech,Families,CommunityServicesand IndigenousAffairsandOtherLegislationAmendment(NorthernTerritoryNational EmergencyResponseandOtherMeasures)Bill2007,HouseofRepresentatives Hansard,ParliamentoftheCommonwealthofAustralia,7August,2007,22. Brown,Ken2007,Customarylaw:sexwithunderagepromisedwives,32(1) AlternativeLawJournal11. Calma,Tom2007,TheIntegrationofCustomaryLawintotheAustralianLegal System25(1)LawinContext74. Casenote,1982,JackieAnzacJadurinvtheQueen,AboriginalLawBulletin, http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/AboriginalLB/1982/69.html Cunneen,Chris2001,Conflict,PoliticsandCrime:AboriginalCommunitiesandthe PoliceAllen&Unwin,Sydney.

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Douglas,Heather1998,TheCulturalSpecificityofEvidence:TheCurrentScopeand RelevanceoftheAnungaGuidelines21(1)UNSWLawJournal27. Douglas,Heather2005,Sheknewwhatwasexpectedofher:thewhitelegal systemsencounterwithtraditionalmarriage13FeministLegalStudies181 Garland,David2001,TheCultureofControl:CrimeandSocialOrderin ContemporarySociety,OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford. Hawke,Sarah2006,Childrapistsgivenincreasedsentences,PMProgram, AustralianBroadcastingCorporation,7June, http://www.abc.net.au/pm/content/2006/s1657758.htm Hogg,Russell2001,Penaltyandmodesofregulatingindigenouspeoplein Australia3(3),PunishmentandSociety355. Howard,John(2006),SouthernCrossRadio,19May. Edney,Richard2006,TheretreatfromFernandoandtheerasureofIndigenous identityinsentencing6(17)IndigenousLawBulletin8. FinnaneMark(2006),Thetidesofcustomarylaw,ANZLHEJournal, http://www.anzlhsejournal.auckland.ac.nz/pdfs_2006/Keynote_1_Finnane.pdf Fisher,Mary1985,CasenoteonRvCharlieLimbiariJagamara,8AboriginalLaw Bulletin11. Flynn,Martin2005,NotAboriginalenoughforparticularconsiderationwhen sentencing6(9)IndigenousLawBulletin15.

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Fougere,Christine2006,Customarylawandinternationalhumanrights:The QueenvGJLawSocietyJournalAugust,42. Joudo,JacquelineandCurnow,Jane2008,DeathsincustodyinAustralia:National DeathsinCustodyProgramannualreport2006,ResearchandPublicPolicySeries, No.85,AustralianInstituteofCriminology,Canberra. Karvelas,PatriciaandKearney,Simon2007,LaboreyesexpandedNTscheme,The Australian,1December, http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,25197,22851342601,00.html Kimm,Joan2004,AFatalConjunction:TwoLawsTwoCultures,FederationPress, Sydney. LawReformCommissionofWesternAustralia2005,AboriginalCustomaryLaw: TheinteractionofWesternAustralianlawwithAboriginallawandculture,Final Report,ProjectNo.94. Lofgren,N1997,AboriginalCommunityParticipationinSentencing21(3)Criminal LawJournal127. McGrath,S(19971998),Traditionalpunishmentprevented:BarnesvTheQueen 4(8)IndigenousLawBulletin18. Melossi,Dario2000,ChangingRepresentationsoftheCriminal,inGarland,David andSparks,Richard(eds),CriminologyandSocialTheory,OxfordUniversityPress, Oxford. NewSouthWalesLawReformCommission2000,Sentencing:Aboriginal Offenders,ReportNo.96,http://www.lawlink.nsw.gov.au/lrc.nsf/pages/R96CHP2

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NorthernTerritoryLawReformCommittee2003,ReportoftheCommitteeof InquiryintoAboriginalCustomaryLaw, http://www.nt.gov.au/justice/docs/lawmake/ntlrc_final_report.pdf NorthAustralianAboriginalJusticeAgency,SubmissiontotheSenateLegaland ConstitutionalAffairsCommitteeInquiryintotheCrimeAmendment(Bailand Sentencing)Bill2006,No.12 http://www.aph.gov.au/senate/committee/legcon_ctte/completed_inquiries/2004 07/crimes_bail_sentencing/submissions/sub12.pdf Rogers,Nannette1999,AboriginallawandsentencingintheNorthernTerritory SupremeCourtatAliceSprings19861995PhDThesis,UniversityofSydney RoyalCommissionIntoAboriginalDeathsInCustody1991,NationalReport,Vol.2. Ruddock,Philip2006,SecondReadingSpeech,CrimesAmendment(Bailand Sentencing)Bill2006,HouseofRepresentativesHansard,Parliamentofthe CommonwealthofAustralia,28November,2006,1819. Omeri,Sheryn2006,ConsideringAboriginality,LawSocietyJournalAugust74. Cases AmagulavWhite[1998]NTSC61 GJvTheQueen[2006]HCATrans252(19May2006) JackyAnzacJadurinvTheQueen(1982),44ALR424 HalesvJamilmira(2003)13NTLR14 MunungurrvTheQueen(1994)4NTLR63 Shaw&AnorvWolf&Ors(1999)163ALR205 RvAnthony[2004]NTSC5,142ACrimR440 RvBarnes[1997]NTSC123

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RvCeissman[2001]NSWCCA73 RvCharlieLimbiariJagamara(Unreported,SupremeCourtoftheNorthernTerritory, 28May1984) RvDaniel[1998]1QdR499 RvFernando(1992)76ACrimR58 RvJaneMiyatatawuy(1996)87ACrimR574 RvJurisic45NSWLR209 RvMinor(1992)105FLR180 RvLane,HuntandSmith(1980)SCCNos1617,1819,2021(Unreported,Northern TerritorySupremeCourt) RvNeal(1982)149CLR305 RvNewman,RvSimpson[2004]NSWCCA102 RvRiley[2006]NTCCA10 RvStott(1977)SCCNo83(Unreported,NorthernTerritorySupremeCourt) RvWalter&Thompson[2004]NSWCCA304 RvWurramara1999NTSCCA45 RobertsonvFlood(1992)111FLR177 ShannonvTheQueen(1991)57SASR14 StevensvCentrelink[2003]NTSC16 TheQueenvGJ[2005]NTCCA20 Legislation BailandSentencingAct2006(Cth) Crimes(Sentencing)Act2005(ACT) Crime(SentencingandBail)AmendmentAct2006(Cth) Crimes(SentencingProcedure)Act1999(NSW) CrimesAct1900(NSW) CriminalCode(NT) CriminalLaw(SentencingAct)1988(SA) NorthernTerritoryNationalEmergencyResponseAct2007(Cth).

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PenaltiesandSentencesAct1992(Qld) SentencingAct1995(NT) SentencingAct1997(Tas) SentencingAct1991(Vic) SentencingAct1995(WA)

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AcriticalperspectiveonMentalHealthDisordersandCognitive DisabilityintheCriminalJusticeSystem
EileenBaldry,LeanneDowse,PhillipSnoyman,MelissaClarenceandIan Webster SchoolofSocialSciencesandInternationalStudies UniversityofNewSouthWales e.baldry@unsw.edu.au Introduction Thegrowingpresenceofpeoplewithmentalhealthdisordersandcognitive disabilities(MHD&CD)incriminaljusticesystems(CJS)worldwideisofpublic concern.Evidencepointstowidespreadoverrepresentationofsuchpeoplein prisonerpopulationsandmoregenerallyinthecriminaljusticesystem,bothas victimsandoffenders(Belcher1988,Aderibigbe1996,Harrington1999,Reed& Lyne2000).Thefinancial,personal,socialandhumancostsoflargenumbersof peoplewithMHD&CDbeinghousedintheCJSareenormous. Conceptualisingthecomplexsocialprocesses,systemicresponsesandindividual impairmentexperienceswhichcombinetoheightenthevulnerabilityofpeoplewith MHD&CDtocomingintocontactwiththeCJSandtotheirmultifacetedtrajectories within,outandoftenbackintothesesystemsisnowmorecriticalthanever.There iscurrentlyincongruencebetweensystemsdealingwithsuchpeople,andthe absenceofshareddatameansthatpathwaysthroughthesesystemscannotbe identified.Thusindividualandsysteminteractionsareobscure.Onestartingpointis tomappathwaysthroughthesystemsthemselvesandtodevelopapictureoftheir keyinterconnectionsanddisjunctionsforthisgroupofpeople.Undertakingsucha projectintroducesarangeofdilemmaswhichcrossboundariesfromthetheoretical, methodological,ethicalandpolitical,totheinstitutionalandpersonal.

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ThispaperreportsontheearlyinsightsemergingfromanAustralianstudy,whichis mappingthecriminaljusticeandhumanservicetrajectoriesofacohortofpeople withMHD&CDwhohavebeeninprison.Thestudycombinesextantadministrative datafromarangeofcriminaljustice,healthandhumanserviceagenciestocreatea linkeddatasetofrecordsrelevanttoindividualsinthecohort.Importantlyitaimsto movethinkingintheareabeyondtraditionallysiloeddisciplinaryapproachesseenin studiesgroundedincriminologyorimpairmenttotakeaccountofinsightsfromthe newlyemergingdisciplineofCriticalCriminologyandtointegratethesewith similarlyinnovativeperspectivesdevelopingwithinthedisciplineofCritical DisabilityStudies.Bringingtheseparallelperspectivestogetheropensupanew spacewithinwhichtoreconceptualisethecomplexmatrixofconcernsrelevantto anintenselymarginalisedgroupofpeoplewithdisabilitiesandwhichsuggestsan interconnectedandfluidcontinuumencompassingsocial,systemic,community, institutionalandcriminologicalprocesseswithindividualexperiencesof impairment,disabilityandsocialdiscrimination,disadvantageandexclusion. TheoreticalFrameworksandKeyConcepts InaddressingtheissuescentraltotheexperienceofpeoplewithMHD&CDinthe CJSthisstudyexploresthelinksbetweensocialexclusion,impairmentanddisability andthesystemicimpactsofcriminaljusticeandhumanserviceparadigms. UnderpinningthisapproacharetheparallelandemergingdisciplinesofCritical CriminologyandCriticalDisabilityStudies.CriticalCriminologyseekstolocateand understandthereasonsforcrimewithinwiderstructuralandinstitutionalcontexts. Thesecontextsmaybeconceivedofinvariousformsincludingsocioeconomic, classbased,cultural,racialisedandgendered(AnthonyandCunneen2008:1).It seescrimeandsocialresponsestoitasdeeplypolitical,culturalandcritically challengeablematters.DisabilityStudiesisbasedonthepremisethatthe disadvantagetypicallyexperiencedbythosewhoaredisabledreflectsprimarilythe waysocietydefinesandrespondstocertaintypesof'difference'.Identifiedwiththis perspectiveisthesocialmodelofdisabilitywhichmakesacrucialdistinction

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betweenimpairmentasaconditionoftheindividualbodyormind(suchas experiencingschizophrenia,intellectualdisabilityorbraininjury),anddisability, whichisthesocialexperienceflowingfromthepresenceofimpairment,including therangeofbarrierstofullparticipationthatexistinasocietywhichprivileges normalcyandmarginalizesdifference(OliverandBarnes1998).Thisframeof analysischallengestheviewofdisabilityasanindividualdeficitordefectthatcanbe remediedsolelythroughmedicalinterventionorrehabilitationby"experts"and amelioratedbyserviceproviders.Rather,itexploresthesocial,political,cultural, andeconomicfactorsthatdefinedisabilityandshapepersonalandcollective responsestodifference. Inconceptualisingtheintersectionsofthesocial,systemicandindividual dimensionswhichoperatetostructuretheexperienceofpeoplewithMHD&CDin relationtocriminaljustice,thecriticaldisabilityperspectiveprovidestwofurther importantinsightsthattheimpairedbodyormindcannotbesimplyrepresented asapassiverecipientofsocialforces(PatersonandHughes1999)andthatdisability mustbemovedfromitsperipheralstatusintheanalysisofthedifference,toa centralposition,retheorizingitasakeyorganizingprincipleintheconstructionof anindividualsidentity(Erevelles2000).Criticalcriminologymakesanattemptto takeaccountofrace,andclassand(lesssuccessfully)genderinasimilarwaywhile currentlyrelegatingdisabilitytothestatusofanadditionaldimensionofsocial disadvantage.Thetheoreticalorientationofthisstudybringsdisabilitytothecentre oftheanalysisandundertakestocombinethesetwoperspectives,suggestinga newwaytomakevisiblethematerialstructures,ideologicaldiscoursesand experiencesofimpairmentthatfundamentallyanddifferentiallystructurean individualslifecourseandexperienceofsocialinclusion/exclusion. Theconceptofsocialexclusionisausefuloneinlinkingthediscoursesofcritical criminologyandcriticaldisabilitystudiesandprovidesausefullensthroughwhich toexaminethecomplexmatrixesofexclusionandmarginalisationexperiencedby peoplewithMHD&CDandtheirinteractionswithsocialsystems.Thesocial

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exclusionperspectivecombinesaconsiderationofanindividualsriskandprotective factorswithsystemandpolicydrivenproblemsandaccountsforwhatcanhappen whenpeopleexperienceacombinationoflinkedproblemssuchasunemployment, poorskills,lowincomes,unstablehousing,highcrimeenvironments,poorhealth andfamilybreakdown(SocialExclusionUnit2001).Lifecoursestudiesdemonstrate thatchildhoodfactorsarenotreliablypredictiveofcriminaljusticesystem involvement,norareadolescentandadultpersonalriskfactors(Bynner2000).Both theseperspectivesthoughcanbeoverlyindividuallyfocussedattheexpenseofa criticalanalysisofthesystemicpolicydriversandthisstudyseekstoaddressthat tendency.Thissuggeststheneedforaniterativeprocessofidentifying, understandingandremovingobstaclestoresourcescombinedwithadeeper analysisofthedynamicsofbothimpairmentanddisability.Thewaythosedynamics structureanindividualsinteractionswiththesystemsneedtoberecognisedanda reflectiveanalysisconductedofthewaythesysteminitiallystructuresthose dynamics.ThisapproachiscrucialtounderstandingpeoplewithMHD&CDs positioninginthesocialworldandindevelopingstrategiestoassistthemtostay outoftheCJS. ThematicFieldsintheAnalysis SocialExclusionandDisability Peoplewithdisabilitiesareoneofthemostsociallyexcludedgroupsinsociety. Whatmakessocialexclusionsoperniciousfordisabledpeopleisthepowerfulwayin whichbarriersinteracttoperpetuateexclusion(Howard1999).Forexamplepoor educationcanlimittheextentandopportunityforemploymentandtherebyrestrict accesstomoneyandhousing.Suchexclusioncan,whencombinedwithother disadvantages,funnelpeopleintothecriminaljusticesystem.Arecentstudyof levelsofsocialandpsychologicaldisadvantageamongasampleofNSWCourt defendantsconductedbytheNSWBureauofCrimeStatisticsandResearchfound thatninepercentofthesamplehadnotcontinuedschoolbeyondyearseven,thirty

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percenthadnotcontinuedbeyondyear10,nineteenpercentreporteddifficulties learningnewthingsandtwentyonepercentreportedtheyhaddifficultiesreading andwriting(JonesandCrawford2007:3).Theseratesarefarabovethenational averages(AustralianBureauofStatistics2005).Thisfunnellingismoreevidentin theprisonsystemwheredisadvantageisevenmoreconcentrated. Thisissueissalientforpeoplewithmentalhealthdisorders,particularlythosefrom lowersocioeconomicgroups,giventhattheseillnessestendtoemergeandbe diagnosedinlateadolescence/earlyadulthood(KimCohenetal.2003).Giventhe usuallylongleadtimefromthedevelopmentofsymptomstothepointofdiagnosis andpresumablyintervention,itisverylikelythatyoungpeoplewithemerging mentalhealthissueswhosefamilieshavelittleinthewayofsocialandeconomic capitaltosupportthem,arelikelytohaveexperienceddisruptedschooling.This setsinmotionachainofevents/exclusionsthatintensifytheirdisadvantage.For peoplewithcognitivedisabilitiesaccesstoeducationalopportunitiesisalso compromised.InNSWthe1996McCraereportfoundthatonly30%ofschoolaged childrenandadolescentswithdisabilitiesinNSWattendedGovernmentprimary andsecondaryschoolsandthatmorethanhalfofthesechildrenandadolescents werenotreceivingeducationintheclassroomalongsidetheirpeerswithout disabilities(McRae1996:iv).ThesubsequentVinsonreportsof2002concludedthat manyteachersstruggletogivestudentswithdisabilitiesenoughopportunitiesin theclassroom(Vinson2002:iii). Theexampleofeducationaldisadvantagehighlightstheperniciousnatureofsocial exclusionforpeoplewithMHD&CD.Thedisadvantageouseffectsofpooreducation flowontoemployment,particularlyinasocietywhichvaluesliteracyandnumeracy aboveotherattributesandwhichisrapidlytransformingfromaproductiontoa serviceandtechnologyeconomy(Dowse2007).Inexaminingtheimpactof educationaldisadvantageanditsrelationshiptocriminaljusticetrajectoriesthe impactofneoliberalismandneoconservatismonthelivesofdisabledpeoplealso becomesafeature,demonstratingthatanyconceptualisationofcriminaljustice

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trajectoriesmusttakeaccountofprocesseswhichextendfrombroadsocialand politicalprocessestothespecificindividualexperience. PovertyhasbeennotedbyHughes(2002:580),ashavingalwaysbeenthekey factorinthemodernconstitutionofdisability.Inrelationtopovertysuchproblems canincludedebt,housingandwelfarebenefits,formingaclusterofdifficultiesthat havethetendencytodevelopintofurtherproblemspirals.Thesocialexclusionary locationofpeoplewithdisabilities,oftenboundupwiththevicissitudesand experiencesofpoverty,leavesthemproneandvulnerabletoexperiencingarange ofjusticiableproblems,thatis,thosethathaveapotentialrecoursethroughlawor thelegalsystem(OGradyetal.2004:261).Theseexamplesalsopointtothecentral importanceofintegratingananalysisofbothsocialandcriminaljusticepolicyin redressingthecomplexdynamicsofdisability,criminaljusticeandhumanservices. ConceptualisingthedisabilityexperienceforpeoplewithMHD&CD Thedifferentiationofimpairment(thebodilyexperience)anddisability(thesocial experiencewhichensuesfromhavingabodily,sensory,cognitiveorpsychic constitutionwhichdeviatesfromsocallednormal)isoneofthecentraldebates exercisingthinkersincontemporarydisabilitystudies.Theargumentscentreonthe politicalexpediencyofrecognising/acceptingaunitarydisabilityexperiencethat connectswiththesocialexperienceofmarginalisationandoppressionechoingthe phenomenaofracismandsexism.Thisfailuretodistinguishbetweendifferent impairmentanddisabilitytrajectoriesresultsinthemarginalisingofsome impairmentgroupsandshoresupthetraditionofunderstandingdisabilityonlyina staticsense(Burkhardt2000). Theconnectionbetweenimpairmentanddisabilityisacriticalpointofdistinction here.Someonemayexperienceasevereimpairment(e.g.mentalillnesssuchas schizophrenia)butnotexperienceitasseverelydisablingduetoarangeoffactors suchashavingthesocialandfinancialsupportoftheirfamily,whileanotherperson

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mayhavewhatmightbediagnosticallyonlyamildimpairmentbutexperience extremelydisablingconsequences,againduetoarangeoffactorssuchas experiencingpovertyandabuse.Clearlyacriticalinterveningfactorinthis relationshipiscommunitysupportswhichalleviateorattenuatetheimpactof impairment. Asnapshotofthestudycohort Thecohortbeinginvestigatedinthecurrentstudyconsistsof2093peoplewhohave beeninprison.Thesepersons,some2,700,aredrawnfromtwodatacollections the2001NSWPrisonerHealthSurveyandtheNSWStatewideDisabilityServices ofCorrectiveServicesclientdatabase.Thecohortiscomprisedof28%witha mentalhealthdisorder,(definedashavinganyanxiety,affectiveorpsychiatric probleminthepast12months),34%withanintellectualdisabilityand38%a borderlineintellectualdisability.28%areAboriginalorTorresStraightIslanders (ATSI).ThemajorityofATSIpeopleareinthecohortduetointellectualdisability (36%haveanIQ<70and43%areborderlineID),whilsttheremaining21%havea mentalhealthdisorder.Eightyeightpercentofthecohortismale.Females comprise26%ofthementalhealthdisordercomponent,whilstonly7%oftheID cohortand5%oftheborderlineIDarefemale.Thisisnotnecessarilyrepresentative oftheratesofthesedifferentgroupsinthesystemitselfbutratheraconsequence ofthemethodologyforestablishingthecohortofpeoplewithintellectualdisability whichhashadtorelyentirelyontheidentificationofthesefactorsintheprison population.ThestudyisnotintendedtoberepresentativeofthosewithMHD&CD intheCJSbutrathertoprovideameansbywhichtoexaminethepathwayspeople whoareknowntohaveMD&CDtakein,outandwithinthesocialandjustice systems. Thenatureofthedisabilityexperienceinrelationtocriminaljustice

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Overallitispossibletoclaimthatdisabledpeoplearemorevulnerablethanothers toexperiencingawiderangeofjusticiableproblems,manyofwhichhaveclearand definedlinkstoissuesofsocialexclusion.Disabilityisamongstthemostinfluential predictorsofproblemexperienceinthejusticesystemmoreinfluentialthanother significantpredictorssuchasfamilytype,ageandeconomiccircumstance(OGrady etal.2004:265).Furtherevidenceindicatesthattheexperienceofmultiple problemsinsomecasesindicatesaspiralofjusticiableproblemswherethe experiencesofoneproblemthatisunsolvedthenleadstoanotherandanother. These"multiplicativeeffects"actattwolevels:thedirecteffectsonindividuals,that istosaythatcombiningtheeffectofoneimpairmentonanalreadyimpaired individualisnotsimplyadditivebutexponential;andthenatanotherlevelthereare theexclusionsfromsocialandhealthsupportsystemswhichnarrowlydefine eligibilityonspecificneeds/servicesandnotoncomprehensiveassessmentsofthe person'soverallpredicament.Thisdemonstratesthatwhilepeoplewithdisabilities aremorelikelytoexperienceaprobleminthefirstinstance,theyarealsomore vulnerabletocompoundingofproblemsonceoneisexperienced,aphenomenon describedasaspirallingcycleofproblemsequences(ibid:265).Previousresearch amongstthosecyclinginandoutofprison(Baldryetal2006)suggestthatsuch cumulativedisadvantageislikelytoresultincascadingnegativeeffectsmorepotent thaneachsingleproblemoreventmightsuggesttheviscouscyclephenomenon (Sterman2000)andhighlightsthedynamic,interactiveandsynergisticnatureof thephenomenon. ThisinsightalertsustotheimportanceofnotsimplyregardinganepisodeofCJ contactasanisolatedincident,butthatitislikelytoberelatedtoprioreventsanda precedingstatusofsocialexclusion.Theimportanceofthisinsightistosensitiseus torecogniseclustersofproblemsinthosewhoexperiencemultipleproblems. OGradyetalsresearch(2004)found,inanalysingmultipleproblems,thatthese issuesoccurregularlytogetherorinasequence.

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Thisfocusonmultipleproblemsasclusters,hasbeenexploredmethodologically byPleasenceetal(2004),whoderivedthefollowingfourclustersascommonto peoplewithdisabilities: 1. Familydivorce,postrelationship,domesticviolenceandissueswithchildren. 2. Homelessnesshomelessness,rentedhousing,unfairpolicetreatment, problemswherelegalactionwastakenagainstpersons. 3. HealthandWelfareimmigration,mentalhealth,welfarebenefits,medical negligence 4. Economicsconsumerissues,money/debt,gambling,neighbours, employmentproblem (adaptedfromOGradyetal.2004) Theclusteranalysisdetailedaboveisoneofmanywaysofmovingbeyondorre writingthecategoriesanddichotomiesthatemergeinanyanalysisdrivenbythe distinctionbetweencommunityandcorrections.Howeverwehopetocapturethe integrateddynamicswhichoperatewithinandacrosseachsite(whetheritbe communityorcriminaljustice)wheretheseidentifiedclusteredissuesinteractto intensifyandmutuallyconstituteeachother.Infacttheabovefourclustershave beenshowntonotonlyoccursingularlybuttoallcooccurforthosecyclinginand outofprison. Severalissueshavebeenidentifiedassalienttotheexperiencesofpeoplewith MHD&CDintheearlyanalysisofcohortdata.Itissuggestedthat,forthisgroupthe patternofserialinstitutionalisationisparticularlypowerful.Muchoftheprevious researchaddressingtheeffectsofinstitutionalisationhasfocusedonthose individualsservinglongsentences.PeoplewithMHD&CDarehowevermorelikely tobeservingshortertermsbutthesearelikelytobemorefrequent.Thisdifferent kindofserialinstitutionalisationislikelytobethoroughlydestabilisinginavariety ofwaysparticularlyinitsimpactonexprisonersabilitytoobtainandsustainstable housing,whereincidenceoffrequentmovingandboutsofhomelessnesshavebeen foundtobesignificantlyassociatedwithreturningtoprison(Baldryetal.2006).

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Serialinstitutionalisationandhomelessnesshavealsobeenlinkedwithother associateddimensionsofsocialdisadvantagesuchaslackofemploymentorstudy opportunities,lackoffamilysupport,beinglocatedindisadvantagedcommunities andworseningdruguse(ibid:30).Importantlythiscombinationofstressfullife eventsisalsolikelytobelinkedtotheepisodicoccurrencesofimpairmentforthose withmentalhealthdisorders,inbothacausativeandconsequentialsense. Thedistinctionbetweenforensicandnonforensiccasestatusalsoappearsacritical factor.IntheNewSouthWaleslegalsystemforensiccasesareadministeredunder theMentalHealth(CriminalProcedure)Act1990(NSW)andarereviewedregularly aftersentencinginrecognitionofthefactthattheactwascommittedwhilethe personwasundertheinfluenceofamentalillness.Thereviewpanellooksfor improvementinthepersonsmentalhealthbeforerecommendingrelease.People withcognitiveimpairmentareregularlyheldunderthisActonthebasisoftheir legalincompetenceorincapacity.Thisbringsanadditionallevelofcomplexitysince adiagnosisofintellectualdisabilityorcognitiveimpairmentisunchanging,creating thepotentialforsuchpeopletobeheldforlongperiods.Forensicstatusisalsoan arbitrarycategorisationinonerespect:apersonmayhaveamentalhealthdisorder andanintellectualdisabilitybutthesemaynotbeseentobeassociatedwiththe particularoffenceforwhichtheyareincarcerated.Soalthoughtheymaybe experiencinganequalimpairmentasanotherwhoiscategorisedasforensic,they arenotsocategorised. Furthercompoundingproblemsaretheincreasinguseofremandandoftherapeutic servicesinthecriminaljusticesystem.TheAustralianremandpopulationhasmore thandoubledinthepasttwodecadesfrom12%ofthetotalprisonpopulationin thelate1980sto22%today(AustralianBureauofStatistics2007).Remandisnow morelikelytobeusedtoremovesomeonewhohasaseriousbehaviouralissueor forthosewhohavenosupportelsewhereandarethereforeunabletomoveoutofa custodialsituation.PeoplewithMHD&CDarelikelytobeparticularlyvulnerableto beingheldinremandwhen,allotherthingsbeingequal,theywouldnotbeusually

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heldthere.Thestatusofremandcanmeanthattheindividuallooseshousing,a benefit,anyconnectionwithcommunityservicesandsupportandisexposedto violenceandmistreatmentinprison.Thelimitedbutincreasingavailabilityof therapeuticoptionssuchasmentalhealthcourtsandunitsinprisonsmaybea mixedbenefitwiththeCJSbeingusedtoprovideservicesfromwhichthesepersons mayfrequentlybeexcludedinthecommunity. MethodologicalMatters Thestudytakesseriouslytheneedtoanchorthequantitativeinquiryina theoretically,sociallyandpoliticallyinformedconceptualframework.Theapproach wehavetakentomeetingthesedemandsisaninterdisciplinaryone,combining coreconstructsandtheoreticaldispositionsfromthedisciplinesofsocialscientific inquiry,criticalcriminologyandcriticaldisabilitystudies. Amixedsecondaryanalysis,thatcombinesinductiveandlifecoursestyle assemblyoftheparticipantscriminaljusticeandhumanserviceinvolvementwith quantitativestatisticaltechniques,isused.Bothformsofanalysisdrawonthelinked dataandshowthepathwayspeopletakethroughandbetweenservicessuchas juvenilejustice,police,courts,prisons,health,mentalhealth,housing,community anddisabilityservices. Thisstudyattemptstodevelopandmapnewandemergingconceptualpathways fromcriticalcriminologyanddisabilitystudiesontothereallifetrajectoriesofa cohortofpeoplewithMHD&CDwhohavebeeninprison.Itwillshedlightonthe dynamicwaysthatimpairmentandthenatureofservicesystemsinteracttothrow upbarriersthatpreventpeopleaccessingthehelptheyneedtonegotiatetheir complexandoftenchaoticlives.Thispointstotheimportanceofanindepth qualitativeinquiryasacriticalnextstep.Moreover,wecanexpectthatthisnext phaseoftheresearchcanthrowlightontothevexedquestionofwhetherthe supportsthatareofferedbythesesystemsareamatchforthecomplexsocial,

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psychological,culturalandpoliticalneedsofthosetheytarget.Itappearsthatthe interplayamongstthesystems,andbetweenthesystemsandtheindividualblurs theboundariesbetweentheself,thecommunityandthesesystemswhichmustbe engagedwithinanefforttonavigateapathwayfromdysfunctiontofunction. Theseinteractionscanalsoexacerbateandcompoundtheinitialproblemorcause newanddifferentandseeminglyunrelatedproblemstoemerge. Conclusion ThesocialexclusionexperiencedbypeoplewithMHD&CDincreasestheir vulnerabilitytoarangeofdisablingexperiencesgeneratedfromwithinthe treatment/management/rehabilitation/retributiveparadigmitself.Thisexperience inturnincreasesvulnerabilityingeneralandthereforeincreasesanoverall susceptibilitytotheforcesofsocialexclusion.Solutionstothispredicamentcannot thereforebefocussedonlyuponindividualpathology,impairmentorchoiceoron justtheCJSbutneedtotargetsystemicchangeatawidercommunityandsocietal level. Missingfromthecurrentdiscussion,butembeddedinthestudyitself,isany considerationofalcoholandothersubstanceusedisordersamongstpeoplewith MHD&CD.Whileadetailedanalysisisbeyondtheremitofthispaper,theseare centrallyimportantissuesbecauseinthemselvestheirusecanbedefinedasa crime.Moresignificantly,theycomplicatealmosteveryaspectoftheareasexplored inthispaper.PeoplewithMHD&CDareindeedthemostmarginalised,themost stigmatisedbyservicesystemsandhaveneedsoverandbeyondthosealready impliedhere(suchastheneedforparticulartreatmentsandtherisksof transmissionofdiseaseetc).Inaddition,theprevalenceofphysicalhealthproblems andassociatedneedscontributetothelevelsimpairmentexperiencedby individualsandtotherangeofservicesthatareneededforthem.

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Thewayforwardsuggestsitselfasaneedtomovementalhealth/illnessorcognitive impairmentfromacategoricalordiagnosticattributetoacentrallocationinthe conceptualisationoftheindividualwhopresentstotheCJS.MHD&CDoperateasa definingidentityposition,consciousornot,fromwhichsocial,economic,and culturalconsequencesflow.Importantly,thedynamicsofimpairmentareboundup indiagnosticsandmedialmodelsontowhichthelivedexperiencehasalmostno purchase.Thisistheterrainontowhichnewtheoreticalinscriptionsemergingfrom criticalcriminologyandcriticaldisabilitystudiesurgentlyneedtobewritten. PeoplewithMHD&CDcometotheCJSalreadyshapedbytheirimpairments, definedbytheirdimensionsofdifferencefromthenormalandthesocial imperativeswhichthisdifferencecarvesoutintheirindividualexperientiallivesthat is,thedisablingimpactsoftheirdysfunctions.Thesedifferencesplayoutprimarily intheirsocialcontextandthroughasetofsocialrelationsthatshapetheirlived experiencelargelyasoneofsocialexclusionanddisadvantage.Thesedynamics, togetherwithanoverarchingculturalposturesteepedinfearorindifferenceandan individualmilieuofsuspicionorfrustrationseethemlabelledinparticularways. Thesedynamicsfundamentallyshapethenatureofthetheoretical,cultural,social, policy,serviceandpersonalresponsestosuchpeople.Criticallythiscomplexmatrix ofmarginalisationanddisadvantagealltoooftenresultsintheincarcerationpeople withMHD&CD,effectivelyrenderingtheminvisibleinthebroadersocialandbody politic.

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References Aderibigbe,Y.(1996)DeinstitutionalisationandCriminalization:tinkeringinthe interstices,ForensicScienceInternational,85:127134. Anthony,T.andCunneen,C.(eds)(2008)TheCriticalCriminologyCompanion. Sydney:HawkinsPress. AustralianBureauofStatistics(2005)SchoolsAustralia,2005.AustralianBureauof Statistics:Canberra;Cat.No.4221.0. AustralianBureauofStatistics(2007)PrisonersinAustralia,2007.AustralianBureau ofStatistics:Canberra;Cat.No.4517.0. Baldry,E.,McDonnell,D.,Maplestone,P.andPeters,M.(2006)ExPrisoners, HomelessnessandtheStateinAustraliaTheAustralianandNewZealandJournalof Criminology,39(1):2033. Belcher,J.(1988)AreJailsReplacingtheMentalHealthSystemfortheHomeless MentallyIll?CommunityMentalHealthJournal,24(3):185195. Burkhardt,T.(2000)TheDynamicsofBeingDisabled.JournalofSocialPolicy,29, 645668. Bynner,J.(2000)RisksandOutcomesofSocialexclusion:insightsfromlongitudinal data.InstituteofEducationUniversityofLondon,London. Dowse,L.(2007)StandUpandGiveEmtheFrightofTheirLives.Sydney: UnpublishedPhDThesis,UNSW.

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Erevelles,N.(2000)EducatingUnrulyBodies:criticalpedagogy,disabilitystudies andthepoliticsofschooling,EducationalTheory,50(1):2547 Greene,J.C.(2008)IsMixedMethodsSocialInquiryaDistinctiveMethodology? JournalofMixedMethodResearch,2(1):722 Harrington,S.(1999)NewBedlam:JailsNotPsychiatricHospitalsNowCarefor theIndigentMentallyIll,TheHumanist,59(3):910 Howard,M,(1999)Enablinggovernment:joineduppoliciesforanationaldisability strategy.London:FabianSociety. Hughes,B.(2002)Invalidatedstrangers:impairmentandtheculturesofmodernity andpostmodernity.DisabilityandSociety,17(5):571584. KimCohen,J.,Caspi,A.,Moffitt,T.,Harrington,H.,Milne,B.andPoulton,R.(2003) PriorJuvenileDiagnosesinAdultswithMentalDisorder.ArchGenPsychiatry.60 (7):709717. Jones,C.andCrawford,S.(2007)ThePsychosocialNeedsofNSWCourt Defendants.CrimeandJusticeBulletinNo108.NSWBureauofCrimeStatisticsand Research. McRae,D.(1996)IntegrationInclusionFeasibilityStudy.Sydney:NewSouthWales DepartmentofSchoolEducation. OGrady,A.,Pleasence,P.,Balmer,N.,Duck,A.andGenn,H.(2004)Disability, socialexclusionandtheconsequentialexperienceofjusticiableproblems.Disability andSociety,19(3):259271. Oliver,M.&Barnes,C.(1998)Disabledpeopleandsocialpolicy:fromexclusionto

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inclusion,London,Longman. Paterson,K.andHughes,B.(1999)DisabilityStudiesandPhenomenology:the carnalpoliticsofeverydaylife.DisabilityandSociety,14(5):597610. Pleasence,P.,Balmer,N.andBuck,A.(2004)Causesofaction,civillawandsocial justice.Norwich:TSO. Reed,J.L.&Lyne,M.(2000)Inpatientcareofmentallyillpeopleinprison:resultsof ayearsprogrammeofsemistructuredinspection.BritishMedicalJournal320 (7241:1031. SocialExclusionUnit(2001)PreventingSocialExclusionReport.Onlineat www.socialexclusionunit.gov.uk.Accessed25.04.08 Sterman,J.S.(2000)BusinessDynamics.SystemsThinkingandModellingfora ComplexWorld.NewYork:McGrawHill. Vinson,T.(2002).ReportoftheIndependentInquiryintoPublicEducationinNew SouthWales.Sydney:NSWTeachersFederation

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Womencentredcorrections:Anaveview
LillianM.Barry CollegeofHealthandScience UniversityofWesternSydney l.barry@uws.edu.au Introduction Throughfirstimpressionsandearlyinteractionswithintwowomencentred facilities,aRemandandCorrectionalCentreforWomen(RCCW)andaWomens TransitionalCentre(WTC),inNewSouthWales(NSW),Australia,obfuscated perceptionsoftheirpenalityaregraduallystrippedaway.Asanaveresearcher (Gokah2006)inpenalsettings,despiteexperiencewithothermarginalisedgroups, myentreintothepenalenvironmentwasinitiallyconfusingandsomewhat misleading.Inlinewiththeethnographicmethodology(Fetterman1998)usedto conductthisresearch,myexperientialignoranceofpenalsettingsmetamorphosed intoavaluableresearchtool(Spradley1979).Andalthoughmyviewofbothpenal institutionsremainspartial,limitedtoaperceptionthatOwen(1994)describesasa keyholeview,Ineverthelessgainedvaluableinsightsintothebroaderrealitiesfor bothstaffandinmatesworkingandlivingwithinapenalfacility. Asaresult,thispaperdiscussestheprocessofpeelingawaytheveiledpenalitythat CarlenandTombs(2006)statedimsthepunitivepurposeofcorrectivefacilitiesfor womenfromview.Itwasthisobscuredpenalitywithinbothfacilitiesthat subsequentlyimpactedupontheimplementationofahorticulturaltherapy program;aresearchprojectwhoseinitialaimwastoexploreholisticrehabilitative benefitsofgardeningforfemaleinmates.Foundationaltotheholisticaimofthe researchprojectwasarecognitionoftheroleofmarginalisationinsocialand economicpovertyforwomeninlinewiththedepartmentalincarcerativeroleof detainment,aswellasitspositedrehabilitativeaims(N.S.W.Departmentof

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CorrectiveServices2000).However,duetotheprocessofimplementingthis project,particularlyintheRCCW,thefocusoftheresearchbroadenedtoexploring theeffectsofthepenalinstitutiononrehabilitationprogramsforfemaleinmates. ResearchDesign&Methodology TheresearchprojectwasconductedinboththeRCCWandtheWTCforaperiodof fivemonthseachduring2006.ThefirstprojectwascompletedintheRCCWpriorto thecommencementofthesecondprojectintheWTC.Atotalofthirtyinmates participatedinbothresearchprojects,eighteenintheRCCWandtwelveinthe WTC,withacoregroupoffourtosixparticipantsineachfacility. Centraltotheresearchwasagardenprojectfoundedonhorticulturaltherapy principlesthatresonatedwithdepartmentalholisticrehabilitativegoalsof restorationandwellbeing(NSWDepartmentofCorrectiveServices2005). Recognitionofthebenefitstowellbeingofnaturalenvironments,suchasasmall garden,formarginalisedpopulations(Kaplan1995;Lewis1995)formedthe theoreticalbackgroundtotheinitialresearchproject.Inlinewiththisapproach,a smallgardenwasdesignedafteraperiodofcollaborativeconsultationwithinmates andstaff,resultingintheconceptofakitchengarden.Theholisticaimsofthe gardenprojectincludedofferingfemaleinmatesopportunitiestoparticipateand engagewithhorticulturalactivitiescommensuratewithindividuallevelsofinterest andability.Asthegardenprojectwasimplementedineachfacility,the intersectionsofthepenalinstitutionontheseprinciplesforfemaleinmatesandstaff broadenedtheresearchscope.Consequently,explorationsoftheseeffectsupon thegardenprojectanditsrehabilitativeaimsbecametheultimatefocusofthe research. Inlinewiththeethnographicapproachundertakeninthisresearch,thick descriptions(Geertz1993)oftheprisoncultureweredetailedfrominterviewswith inmates,semiparticipantobservationsandreflectivejournalaccounts.Analysisof

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thedatautilisedaninitialgroundedtheory(StraussandCorbin1990)exploration thatallowedforaninductivedevelopmentofthemesthroughoutandbeyondthe datacollectionphase.Thesethemeswerethendevelopedalongsideafurther drillingoftheliterature,resultinginatheorythatstressedtheroleofthe dominating,oppressive(Weber1978;Foucault1995)andtotalising(Goffman1961) effectsofthepenalinstitution. Situatingmyselfwithinthisresearchinvolvedaprocessofacknowledgingthe differentselvesIbroughttothefield.Theseincludedthatofbeingamother,wife, sister,aneducatedwoman,andsoon.Otherselveswerealsointrinsic,sometimes conflictingpartsoftheselfinthisresearch,suchasbeingcompassionateand caring,aswellastiredandoftenemotionallydrained(Reinharz1997).Therefore,I situatedmyselfwithinthisresearchrecognisingthatIbroughttotheinquirymy ownvaluesandjudgements. Forthepurposesofthispaper,earlyexperiencesofestablishingthegardenproject intheRCCW,andlaterintheWTC,providedthecontextfortheongoing implementationofthegardenprojectinbothfacilities.Aftertheinitialphasesof attemptingtoestablishthegardenproject,particularlyintheRCCW,thegarden projectwasestablishedthroughthedevelopmentofarapportwithacohortof inmateswhoultimatelyengagedwiththeresearchproject. EnteringtheWarehouseANaveView MyfirstimpressionsoftheinterioroftheRCCWwerehighlightedbyafaadeof normalityandseemingeverydayness.Thiswassketchedoutbypleasant architectureandgreenscapedareasthatlinkedtheresidentialandfunctionalareas ofthefacility.Thefaadeoforderlinessinvokedasenseofapparentcalmness throughoutaninitialtouroftheRCCW.Thepenalityofthisfacilityappearedtobe obscuredfromview;phantomlike,hiddenoutofsight,butuncompromisingly present.

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ThelandscapeandarchitectureoftheRCCWfitwithHannahMoffats(2004) descriptionofwomencentredcorrectionalfacilitieswiththeclusteringof residentialcottagesdesignedtoreplicatedomesticlivingarrangements.Their locationsituatedapartfromsecuredbuildingsappearedtoveilandsoftenthemore punitiverealitiesofafacilitypurposebuilttoincarceratefemaleinmates.That theseresidentialcottageswerelockedandinaccessibletoinmatesforanextended periodthroughoutthedaywasnotimmediatelyapparentasmyobservationofthe cottageswaslimitedtoacursoryviewoftheirexteriorperimeter.Assuch,my guidedtouroftheRCCWdidnotextendtovariousbuildingsvisibletowardsthe rearoftheinstitution.AnyknowledgeIgainedaboutthepurposeofthesebuildings wouldbederivedfromanecdotalinformationgleanedthroughconversationswith femaleinmatesandsomestaffduringtheconductoftheresearchproject.Through theircommentsIlearntthatbadgirlswerehousedinthesehighsecurityquarters andlockedinroomswheretheyweregiveneverythingtheyneeded.Theterm, badgirls,wasregularlyusedderogativelybybothprisonpersonnelandsome inmatesinreferencetofemaleinmatesdeemedtohavetransgressedthepenal codeoftheRCCW. Duringthisinitialtour,however,theRCCWappearedatfirsttoreplicatemore benigninstitutions,suchasalargeeducationalinstitution.Totheuninitiatedor noviceobserver,thewomencentreddesignoftheRCCWappearedtoblanketits penality.However,thepurposefularchitecturalsofteningofitspunitiverolewas exposedwhenaseniormemberofstaffstatedthattheRCCWhadbeendesignedto resembleauniversitycampus;aresemblancethatIcouldnotdeny. InlinewithHannahMoffats(2001)observationthatwomencentredcorrectional facilitieswereoftenarchitecturallybeautifulstructures(p.4),theveneerofthe RCCWwassuccessfulinpartiallydisguisingitscentralpunitivefunctionof incarceratingfemaleinmates.Indeed,thearchitecturalattractivenessoftheRCCW appearedtoinitiallyinvokeanatmosphereofbenevolenceandcalm,obfuscatingits

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primaryintentofpenalityfrommynaveview.AsCarlen(2004)remindsus,the punitiveroleofwomensprisonshasbeennumerouslyobscuredanditwasthisthat hadsubsequentimpactsontheimplementationofthegardenprojectintheRCCW. Althoughthecreationofwomencentredprisonsaroseoutofinnovativereforms, suchasCanadasCreatingChoicesinitiative(HannahMoffat2002),thepunitive goalsofimprisonmentcontinuetounderscoreandaberrateanyarchitectural softeningofbuildingsandlandscapes.Itwasthissceneofvisualorderlinessmade upofwelldesignedbuildingsandgroundsposingasaprisonthathadatfirstledme intoanambivalentstateofcalmness.However,afterinitialvisitstotheRCCWI couldnotidentifynorpinpointanaccompanyingpersonalsenseofdisquiet.After exitingthefacilityintheearlyphasesofmyfieldwork,Ibrushedoffthissenseof disquietasbeingduetomyinexperienceandlackofexposuretoasecureprison facility. AsIcontinuedtoconductthegardenprojectintheRCCW,itsinherentpunitive functionwasgraduallyexposedasthefollowingbrief,spontaneousdiscussionwith anofficerillustrates.AsIwasescortedthroughthegroundsoftheRCCWattheend ofagardenprojectsessiontheofficerandIdiscussedthegardenprojectsprogress. Duringthisdiscussion,theofficercommentedaboutthepleasantenvironmentof theRCCWforinmates. Theofficersaysitsnotreallyajail. Isay,yeah,itseemslikeitisnt,butitis. Theofficersays,itdoesntactasadeterrent. Theresnotimeformetorespondtothisstatementasthesecuritydooropens andIhavetoexitquicklybeforeitclosesagain. TwofacetsofthisexchangeappearedtometoreiteratethepenalityoftheRCCW. TheofficersreferencetowardsdeterrenceactedtoremindmeoftheRCCWs incarcerativerolethatappearedtobeinconflictwithitsrehabilitativeaims.

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Equally,theautomationofasecurityprocedurethatappearedtoimpedefurther explorationoftheofficerscommentsactedtoreenforceformetheprimaryroleof penalcodesasthoughtheywerewoventhroughtheminutiaeofeveryday activities.Thisincidentechoedthepenalcodesthatcontinuedtointersectwiththe establishmentandfacilitationofthegardenprojectsrehabilitativeaims. AftercompletingthefirstgardenprojectintheRCCW,anunderlyingsenseof disquietcontinuedtoaccompanymysubsequentvisitstotheWTC.Female inmatesintheWTCarehousedinresidentialhomes,orcottages,convertedto accommodateapproximatelytwentywomenandtheirsmallchildren.Staffoffices weredisguisedwithinthisresidentialfaaderesultingintheWTCbeing indistinguishablefromotherresidencesandsmallbusinesses.BehindtheWTCa smallbackyardandgardenactedasacommonmeetingandactivityareaforfemale inmates.TheWTChadnoobvioussecuritystructuressuchasthoseIhadobserved intheRCCWwiththeonlyobservableformofsecuritybeingachildproofgatethat allowedaccesstothecentrefromtherear. ThestreetscapeaccommodatingtheWTCatfirstappearedtohavenoconnection toanadjacentprisoncomplex.However,asIcontinuedtoconductthegarden projectintheWTCitsunderlyingpenalitywasbroughtintosharperfocus.Through apersonalinsight,thedominatingandtotalisingeffects(Goffman1961)ofamore obscuredsurveillancesystemoninmatesandstaffwasrevealed.Thisinsightwas gainedduringthecourseofagardenprojectsessionwithfemaleinmatesconducted inthecommoncourtyardbehindtheWTC.InamomentofinattentionIglancedup fromouractivityandcaughtmybreathinsurpriseasIrealisedthatanyindividualin theWTCcourtyardwasclearlyvisiblefromtheguardtowerpositionedwithinthe adjacentprisoncomplex.Thisincidentservedasastarkreminderoftherealitythat femaleinmatesintheWTClivedeveryday;thatdespiteitssoftersecurityall inmateswerestillsubjecttorestrictedconfinementwithinacorrectiveinstitutional facility.

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Asaresultofthisobservation,anapparentlyseparatesecurityfeatureforan unrelatedprisonfacilitygainedsteepprominenceinitsdualroleasanomniscient surveillancemechanismwithinanapparentlybenignsetting.Indeed,itwasnow clearthatthenormalisingfeaturesoftheWTCthroughtheuseofeveryday domesticarchitecturehadsucceededinobscuringmyperceptionofitspenalrole. InlinewithFoucaults(1995)disciplinarycontinuum,thetechnologiesofdiscipline employedtocontainincarceratedwomenhavebecomesuchnormalised componentsofourcriminaljusticesystemthattheyappeartobenormaland natural.Thisisreflectedcogentlybytheimprisonmentofwomeninsofter environmentsthatmorediscretelyenactoursocietysperceivedrighttopunish womenruledtohavetransgressedthelawoftheday. HierarchicalConflicts AccordingtoWalklate(2001),thephysicalenvironmentofprisonaccompaniedby visibleandmoreobscuresecurityrestrictionsdefinethedegradedstatusoffemale inmates.ThisisinlinewithdegradationceremoniesdefinedbyGarfinkel(1956), whereinmatesareremindeddailyoftheirdegradedstatusthroughtheimposition ofsecurityrestrictionsthatmultiplyintersecttheirdailylivedexperiences. Inattemptingtoestablishandconductthegardenprojectineachfacilitythese intersectionsofpenalmechanismsbecameprogressivelylessobscurethrough exposuretoinstitutionalhierarchy.Asaresult,penalcodeswereilluminated throughthehierarchicalinterplaybetweencorrective,managementandspecialist staff,includingvisitingspecialistssuchasmyself,andfemaleinmates.The degradedstatusoffemaleinmatesfitswithFoucaults(1977)discussionaroundthe indigentindividual,whoslifepathisdeterminedasindividualinmatesare navigatedthroughacontinuumfrompovertytoinstitutionalisation.Assuch, femaleinmatesfitwithintheloweststratumofhierarchywithinthepenal institution,illustratedintheRCCWwhencertaininmatesarereferredtoasbad girls.

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TheroleofhierarchywithinthepenalcodeoftheRCCWbecameevidentduring initialattemptsatestablishingthegardenproject.Thiscouldbeseeninhowthe gardenprojectwroughtconflictingnegativeandpositiveresponsesfromvarious staffmemberssituatedwithinthechainofcommand.Continuedattemptsto establishthegardenprojectintheRCCWledtoaseriesofencounterswitha hierarchicalbrickwallthatenactedsecuritysystemswithintheprisoncomplex.A particulardiscussionwithastaffmemberhighlightingherpessimisticviewofthe gardenprojectscontributiontoprisonprogramsexposedtheimpactofhierarchical expectationsuponstaff,aswellasinmates.AWeberian(1978)obligationtofollow ordersregardlessofpersonalmotivesandinterestswasapparentlyenactedbythis staffmemberinresponsetohierarchicallyimposedordersthatthegardenproject beaccommodatedandimplemented.Inotherwords,thevalidityoftheexisting penalcodes,asexpressedviatheuseofrulesandregulations,becamerationalised asafunctionofeverydayprocedures. Thenormalisingofhierarchicalsystemshadbecomelegitimatedandboundwithin theframeworkofacceptanceofauthoritativepowerrelationshipsbetween individualplayerswithinthechainofcommand.ThisalignswithaWeberianaspect ofdominationthatBrennan(1997)explainsasanimpositionofanorderonanother individualwithouttheirvoluntarypersonalagreementandtowhichtheyhaveno alternativebuttocapitulate(p.82).Weber(1978)clarifiesthisasarelationshipof dominationbyvirtueofauthority,i.e.powertocommandanddutytoobey (p.943). EarlyPhasesofImplementingtheGardenProjectintheRCCW Thesehierarchicalrolesbetweenindividualstaffmembersplayedasignificantrole intheearlyimplementationphaseofthegardenprojectintheRCCW.Thiswas evidentwhen,despiteahierarchicalexpectationthatthegardenprojectbe facilitatedbystaffmemberslowerdowninthechainofcommand,itssmooth

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implementationintheRCCWwasnotassured.Giventhatpartoftheholisticgoal ofthegardenprojectwastoinvolveinmatesinacollaborativeprocessofdesign,co operationfromindividualRCCWstaffmemberswasintegraltothegardens establishment.Assuch,theearlyphaseofinitiatingthegardenprojectwas apparentlymovingaheadthroughstafffacilitatedcollaborationwithkeyinmates contributingtotheconceptofakitchengarden. However,thisconceptofakitchengardenwasturnedonitsheadattheinceptionof thegardenprojectintheRCCWwhenastaffmemberhigherupinthechainof commandintervened.Thestaffmemberindicatedthatgrowingrowsandrowsof vegetablesposedasecurityrisk.Vegetablessuchastomatoesweredeemedtobe aparticularlystrongsecurityrisk.Asgrowingvegetableswasintegraltotheinitial kitchengardenconcept,theideathattomatoesposedasecurityriskwas unexpected.NotatanystageduringdiscussionswithotherRCCWstaffinvolvedin theinitialcollaborativeprocesshadtherisktosecurityofgrowingvegetablesbeen raised. Theresponseoffemaleinmatestothisinterventionwhohadbeeninvolvedinthe earliercollaborativephasewaslessthanpositive.Asaresult,theearlystagesof implementingthegardenprojectintheRCCWwerememorableforthelackof responsefrompreviouslyenthusiasticinmates.AlthoughIhadsalvagedsomeof thekitchengardenconceptbyarguingthattheproposedkitchengardenvegetables couldbereplacedwithedibleherbs,thearbitraryoverturningoftheinitialconcept forthegardenwaseventuallyexposed.Aftertheeventualestablishmentofthe gardenprojectIdiscoveredthattomatoesandothervegetableswerelatergrownby inmatesinaseparategardeninthegroundsoftheRCCW.Althoughthiswasin apparentconflictwiththeedictthatinlinewithsecurityprotocolsvegetablescould notbegrown,noclearexplanationwasforthcomingregardingthisdevelopmentby prisonmanagement.

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However,thislaterdevelopmentmayexplaintheearlieractivismthatensuedasa resultoftheoverturningoftheoriginalkitchengardenconcept.Theselastminute changestothekitchengardeninitiallyledtoaformofcovertactivismwherekey inmatesinvolvedintheearlycollaborationboycottedandavoidedthegarden project.Theexceptiontothissilencewasdisplayedwhenaninmatewhoclaimed ownershipovertheoriginalconceptloudlyvoicedherdisapprovalatthechanges thathadbeenmade,statingthatgrowingherbswasnotasuitablesubstitutefor growingvegetables.Fromherexpressionofangeritwasevidentthatthisinmate regardedmeasjustanotheractorintheintransigentpenalcodeoftheprison. Asthegardenprojectcontinued,theearlyresponseofinmatestotheimposed changesincreasinglyappearedtobereflectiveofthecoerciveandintransigent penalityoftheRCCW.Thearbitrary,yetuncompromisingenactmentofpunitive rulesinregardtoinmateactivitiesappearedtohaveamarkedaffectonindividual agency.Thiswasevidencedbyinmatesresortingtosubversiveandcovertformsof expression,suchasboycottingthegardenproject.Assuch,inmatesredefinedtheir situationthroughpresentingthemselvesasthewinner.BosworthandCarrabine (2001)seethisasatypeofcombativeresponsebyindividualinmatestothepenal environment.Thedistortionandmagnifiedimportancegiventoordinary,every dayactivitiesmayequallybeattributedtothetotalisingeffectsoftheclosedpenal environment.Goffman(1961)seesthisasanoverwhelmingofself,oraviolationof territoriesofself,withinthetotalinstitutionthatmaybesomewhatmitigatedby employingindividualactsofselfagencyasincovertformsofactivism. ConfessionsofanActivist TowardstheendofconductingtheprojectintheRCCW,Itoowouldengageina formofcovertactivism.ThiswasafterIhadviewedthevegetablegardenina differentsectoroftheprison,repletewiththeprohibitedrowsandrowsof vegetables.Aseparatecohortofinmatesnowengagedinthegardenprojectinthe RCCWindicatedtheywouldliketogrowtomatoesinthemodifiedkitchengarden.

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Indefianceofthepreviousprohibitionoftomatoes,weplantedheritagetomato plantsinthegarden.Interestingly,thesevegetablesraisednoqueriesofconcern fromanyprisonstaffmembernowassociatedwiththegardenproject. Whilethesedetailscouldbedismissedaspettyandinconsequentialthey neverthelessimpactedupontherehabilitativeaimsofthegardenproject,halting accesstotheplannedgardeningactivitiesforpreviouslyengagedinmates.Evenin thelessrestrictedenvironmentattheWTC,Iwitnessedsimilarbehavioursfrom inmateparticipantstothoseIhadwitnessedintheRCCW.InmatesintheWTC becamepossessiveovervariouspartsofthegardenandwouldsecretlyremove plantsprovidedforthegardenproject.Despitemyempathyforinmates,Iwasnot immunetofeelingsofangeranddisappointmentwhentheiractionsimpactedupon myeffortsinfacilitatingthegardenproject.Regardlessofmypositionofrelative powerwithinthepenalinstitution,IfoundthatItoohadrespondedtoan institutionalviolationofmyperceptionsofself(Goffman,1961)withalternate emotionsofempathyandcynicismtowardfemaleinmates. Conclusion Whiletheearlyestablishmentofthegardenprojectinbothfacilitiesrevealsmy initialnaivetindealingwiththepenalenvironment,nevertheless,the implementationofthegardenprojectinboththeRCCWandtheWTCresultedinan erosionoflayersofnormalityanddomesticitythathadactedtopartiallydisguise theirpenalityfrommyview.AssuchthepenalcodesofboththeRCCWandthe WTCwereexposedtorevealtheprimarypenalityofeachcorrectionalfacility.This wasplayedoutthroughtheearlyestablishmentphasesofthegardenproject, particularlyintheRCCW,withbothstaffandinmatesactingwithintheconstructsof hierarchytominimisethetotalisinganddominatingimpactsoftheinstitutionon everydayactivities.AsIstumbledmywaythroughthemurky,contradictorymireof theprisonenvironmenttherealitiesoflivingwithinacorrectionalfacilityforfemale inmatesalongsidetheworkingrealitiesforprisonstaffweregraduallyexposed.

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Thesofteningofarchitecturalandlandscapefeaturesofbothwomencentred correctionalfacilitiesreflectsCarlen(1998)whostatesthattheconflationof disciplinaryprocesseswithwomencentricidealscontinuetoreflecthistoricalpenal conceptsofdegradationandhumiliation.Despitethewomencentredfocusofthe RCCWandtheWTC,itwasclearthattheinitialgoalsofthegardenprojectwere subjecttothedominantpenalconstructsofhierarchyandtotalisation.Assuch,the dominantcodesofpenalityevidentinboththeRCCWandtheWTChadactedto impactupontheholistic,rehabilitativeaimsofthegardenproject,inconflictwith departmentalrehabilitativerhetoric.

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References Bosworth,M.,&Carrabine,E.(2001).Reassessingresistance:Race,genderand sexualityinprison.Punishment&Society,3(4),501515. Brennan,C.(1997).MaxWeberonpowerandsocialstratification:Aninterpretation andcritique.Aldershot:AshgatePublishingLtd. Carlen,P.(1998).Sledgehammer:Women'simprisonmentattheMillennium. London:MacMillanPressLtd. Carlen,P.,&Tombs,J.(2006).Reconfigurationsofpenality:Theongoingcaseof thewomen'simprisonmentandreintegrationindustries.TheoreticalCriminology, 10(3),337360. Fetterman,D.M.(1998).Ethnography:Stepbystep.(2nded.).California:Sage. Foucault,M.(1977).Thecarceral.InJ.Muncie,E.McLaughlin&M.Langan(Eds.), Criminologicalperspectives.London:Sage. Foucault,M.(1995).Disciplineandpunish:Thebirthoftheprison.London:Random House. Garfinkel,H.(1956).Conditionsofsuccessfuldegradationceremonies.American JournalofSociology,61(5),420424. Geertz,C.(1993).Theinterpretationofcultures.London:FontanaPress. Goffman,E.(1961).Asylums:Essaysonthesocialsituationofmentalpatientsand otherinmates.Harmondsworth:PenguinBooksLtd.

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Gokah,T.(2006).Thenaiveresearcher:DoingsocialresearchinAfrica. InternationalJournalofSocialResearchMethodology,9(1),6173. HannahMoffat,K.(2001).Punishmentindisguise:Penalgovernanceandfederal imprisonmentofwomeninCanada.Toronto:UniversityofTorontoPress. HannahMoffat,K.(2002).Creatingchoices:Reflectingonchoices.InP.Carlen (Ed.),Womenandpunishment:Thestruggleforjustice(1sted.,pp.199219). Devon,UK:WillanPublishing. HannahMoffat,K.(2004).FeminineFortresses:Womancentredprisons?InP.J. Schram&B.KoonsWitt(Eds.),Gendered(in)justice:Theoryandpracticein feministcriminology(pp.290317).LongGrove,Illinois:WavelandPress,Inc. Kaplan,S.(1995).Therestorativebenefitsofnature:Towardanintegrative framework.JournalofEnvironmentalPsychology,15(3),169182. Lewis,C.A.(1995).Humanhealthandwellbeing:Thepsychological,physiological, andsociologicaleffectsofplantsonpeople.ActaHorticulturae,391,3130. N.S.W.DepartmentofCorrectiveServices.(2000).Women'sActionPlan2:2000 2003.Sydney:N.S.W.DepartmentofCorrectiveServices. NSWDepartmentofCorrectiveServices.(2005).Wellwomen:Aholisticapproach tothemanagementoffemaleoffenders.PaperpresentedattheFifthNational CorrectiveServicesAdministratorsForum:WorkingwithFemaleOffenders., Penrith:NSW. Owen,B.(1998)."Inthemix":Struggleandsurvivalinawomen'sprison.NewYork: StateUniversityofNewYork.

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Reinharz,S.(1997).WhoamI?Theneedforavarietyofselvesinthefield.InR. Hertz(Ed.),Reflexivity&voice(pp.320).ThousandOaks,California:Sage Publications. Spradley,J.(1979).Theethnographicinterview.NewYork:Holt,Rinehart& Winston. Strauss,A.,&Corbin,J.(1990).Basicsofqualitativeresearch.Groundedtheory proceduresandtechniques.California:SagePublicationsInc. Walklate,S.(2001).Gender,crimeandcriminaljustice.Devon,U.K.:Willan Publishing. Weber,M.(1978).Economyandsociety:Anoutlineofinterpretivesociology(J. Winckelmann,Trans.4ed.Vol.One&Two).Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.

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TheeffectofterrorismandterroristtrialsonAustralianprison regimes
DavidBrown FacultyofLaw UniversityofNewSouthWales d.brown@unsw.edu.au Introduction Australiasdomesticcriminaljusticesystemshaverecentlywitnessedanumberof caseswhichillustratethedistortingeffectsofahyperpoliticisationofcriminal justiceenactedunderthespectreofterrorism.Iamthinkinghereinparticularofthe HicksandThomastrialsandcontrolordersandthecasesofHaneef,UlHaqueand Benbrika. Thatpoliticisationofcriminaljusticeprocessesisevidentinvariousways. Politicisationofthelawmakingprocessesby,tomentionbutafew examples,exertingtightexecutivecontrolovertheprocess,minimising legislativeinput;theextraordinaryattempttokeepdraftlegislationsecret andtominimisetheopportunityforpubliccomment,followedbythe attempttostrongarmtheStatesintopassingcomplementarylegislation preciselyinordertoevadepotentialConstitutionalchallenge. Politicisationofthecontentofcriminallawoffencesintroducedwhich(a) includereferencetopoliticalmotives,and(b)drivepotentialculpability backintimewellbeforetheexistinglawofattemptsandconspiracy, towardswhatLuciaZednercallsprecrime(2007:262).

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Politicisationofinvestigativeprocesses,illustratedintheUlHaquecase wherefairlyearlyon,ASIOandtheAFP,knowingUlHaquehadbeenina LashkareTaibatrainingcamp,neverthelessdecidedhewasnorisk,and onlychargedhimwithterroristoffencessomeeightmonthslaterwhenhe refusedtocooperatewiththeAFPrequeststobecomeaninformant againstFaheemLodhi.Inshortthechargewasbroughtasleverageor reprisal,inthecontextofconductonthepartofASIOofficerswhich AdamsJintheNSWSupremeCourtfoundtoconstitutethecriminal offencesofkidnappingandfalseimprisonment. Politicisationofthetrialprocessinavarietyofways,includingthe requirementforexceptionalcircumstancestoexistforbailtobegrantedin terroristcases;theholdingofremandeesinoppressiveconditionswhich affecttheirabilitytoparticipateintheirowntrials;thechoosingofjudges designatedtobeappropriatetositinsecuritycases;thepoliticalvettingof lawyersthroughrequiringsecurityclearances;withholdinginformation fromdefencelawyers;andasrevealedintheBenbrikacase,subjectingthe accusedtowhatBongiornoJfoundtobeanunfairtrialbecauseofthe wholecircumstancesinwhichtheyarebeingincarceratedatHMPBarwon andthecircumstancesinwhichtheyarebeingtransportedtoandfrom court(RvBenbrikaandOrs[2008]VSC8020March2008para91). Politicisationevidentinexecutiveresponsestojudicialdecisionsadverseto thegovernment,includingMinisterAndrewsresponsetoHaneefbeing grantedbailrevokinghisvisaandthegovernmentsresponsetoJack Thomassacquittalonappealapplyingforacontrolorderaswellasthe controlorderbroughtagainstHicksafterapoliticallynegotiatedguilty plea(whichseemstobecurrentlyintheprocessofunravelling(see http://www.news.com.au/heraldsun/story/0.21985.23860726661.00.html)

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Politicisationintheformofjudicialsubmissiontotheclaimsofterror, securityandrisk,illustratedinthereadinessofthefederalmagistratesto grantcontrolordersintheHicksandThomascases,wheretheevidence wasarguablyweak.IntheHickscaseitseemsespeciallyludicrousto suggestthatHicksisinanymentalstateafterprolongedpretrial detentioninGuantanamoBayundersolitaryconfinementtorepresentany crediblethreat.InThomasscasetheevidenceseemedthinandthe applicationbasedmoreinfacesavingthanwellfoundedfears.Following thiswasthejudgmentoftheHighCourtinThomaswherethemajoritywas preparedtooverturnwellestablishedlimitstoexecutivepowers. Politicisationofcorrectionalprocesses,intheBenbrikacaseeffectingan unfairtrialthroughoppressiveprisonandtransportconditions,andinthe UlHaquecaseinaformofpoliticaltheatre,illustratedbyUlHaques arrestonterroristchargesandhighlypublicisedtriptoGoulburnHRMU supermaxonanAAterroristclassification(despiteASIOandtheAFP havingearlierdecidedhedidnotpresentathreat,indeedthatitwassafe forhimtobecatchingthetrainbetweenBankstownandtheUniversityof NSWtocontinuehismedicalstudies). Eventssurroundingthesecasesillustratethewaythatthespectreofterrorismand thetechnologiesofriskandthepoliticsoffearitengenders,havedistorted domesticcriminaljusticeprocessesthroughaprofoundhyperpoliticisation, overreachingclaimsofexecutivesovereignty,lackofrespectfortheseparationof powers,politicaltrumpingofjudicialdecisionsandtheuseofthecriminalprocess, thecourtsandthecorrectionalsystem,asaformofpoliticaltheatre. InthispaperIwouldliketoconcentrateontheeffectsofthespectreofterrorism andofterroristrelatedtrialsonAustraliandomesticprisonregimes.Thepaperis moreofafutureresearchprogramorwishlistthanareflectionofworkalready done.ItisbutasmallpartoftheAustralianpenalculturesprojectbeingconducted

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withanARCgrantbyateamofcolleaguesincludingChrisCunneen,EileenBaldry, AlexSteel,MelanieSchwartz,MaggieHallandmyselfatUNSWandMarkBrown andDianaJohnsatMelbourne. EffectsonPenalregimes Thelikelihoodhereisthattheprospectofhavingsuspectedandconvictedterrorists inprisonwillintensifytendenciesto: ClassificationNSWhasaspecificAA(men)andCategory5(women) terroristclassificationintheCrimes(AdministrationofSentences) Regulation2001Reg22 thecategoryofinmateswho,intheopinionofthe Commissioner,representaspecialrisktonationalsecurity(for example,becauseofaperceivedriskthattheymayengagein,or inciteotherpersonstoengagein,terroristactivities)andshould atalltimesbeconfinedinspecialfacilitieswithinasecurephysical barrierthatincludestowersorelectronicsurveillanceequipment. Separationandsegregationeitherinseparatesections,wingsorpods, orinseparatefacilitiessuchasGoulburnHRMU. Designandregimefeatureswhichminimisehumancontact,limit exerciseandtimeoutofcells,limitassociationbetweenprisoners. Theintroductionofspecifictechniquesandpracticessuchasmore frequentandintrusivestripsearching,theuseoforangejumpsuits (whichNSWCCLarguesisdegradingandhumiliatingandtherefore contrarytoUNStandardMinimumRulesforTreatmentofPrisoners),the useofbodybeltstowhichfootshackleshandshacklesareattached,a significantlygreaterrestrictiononmovementthantraditionalhandcuffs.

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Furtherresearchwillhopefullyestablishwhenthesepracticeswere introducedinvariousjurisdictionsandtheextenttowhichtheyhave beencopiedeitherfromUSsupermaxfacilitiesorfromGuantanamoBay practice. Significantupgradingofsecurityandinstallationofhightechsecurity devices.CarltonandMinoguesuggestthisishappeningatBarwonin Victoriawiththeeffectthatsupermaxconditionsarebeingintroduced andnormalisedinthemainstreamprisonsystem. Restrictiononaccesstocommunications,visitors,readingmatterand increasedconcernaboutmobilephones,alreadysomewhatofan obsession. Prisondesigntheresearchwilllookforevidencethattheconcernto targethardenprisonsorsectionsofprisonsagainstpotentialexternal attack,internalrevolts,hostagetakingandescapescanbe demonstrated. Anincreasedmilitarisationofprisonregimesandprisonofficers, strengtheningofspecialarmedsectionsorunits,increasedliaisonwith policeandmilitary, Certainofthesepracticescametolightrecentlyinrelationtothecurrent Melbournetrialsof12suspectsaroundthecentralfigureofBenbrika.InRv BenbrikaandOrs(Rulingno20)[2008]VSC80(20March2008)BongiornoJ, joinedDavidDyzenhousandRaynorThwaitesjudicialcoalitionofthewilling judgespreparedtoupholdtheruleoflawinthefaceofexecutiveclaimsabout nationalsecurity(20076:10).Heupheldadefencesubmissionforastayonthe basisthattheconditionsofimprisonmentintheAcaciaunitatBarwonwere suchthatafairtrialwasnotpossible.Thedefenceargumentwasthat

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theoppressiveconditionsinwhichtheyarecurrentlyincarceratedand transportedishavingsuchaneffectontheircapacitytoattendtotheir owninterestsindefenceofthechargesagainstthemthatthetrialthey arecurrentlyengagedinisunfairandwillbecomemoresoastime passes.RvBenbrika[2008]VSC80para80. BongiornoJruledthat Theminimumalterationstotheaccusedsconditionsofincarcerationand travelwhichwouldbenecessarytoremovetheunfairnesscurrentlyaffecting thistrialareasfollows: 1. Theybeincarceratedfortherestofthetrialatthe MetropolitanAssessmentPrison,SpencerStreet. 2. Theybetransportedtoandfromcourtdirectlyfromandto theMAPwithoutanydetour. 3. Theybenotshackledorsubjectedtoanyotherrestraining devicesotherthanordinaryhandcuffsnotconnectedtoa waistbelt. 4. Theynotbestripsearchedinanysituationwheretheyhave beenunderconstantsupervisionandhaveonlybeeninsecure areas. 5. Thattheiroutofcellhoursondayswhentheydonotattend courtbenotlessthanten. 6. Thattheyotherwisebesubjectedtoconditionsof incarcerationnotmoreonerousthanthosenormallyimposed onordinaryremandprisoners,includingconditionsasto professionalandpersonalvisitors. (para100). Anadjournmentwasgrantedtoenablethesechangestobemade,followingan earlierrulingthatScreensinthecourthadtoberemoved.Herethenweseethe utilityofthenotionofafairtrialinchallengingoppressiveprisonconditionsunder

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whichsuspectsonterrorismrelatedchargesareheldonremand.Whilewelcoming thisdevelopmentitisimportanttopointoutthatsuchscrutinyistiedtotheon goingtrial,sothatonceprisonersareconvicted,otheravenuesforcontesting oppressiveconditionshavetobepursued. Howhasthespectreofterrorismrevalorisedtheroleofthesupermaxprison? RoyKingprovidesaveryusefulreviewofsupermaxprisonsinTheriseandRiseof Supermax:AnAmericanSolutioninSearchofaProblem?PunishmentandSociety 1(2)(1999)163186.HetracestheoriginstothelockdownsatMarionprisonin Illinoisin1983aftertwoprisonofficerswerekilledonthesameday.Theeventsat MarionaredrawnonfortheAustralianfilmGhostsoftheCivilDead.IntheUS somethinglike25,000prisonersareindesignatedsupermaxfacilitieswhereastheir takeupinEuropehasbeenminimal.ArguablyAustraliaismoreakintoEurope,with stillsmallnumbersofprisonersindesignatedsupermaxfacilities. Akeydifficultyhereisthatthenotionofsupermaxhastakenonaculturaland politicallifewhichobscuresthelonghistoryofsecondarypunishment,trac, punishmentandsegregationsectionsandconditionsinAustralianprisonsfrom thepenalcolonieson.Totheextentthatsupermaxispresentedassomething completelynewthisishighlymisleading.Theemergenceofsupermaxmustbe putinthecontextoftheparticularAustralianhistoryofpunishmentsections,ofthe prisonwithintheprison,fromplacesofsecondarypunishmentlikeMortonBay, NorfolkIsland,throughGrafton,Katingal,theHRMU,Pentridge,JikaJika,Barwon Acaciaunit,andsoon. Theargumentisthatitisimportanttorecogniseandacknowledgeourownlong traditionsofsuperpunishmentregimes,ontowhichsupermaxhasgrafted particularpracticessuchasshackling,jumpsuits,lockdowns,etc.Similarargument overpracticessuchasstripsearching,whichasDebbieKilroyintheQueensland contextandJudeMcCullochandAmandaGeorgeinachapterinforthcomingbook

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onPrisonViolenceeditedbyJudeandPhilScraton,pointoutintheVictorian context,hasbeengoingonveryaggressivelyandinlargenumbersforatleast25 years.Adangeristhatinturnthesepracticesatthehardendofthepenalsystem willspreadmoredeeplyintothewholemaximumsecuritysector. Aninsightintosupermaxpracticesandintoamajoravenueofpotentialmonitoring isprovidedbytheNSWCouncilforCivilLibertiesinitsShadowReportpreparedfor theUNCommitteeagainstTorture,27July2007andtheConcludingobservationsof theCommitteeagainstTortureinrelationtoAustralia,15May2008.InitsShadow ReporttheNSWCCLrecommendedthattheStateparty(Australia)invitethe SpecialRapporteuronTorturetovisitthesupermaxprisonwithinaprison(HRMU) attheGoulburnCorrectionalCentre.InanAddendumtotheShadowReportthe CCLlaterconsideredtheHRMUingreaterdetailandaftersettingoutabriefhistory oftheHRMUitargued: ThattheconditionsintheHRMUarehavinganadverseimpactonthe mentalhealthofitsinmates; ThatmentallyillprisonersarebeingplacedintheHRMUunder segregationconditionsratherthaninthespecialistacutepsychiatricwing oftheprisonhospitalatLongBayasillustratedintheScottSimpsoncase whereaclearlymentallyillaccusedwasheldinsegregationonremandat theHRMUforalmost12months,andgivenantipsychoticmedicationbut notherapeutictreatment.WhenlaterplacedinacellattheMRRChekilled acellmatewithin15minutes.Twoyearslaterhewasfoundnotguiltyof murderonthegroundsofmentalillness.Twoweeksaftertheverdicthe hangedhimselfinacellatLongBay. Thatthesystemofahierarchyofsanctionsandprivilegesusedinthe HRMUcloselyresemblestheflawedanddiscreditedsystemusedin

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KatingalandthatthelessonsoftheNagleRoyalCommissionhavebeen forgotten(p13paraA42). Thatthoseheldonterrorismrelatedchargesarenotpermittedtoseethe OfficialVisitor. ThatthereisnomechanismforHRMUinmatestochallengetheir placementandcontinueddetentioninthefacility.Thecourtshaveno powertointerveneandtheNSWCommissionerofCorrectiveServiceshas suggestedthatsomeHRMUinmateswillremaininthefacilityfortheterm oftheirnaturallives. Thattherehavebeenallegationsofpoliticalinterferenceintherunningof theHRMUandaconstantstreamofselectivegovernmentand departmentalleaksfromtheHRMUtothepopularmedia. TheUNCommitteeAgainstTortureintheirConcludingObservationsinrelationto AustraliatheCommitteestatedthatitwas:concernedovertheharshregime imposedondetaineesinsupermaxprisonsandinparticularovertheprolonged isolationperiodsdetainees,includingthosependingtrail,aresubjectedtoandthe effectsuchtreatmentmayhaveontheirmentalhealth.(p8,para24)The CommitteerecommendedthattheStatePartyshouldreviewtheregimeimposed ondetaineesinsupermaximumprisons,inparticularthepracticeofprolonged isolation(Rec24).AndthattheAustgovernmentshouldadviseonwhattheydone aboutthiswithinoneyear Prisonsasincubatorsofterrorism:prisonconversion Therehasbeensomerathersensationalistmediacoverageoftheissueof conversionsofprisonerstoIslamprisonerstoIslamandpotentiallytoterrorist

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sympathies(especiallyinrelationtoGoulburnHRMU).Thetenorofsomeofthe mediaconcernscanbeseenfromtheheadingsofarticles: HardMenTurntoIslamtoCopeWithJail,Goulburnssupermosque, StephenGibbsSMHNov192005. InmatesstudyingalQaedamanualSMHDec2007 NSWCorrectiveServicesandthesupermaxjihadisCrikey23April2007. AuthoritiesfearprisonersplottingjailbreakduringprayersABC23April 2007. SimilarstoriesinUKinclude: IseeRichardReidsinjaileverydayTelegraph30/12/2001 MuslimstriedtoconvertmeinjailTelegraph30/12/2004 Ourprisonsarefertilegroundsforcultivatingsuicidebombers:Why convictsaresusceptibletothelureofradicalIslamTheTimesJuly30 2005. Thereissomelimitedinternationaljournalliteratureonprisonconversionsto Islam,withreferenceparticularlytotheUSandUK.(SeeegSpalekandELHassan (2007);RuppandErikson(2006);andFrance:Siegel(2006).) Someofthemorealarmistaccounts(egMarkHamm,2006)arguethattherehave been175,000IslamicconvertsintheUSsince11Sept2001,withannualconversion PrisonsterroristbreedinggroundsTheAgeJuly2006.

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runningat35,000constituting18%oftheUSprisonpopulation.Particularinstances aregivenofinmateswhoconvertedandlatercommittedterroristoriented offences,suchasJosePadillaofthedirtybombplot;JamalAhmidan,2004Madrid bombings;MuktarIbrahim,Londonbombings;RichardReid,shoebomber;and severalChristianIdentityfiguressubsequentlyconvictedofhatecrimesorterrorist offences.TestimonyalongtheselineshasbeengiventotheUSSenateCommittee ontheJudiciary,SubCommitteeonTerrorism,TechnologyandHomelandSecurity in2003,seeStatementofDrMichaelWaller,14October2003.SeealsoSilverberg, 2006. IntheUScontextthishasledtoamajordebateabouttheroleofreligioninprisons, restrictionsonaccesstotheKoraninvariousstatesandamoratoriumonthehiring ofMuslimchaplainsinsome.(ColumbiaHumanRightsLawReview,20056).Charles Colson(ofWatergatefame)kickedthisattackonMuslimchaplainsinprisonalongin EvangelizingforEvilinourPrisonsJune242002WallStreetJournalandithasbeen takenupstronglybytheneoconsandChristianright. Theissueofconversionisemergingasanissuewhichislikelytobecomemore significant,butatthemomentisbeingpickedupatalocallevelunderconcerns abouttheradicalisationofprisoners.Oneresponse,accordingtotheNSW CommissionerofCorrectiveServices,istargethardeningofstaff,whichmay include24hourprotectionandsecurityfortheirhomesandfamilies(Woodham, 2005:58). Conclusion 1. Thespectreofterrorismhasproducedadistortinghyperpoliticisation ofarangeofcriminaljusticeprocesses,judgingbyrecentAustralian trials.

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2. Ithashadandislikelytoincreasinglyhaveeffectswithinprisonsin termsofclassification,prisonconditions,prisonpracticesgreater segregation,isolation,securityetc,possiblyprisondesign,although thereareconsiderabledangershereinseeingallthesedevelopmentsas newasagainsttracingthelonghistoryofsecondaryorsuper punishmentregimesandpractices. 3. Itseemslikelythatthepresenceofchargedorconvictedofterrorist offenceswillstrengthenpoliticalandpublicsupportforhigh security/segregation/supermaxsections,althoughagain,thereisa longhistoryoftheirjustificationwithreferencetonotionsof(ordinary criminal)monsters,worstoftheworst,intractablesetc 4. Thenotionofprisonsasterroristincubatorsandtheissueofconversion toIslamwithinprisonsisbecomingofincreasingconcerninthe internationalcontext,especiallyintheUS,butalsoinEurope(France, Spain),andtoalesserextentinAustralia.IntheUSespecially,religionin prisonisbecomingsomewhatofanideologicalbattlegroundwhilein Australiaincreasedsecurityandintelligenceconcernisbeingdevotedto theradicalisationofprisoners.

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References AnneAldisandGraemePHeard(eds)(2007)TheIdeologicalWaronTerror RoutledgeLondon. Arena,MichaelandArrrigo,BruceA(2006)TheTerroristIdentity:Explainingthe TerroristthreatNewYorkUnivPress,NewYorkandLondon. Brown,Michelle(2005)SettlingtheConditionsforAbuGhraib:ThePrisonNation AbroadAmericanQuarterlySeptember97397. Butler,Judith(2004)PrecariousLife:ThePowersofMourningandViolenceLondon: Verso. Carlton,Bree(2007)Imprisoningresistance:LifeandDeathinanAustralian Supermax,SIC:Sydney. ChandlerMichaelandGunaratna,Rohan,CounteringTerrorism(2007)Reaktion BooksLondon. Cohen,StanandTaylor,Laurie(1972)PsychologicalSurvival:theExperienceofLong TermImprisonmentPenguinBooks:Middlesex. CharlesColson(2002)EvangelizingforEvilinourPrisonsJune24WallStreet Journal. ColumbiaHumanRightsLawReview,(20056)Silenceofprayer:AnExaminationof theFederalBureauofPrisonsMoratoriumontheHiringofMuslimChaplains, CHRLR37:523

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Dyzenhaus,D.andThwaites,R(2007)LegalityandEmergencyTheJudiciaryina TimeofTerrorinA.Lynch,EMacDonaldandGWilliams(eds)LawandLibertyinthe WaronTerror,TheFederationPress:Sydney. Fletcher,Karen,(1999)ThemythoftheSupermaxSolutionAlternativeLaw Journal24(6)2748. Funnell,Neal(2006)Wherethenormisnotthenorm:TheDepartmentof CorrectiveServicesandtheHarmUAlternativeLawJournal31(2)7074. Garland,David(2001)TheCultureofControlChicagoUnivPress;Chicago. GhostsoftheCivilDead Gordon,Avery(2006)AbuGraib,ImprisonmentandthewaronterrorRaceand Class48(1). Hamm,Mark(2006)ReligiousConversioninPrison www.nlectc.org/training/nij2006/hamm.ppt Haney,CraigandLynch,Mona(1997)Regulatingprisoninthefuture:a psychologicalanalysisofSupermaxandsolitaryconfinementNewYorkUniversity ReviewofLawandSocialChangeVolXXIIINo4. Ignatieff,Michael(2005)TheLesserEvil:PoliticalEthicsinanAgeofTerror, EdinburghUnivPress;Edinburgh. Kaplan,Amy(2005)WhereisGuantanamo?AmericanQuarterlySeptember831 857. King,Roy(1999)TheriseandRiseofSupermax:AnAmericanSolutioninSearchof aProblem?PunishmentandSociety1(2)(1999)163186.

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King,Roy(2005)TheEffectsofsupermaxconfinementInLieblingandMaruna (eds)TheEffectsofImprisonmentWillanCullompton. Loader,IanandWalker,Clive(2007)CivilisingSecurity,CambridgeUniversityPress, Cambridge. Matthews,Bernie(2006)Intractable,PanMacmillan:Sydney. NSWCouncilforCivilLiberties,ShadowReportpreparedfortheUNCommittee againstTorture,27July2007. Rhodes,LornaA(2004)TheChoicetobeBadinTotalConfinement:Madnessand ReasonintheMaximumSecurityPrisonBerkeley:UnivofCalifPress. Roberts,GregoryDavid(2003)ShantaramScribePublications:Melbourne. Rupp,E.andErikson,C.(2006)Prisons,RadicalIslamsNewRecruitmentinUS,and comparisonwiththeUK,SpainandFrance,PaperdeliveredtotheInternational StudiesAssociation. Siegal,PascaleCombelles(2006))RadicalIslamandtheFrenchMuslimprison populationTerrorismMonitorVolIVno1527July. Silverberg,Mark(2006)WahhabismintheAmericanPrisonSystemat http://www.jfednepa.org/mark%20silverber/wahhabi_america.htm Spalek,BasiaandElHassan,Salah,(2007)MuslimConvertsinPrisonTheHoward JournalVol46No299114. Useem,Bert,Liedka,RaymongandPiehl,AnneMorrison(2003)Popularsupport fortheprisonbuildupPunishmentandSociety5(1)532.

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Waller,Michael(2003)StatementtotheUSSenateCommitteeontheJudiciary, SubCommitteeonTerrorism,TechnologyandHomelandSecurity,14October 2003. Ward,DavidandWerlich,Thomas,(2003)AlcatrazandMarion:Evaluatingsuper maximumcustodyPunishmentandSociety5(1)5375. WoodhamRon(2005)SecurityincorrectionalsystemsinOTooleandEyland(eds) CorrectionsCriminology,HawkinsPress;Sydney. Legislation Crimes(AdministrationofSentences)Regulation2001(NSW) CriminalCodeAct1995(Cth) Cases RvBenbrika[2008]VSC80 RvulHaque[2007]NSWSC1251

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IsolationasCounterInsurgency:SupermaxPrisonsandtheWaron Terror
BreeCarlton FacultyofArts MonashUniversity bree.carlton@arts.monash.edu.au Thispapercriticallyexaminesthetreatmentandconditionsexperiencedbythe VictorianPendennisdefendantsandspecificallythecoerciveuseofisolationwithin highsecurityanditsintendedeffects.Indefiniteisolationappliedincombination withotherbrutalisingpracticeshasbeentheongoingfocusofmuchconcernand criticisminthecontextofthepost9/11treatmentofunconvicteddetaineesinUS runoffshoremilitaryprisonssuchasGuantanamoBayandthenowclosedAbu GhraibPrisoninIraq.Whilethecurrentsaturationofcriticalcommentaryinthisarea characterisesindefinitedetentionwithouttrialandotherbrutalexcessesasnew emergencyorexceptionalresponsesdeployedintimesofcrisis,thispaper contendsthatsuchfeaturesareinfactfundamentalcornerstonesofcivilhigh securityregimesinwesterndemocraticstates.Isolation,sensorydeprivationand overload,exposuretotemperateextremes,24hourlockdownandtotal surveillance,shackles,stripsearches,behaviouralmodificationinitiativesandmind gamesarefrequentlydeployedinhighsecurityinresponsetoastringofofficially constructedthreatsandcrises. Inthisrespectrecenteffortstocombatterrorismmerelyproviderenewed legitimacytotheongoingprojectofprisonsecuritisationandotherdraconian initiatives,whichunderpinaseriesofresponsestoofficiallyconstructedand perceivedrisksandcrises(Sim,2004).Inrealitythecoerciveapplicationofisolation inconjunctionwithotherbrutalisingexcessesanddeprivationsisnotanew phenomenon.Thereisalonghistoryinvolvingthecoerciveuseofisolationtoinstil

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totalpsychicandbodilycontroloverprisonersdesignatedthreatening,non compliantorhighriskwithincivilsystems(Rodriguez2006;Churchilland Vanderwall1992).Inacknowledgingthesecontinuities,thispapersituates conditionsexperiencedbythePendennisdefendantsinVictoriainthehistorical contextofisolationasaformofinstitutionalcounterinsurgencyorweaponofwar inwesternstatedomesticandmilitaryprisons. IsolationasCounterInsurgencyinAustralianPrisons:PastandPresent Australianstatesarecurrentlywitnessingtheescalationandintensificationofthe coerciveuseofisolationinthecontextofsupermaxconfinement.Thisproliferation mustbeunderstoodwithinthehistoricalcontextoftheuseandabuseof controversialandexperimentalhitechprisonssuchastheKatingalSpecialSecurity UnitinNSWandtheJikaJikaHighSecurityComplexinVictoria(Carlton,2007, Funnell,2006). InMaytheUnitedNationsCommitteeAgainstTorture(UNCAT)condemnedthe harshconditionsinAustraliassupermaximumprisons,andinparticularthe prolongedisolationimposedonprisoners,includingthosependingtrial,andthe effectsuchtreatmentmayhaveontheirmentalhealth(UNCAT,2008).TheUNCAT reportspeakstoarangeofconcernsinAustraliaincludingtheimpactofanti terrorismlegislationonprisons(specificallytheincreasingmilitarisationofprison cultureandpractice),theAFPsproposedprogramofdeprogrammingandde radicalisationinprisons(AustralianFederalPolice,2006;ABCOnline,22/4/06;AAP, 22/4/06),theconstructionofsuperprisonswithincreasedsystemsofsurveillance, securityandcontrol,andthedevelopmentofanexclusivehighsecurity classificationratingreservedforthosealreadyheldinrestrictivehighsecurity regimesforterroristrelatedoffencesinallAustralianstates(NSWParliament GeneralPurposeStandingCommittee,2005;HumanRightsLawResourceCentre, 2006).

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Enforcedisolationinthecontextofinstitutionalmilitaryandcivilcontextscontinues toserveasapowerfulcounterinsurgencymeasureorweaponofwartopre emptivelypunishandbreakthosetargetedascombatantspost9/11(Gordon2006; Davis2005).InGuantanamoBayisolationhasbeenusedbytheUSGovernmentto breakthesilenceofdetaineeslikeJosePadillaandelicitinformationand confessions(Beyerstein22/8/07;Richley14/08/07;Begg,2006).Thepublic emergenceofconfessionssuchasPadillasprovidesenormouslegitimisingpower andprovidesweightyjustificationsforantiterroroperationsandthepreemptive punishmentofsuspects.Thisisalsorelevanttotheexperiencesandeffectsof isolationforterrorsuspectsdetainedincivilhighsecurityprisons. TheexperiencesoftheVictorianPendennisdefendantsintheBarwonAcaciaHigh SecurityUnitprovidepowerfulillustrationsofthecoerciveimpositionofisolationin Australiancivilprisons.Inspiteofbeingchargedwithnonviolentoffencesthe twelvehaduntilrecentlybeensubjecttotheA1securityrating,thehighestthatcan beallocatedtoaVictorianprisoner.TheVictorianJusticeDepartmentprovidedlittle informationtojustifytheseextraordinarycircumstancesandtheclassification decisionitselfwassaidtobeinformedinlargepartbyafileofnewspaperclippings (TheAustralian,22/3/07).Thisistypicaloftheprocessessurroundingprisoner segregation,whicharecommonlyinconsistent,arbitraryandlackingtransparency. ForthePendennisdefendants,theA1ratingtranslatedintodraconiansecurity stipulationsincluding23hourlockdowninsensorydeprivedconditions,constant surveillance,theuseofshacklesandstripsearchesandtheremovalofprivileges(R vBenbrikaandorspp.911paras.2838).Untilrecently,themenhadspentmore thantwoyearsconfinedtotheircellsfor20plushourseverydayandonlyallowed oneboxvisitwiththeirfamiliesperweekandonecontactvisitpermonth. AnA1securityratingalsoresultedinstringentsecurityproceduresforthe transportationofthedefendantsfromBarwoninGeelongtocourtinMelbourne. Theseinvolvedfrequentstripsearchesateachpointoftransferbetweenvan,court cellsandthecourtroom:

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Thevansinwhichtheaccusedtravelaredividedintosmallboxlikesteel compartmentswithpaddedsteelseats.Eachcompartmentholdsoneortwo prisonersThecompartmentsarelitonlybyartificiallight.Theyareair conditionedbyaunitcontrolledbyoneoftheprisonofficerswhotravelsin thedriverscompartment.Theaccusedareundervideosurveillanceatall timesThedoorofeachcompartmentopensonlytotheoutsideofthevan andiskeptsecurelylockedfromtheoutsidewhenanyprisoneriswithin(Rv Benbrikaandorsp10para.35). TheconditionsattractedadversepublicityduringbailhearingsinMarch2007when theairconditioningunitinthevanmalfunctionedonatripfromcourttoBarwon Prison.Thementravelledin50degreetemperaturesbecausesecurityprotocol wouldnotallowatransfertoanothervan.Oneofthemen,ShaneKent,collapsed andanother,EzzitRaadsufferedasthma(HeraldSun,26/3/07).Theotherswho believedtheyweredyingbangedonthedoorsandscreamedforassistance.After thetrialcommencedprisonersregularlyreportedexperiencingdisorientation,travel sickness,fatigueandconfusionsubsequenttotheirtimeinthevanwhichimpacted ontheirabilityconcentrateincourtandthustotakepartintheirowndefence.In March2007SupremeCourtJusticeBongiornoruledthattheconditionsinAcacia couldcompromisethedefendantsaccesstoafairtrial.Inshort,Bongiornoruledhe was: SatisfiedthattheevidencebeforetheCourtestablishesthattheaccusedin thiscasearecurrentlybeingsubjectedtoanunfairtrialbecauseofthewhole ofthecircumstancesinwhichtheyarebeingincarceratedatHMPBarwon andthecircumstancesinwhichtheyarebeingtransportedtoandfromcourt (RvBenbrikaandorsp25para.91). Inlightofthisheruledthat:

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Removalofthesourceofunfairnessinthistrialrequireseitherthatthe accusedsconditionsofincarcerationbedrasticallyalteredorthattheybe releasedonbail(RvBenbrikaandorsp25para92). BongiornosrulingisunprecedentedinAustralianlegalhistory.PreviousAustralian HighCourtcaseshaverecognisedtherightnottobetriedunfairly(DietrichvR; BartonvR;JagovDistrictCourtofNSW;GlennonvR;CarrolvR).Thisisthefirst time,however,thattheconditionsofincarcerationandtreatmentofprisonershave beenlinkedtothatright(CarltonandMcCulloch,Forthcoming).Bongiornosruling hasnowresultedinthetransferofthedefendantsoutofhighsecurityandintothe MetropolitanRemandCentre. Theintentionofthispaperistohighlightthecontinuitiesbetweenpenalpractices deployedinmilitaryandcivilsystems,specificallytheuseofisolationasacoercive measureusedtoremouldbehavioursorbreakindividualsintoastateofconformity andcompliance.Itisvitaltoacknowledgethatthepresentuseofmilitaryprisonsin thewaronterroralsorepresentdistinctexperiencesandcontextsthatareinmany respectsremovedfromthedomesticrealmofcivilimprisonmentandpenal practice.MilitaryprisonssuchasGuantanamoBayandtheirassociatedpracticesare justifiedastemporaryemergencymeasuresdeployedinwartime.Incontrast, whilecoerciveforcedeployedincivilandparticularlyhighsecurityprisonsitisnot strictlycountenanced,itisnormalisedordisregardedonthebasisoftheviolentand dangerouscriminalidentitiescagedwithin(Rodriguez,2006).Thisisaninteresting pointbecausewhilethereiswillingnesstocritiquetheconditionsexperiencedby unconvictedpeopledetainedinassociationwithterrorismrelatedoffenceswhether inAustraliaorinGuantanamoBaythereisanotthesamelevelofinterestor outrageextendedtoimprisonedindividualsimpactedbythesamepracticesinthe civilsystem. Modernhighsecurity(inthe20thcentury)hasformedthebasisfortheapplication ofpseudoscientificprinciplesandpracticesofbehaviouralmodificationand

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adjustment.Theserosetoprominencethroughaneraofdisturbingpsychological experimentationandstrategiesdesignedforthepurposesofcounterinsurgency, interrogationandpoliticalimprisonmentinthecoldwarperiod(McCoy,2006; Gordon,2006;PhysiciansforHumanRights,2005;Lucas,1976).Duringthistime, researchinthefieldsofpsychology,particularlycognitivescience,revealedthe powerfulpotentialformanipulatinghumanbehaviour(McCoy,2006).Inthe1950s and1960s,studiesuncoveredthedevastatingimpactsofsensorydeprivationand prolongedisolationonthehumanpsyche(McCoy,2006;PhysiciansforHuman Rights,2005).Otherresearchhighlightedtheimpactofsleepdeprivation,the administrationofpsychotropicdrugandelectroshocktreatments,special behaviouraladjustmentincentiveprogramsandsocialisolation(McCoy,2006; Ryan,1992:83109;Fitzgerald,1975).Muchofthisresearchandexpertise,gleaned fromtheimprisonmentandinterrogationofpoliticaldissidentsinNorthernIreland, SouthAfrica,Russia,EastGermanyandKorea,wasappliedindomesticprison systemsinthe1960sand1970stodealwithprisonersubversionandnon compliance(SeeRyan,1992;Fitzgerald,1977;Lucas,1976:153167).In1970,US psychologistDrJamesMcConnellstatedinhispapertitledPrisonerscanbe brainwashednow: Itgoeswithoutsayingthattheonlywayyoucangaincompletecontrolover apersonsbehaviouristogaincompletecontroloverhisenvironmentI believethedayhascomewhenwecancombinesensorydeprivationwith drugs,hypnosis,andastutemanipulationofrewardandpunishmenttogain almostabsolutecontroloveranindividualsbehaviour.Itshouldbepossible thentoachieveaveryrapidandhighlyeffectivetypeofpositive brainwashingthatwouldallowustomakedramaticchangesinapersons behaviourandpersonality(citedinRyan,1992:95). Duringthistimedomesticprisonscametoserveasalaboratoryforthe experimentalapplicationofarangeofbehaviouralcontrolsdescribedabove. Primaryexamplesincludegradedattitudeandbehaviouradjustmentprogrammes

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withinNewYorksAdirondacCorrectionalEvaluationandTreatmentCentresetup intheaftermathoftheAtticariots(Fitzgerald,1975);thecontroversialdeployment oftheSpecialTrainingandRehabilitativeTraining(START)behavioural modificationprogramsinMarionFederalPenitentiaryIllinoisandtheinvoluntary administrationofpainfuldrugaversiontherapiesinVacaville,California(Ryan, 1992:83109).Thephrasebehaviouralmodificationinthiscontextfailstoconvey thefullextentofinstitutionalviolenceenactedthroughenforcedisolation,sensory deprivation,useofshacklesandtheforcedadministrationofdrugsamongstaraft ofothercontroversialtreatments(Ryan,1992). Thesepracticesareofficiallyneutralisedaspainlessspatialandpsychological methodstoachieveprisonercontrol.Theyareboundupinandlegitimatedby sanitisingprofessionalterminologyanddiscoursesassociatedwithsecurity, punishmentandincarceration(Rodriguez,2006:148149).Butregardlessofhow suchmeasuresarerepresentedorwhetherthemethodsusedareovertlyphysicalor psychologicalthepointisthatthetheintentistoapplystresstotheindividualin suchawaythatnormalpsychologicalfunctioninganddefencemechanismsbreak downandthevictimbecomesamenabletobehaviourmanipulation(Lucas,1976: 156).Inthissensepsychologicallygearedmethodsofcontrolaredevisedtocurb independentthinking,breakandremoulddifficultorrecalcitrantprisonersintoa stateofconformityandcompliance(Rodriguez,2006;Ryan,1992).Suchaprojectis synonymouswiththeexertionofofficialtortureandviolenceandthiscanonly contributetotheinflictionofphysicalandpsychicpainandharm(Haney,2003). Prisonerpsychologicalandphysicalbreakdownanddespairinresponsetoindefinite periodsspentinisolationandsensorydeprivation,extremeformsofprisoner resistanceandcorrespondingofficialuseoflegitimateyetabusiveforce,selfharm andsuicidearesomeofthedocumentedharmsassociatedwithsupermax(Human RightsWatch,1997;HaneyandLynch,1997;Rhodes,2004).Asidefromtheviolent andabusiveculturesfosteredbyconditions,severepsychologicalandphysical detrimentaleffectswroughtbythedamagingcombinationofsensorydeprivation

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andisolationarewelldocumentedinreportsbyprisoners,studiesandclinical experience(HaneyandLynch,1997).Theseincludedepression,anxiety, hypersensitivitytoexternalstimuli,hallucinations,perceptualdistortions,temporal andspatialdisorientation,deficienciesintaskperformance,impairedmotor coordination,paranoiaandproblemswithimpulsecontrol(PhysiciansforHuman Rights,2005:6061;Haney,2003:130132;HaneyandLynch,1997).Sucheffects havebeenlikenedtothoseexperiencedbysurvivorsoftorture(Haney,2003; PhysiciansforHumanRights,2005:6263). Whileperenniallyadvocatedbyofficialstohouseworstoftheworstorhighrisk offenders,trendsinwesternprisonsystemssuchastheUK,Australiaand particularlytheUSwherethesupermaxmodelpredominates,suggesttheseprisons arebecomingincreasinglynormalised(Funnell,2006:7074;Davis,2005:124125). Inreality,thesupermaxisusedtohousearangeofprisonersforvariousreasons includingthoseconsidereddisruptive,thoseconcernedwiththeirrights,women andthementallyill(HumanRightsWatch,2003).Reportingonsupermaxconditions intheUSstateofIndiana,HumanRightsWatchobservedthatoncethese institutionsareopenedthereisatendencytofillthemandstandardsforselecting prisonersforwhomharshconditionsarewarrantedgetdilutedinpractice(Human RightsWatch,1997:11).InadditionHumanRightsWatchreportthatonce disruptiveordifficultprisonershavebeentransferredtohighsecuritythereisa tendencytokeepthemthereforextensiveperiodsintheinterestsofsecurity,thus threateningtheirphysicalandmentalwellbeingandenhancingthelikelihoodof repeatedcriminalordisruptivebehaviourandlongerperiodsinhighsecurity (HumanRightsWatch,1997:11). Theadoptionofdraconianpracticestocombatperceivedrisks,threatsandcrises withinprisonisanongoinghistoricalphenomenon(Carlton,2007;Churchill& Vanderwall,1992;Scraton,Sim&Skidmore,1991).Thechangingshapeofthese risksandthreatsarederivedinandbolsteredthroughimageryandenemies

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associatedwithwartime,whetheritbewaroncrime,warondrugsorwaron terror(Gordon,2006).AsGordon(2006:53)observes: Whatisdistinctiveinthepostwarperiodistheinventionofperpetualwars, generalwarswithoutend,madeonfalsepromisesofsecurityandwaged againstevershiftingspectralenemies,drivenbyideologiesoforderand counterinsurgencyandbypoliciestocontainandquarantinetheeffectsof globalpoverty. Thepunishmentofimmanentthreatstoorderandsecurity,whethertheyarerealor imagined,serveasthejustificatorybasisunderpinningtherealisationofreactive statepowerandtheexertionofforceinhighsecuritymoregenerally.Rodriguez argueshereterroritselfbecomesthemoralofthestoryprisonersoughttolivein fear,inreturnforthefeartheyhavewrought(asretroactivethreatstoapresumably civilisedorder)andcontinuetoextract(ascaged,violentquasipeoplealwaysonthe cuspofreturningtofreedomorovertakingthefacility)(Rodriguez,2003:186). InBarwonsAcaciaUnitinVictoriaandGoulburnsHRMU,thosefacingterrorist relatedcharges,someofwhicharenonviolent,havenonethelessbeenconstructed andotheredasenemyandterroristpriortotheirconviction.Thefigureof terroristhasbeendeployedinpost9/11timesinamannerthatmobilisescollective fearinwaysthatrecapitulateandconsolidatepreviousideologiesofthenational enemy(Davis,2005:119).Inthecivilcontextprisonersarecastthroughthe strategicconstructionofstigmatisingstereotypesassociatedwithcriminality, dangerousness,violenceandunmanageability(Scraton&Chadwick,1987).High securityinstitutionsandcoercivepracticesassociatedwithsuchregimesare officiallydeniedorjustifiedontheverybasisofsuchdiscoursesofdangerousness.It isanongoingtrajectorythatunderpinsasystemsubjecttocontinualrevisionand posturinginresponsetoperceivedcrisesandthreats. Conclusion

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Thispaperhassoughttohighlightcontinuitiesanddistinctionsbetweenthecurrent treatmentofunconvictedterrorsuspectsandotherprisonersincivilsystems. Moreover,ithasoutlinedthemannerinwhichisolationhasbeenadministeredasan institutionalformofcounterinsurgencyorweaponofwar.Ultimatelythispaperhas arguedthatcoercivepracticesassociatedwithpunitiveisolationarecentraltothe institutionaloperationofpowerandpunishmentwithinhighsecurityandthe officialprojectofbehaviouralmodificationandcontrol.Thebrutaltreatmentofcivil prisonersburiedinisolation,however,israrelycountenancedbecauseprisonersare consideredbeyondredemptionandrehabilitation(ScratonandMoore,2005). Theirpunishmentisquietlyregardedasdefensible,aformofnaturaljustice necessitatedbytheircriminalityanddangerousness.Ontheotherhandthe treatmentofunconvictedterrorsuspectsandthePendennisdefendantsmore specificallyoperatesasastrategicofficialperformanceontwolevels.First,itserves asapowerfullegitimisingexerciseforofficials.Seconditinspirescritical commentaryandoutragefocusedaroundhumanrights,thelawfulnessof conditionsandtreatmentimposeduponthosewhoareunconvictedandpotentially innocent.Whilesuchcontributionshavemadeconsiderablegainsforindividual cases,thereremainsaneedtoconfrontandquestionmorecomprehensivelythe extentinwhichconditionsthatgiverisetoabusiveexcessesinprisonaresystemic. Theexaminationofindividualabusecasesandconditionscanneverproducethe systemicreformneededbecausetheyarepremisedontheassumptionthathigh securityinstitutionsaregovernedbylaw,transparencyandaccountabilitywhenthe documentedrealityisthattheyarenot.

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References AAP(2006)NationalMediaRelease,Seminartoaddressradicalisationinprisons, 24July http://afp.gov.au/media_releases/national/2006/seminar_to_address_radicalisation _in_prisons ABCNewsOnline(2007)Islamusedascamouflageforprisongangs,22April, www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200704/s1903490/htm. AustralianFederalPolice(July2006)Nationalmediarelease:seminartoaddress radicalisationinprisons,Canberra:AustralianFederalPoliceMedia. Begg,M.(2006)EnemyCombatant:ABritishMuslimsJourneytoGuantanamoand Back,FreePress:London. Beyerstein,L(2007)PerverseJustice,InTheseTimes,August22 http://www.inthesetimes.com/article/3315/perverse_justice/ Carlton,B(2007)ImprisoningResistance:LifeandDeathinanAustralianSupermax SydneyInstituteofCriminology:Sydney Carlton,BandJudeMcCulloch(ForthcomingNovember)Contemporary Comment:RvBenbrikaandors(RulingNo20):TheWaronTerror,HumanRights andthePreemptivePunishmentofTerrorSuspectsinHighSecurity,CurrentIssues inCriminalJustice Churchill,W.&J.J.Vanderwall(eds)(1992)CagesofSteel:ThePoliticsof ImprisonmentintheUnitedStates,Washington:MaissoneuvePress

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Dowsley,A.(2007)Suspectsfelttheyddieinvan,HeraldSunMarch26 Davis,A.(2005)AbolitionDemocracy:BeyondEmpire,PrisonsandTortureFreePress: NewYork Fellner,JandJoanneMariner(1997)Coldstorage:supermaximumsecurity confinementinIndianaHumanRightsWatch:NewYork Fitzgerald,M.(1977)PrisonersinRevolt,PenguinBooks:Middlesex. Fitzgerald,M.(1975)Controlunitsandtheshapeofthingstocome,Radical AlternativestoPrisonPublications:London FunnellN.(2006)Wherethenormisnotthenorm:TheDepartmentofCorrective ServicesandtheHarmUAlternativeLawJournal31:2:7074 Gordon,A.(2006)AbuGhraib:imprisonmentandthewaronterrorRaceandClass 48:1:4259. Haney,C.(2003)Mentalhealthissuesinlongtermandsolitaryandsupermax confinementCrimeandDelinquency49:1:12456 Haney,C.andMonaLynch(1997)Regulatingprisonsofthefuture:apsychological analysisofSupermaxandSolitaryConfinementNewYorkUniversityReviewofLaw andSocialChangeXXIII:4 HumanRightsLawResourceCentre(2006)SubmissiontoUNHighCommissioner forHumanRightsregardingconditionsofdetentionofunconvictedremand prisonersinVictoria,Australia,HumanRightsLawResourceCentre:Melbourne

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HumanRightsWatch(2003)IllEquipped:USPrisonsandOffendersWithMental Illness,HumanRightsWatch:NewYork HumanRightsWatch(1997)ColdStorage:SuperMaximumSecurityConfinementin Indiana,HumanRightsWatch:NewYork Lucas,W.E.(1976)Solitaryconfinement:Isolationascoerciontoconform, AustralianandNewZealandJournalofCriminology,9:153167 McCoy,A.(2006)AQuestionofTorture:CIAInterrogationfromtheColdWartothe WaronTerror,MetropolitanBooks:NewYork PhysiciansforHumanRights(2005)BreakThemDown:SystematicUseofTortureby USForces,PhysiciansforHumanRights:Washington Rhodes,L.(2004)TotalConfinement:MadnessandReasonintheMaximumSecurity Prison,UniversityofCaliforniaPress:Berkley Richly,W.(2007)USGovernmentbrokePadillathroughintenseisolation,say experts,ChristianScienceMonitor,August14 http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0814/p11s01usju.htm Robinson,N.(2007)Jailersassumedsuspectsathreat,Australian,March22 Rodriguez,D.(2006)ForcedPassages:ImprisonedIntellectualsandtheUSPrison RegimeUniversityofMinnesotaPress:Minneapolis Rodriguez,D.(2003)StateTerrorandtheReproductionofImprisonedDissent, SocialIdentities,9:2:183203

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Ryan,M.(1992)Solitudeascounterinsurgency:theUSisolationmodelofpolitical incarceration,inChurchillW.andVanderwallJ.J.(eds)CagesofSteel,Maissoneuve Press:Washington:83109 Scraton,P.&LindaMoore(2005)Degradation,harmandsurvivalinawomens prison,SocialPolicyandSociety5:1:6778 Scraton,P.,JoeSimandPaulaSkidmore(1991)PrisonsUnderProtest,Crime,Justice andSocialPolicySeries,OpenUniversityPress:MiltonKeynes Sim,J(2004)ThevictimisedstateandthemystificationofsocialharminHillyardet al(eds)BeyondCriminology:TakingStateHarmSeriouslyPlutoPress:London:113 32 UnitedNationsCommitteeAgainstTorture(2008)Considerationofreports submittedbyStatepartiesunderArticle19oftheConvention:Concluding observationsoftheCommitteeAgainstTortureAustralia,May16 Cases RvBenbrikaandors[2008]VSC80 DietrichvR(1992)177CLR292 BartonvR(1980)147CLR75 JagovDistrictCourtofNSW(1989)168CLR23 GlennonvR(1992)173CLR592 CarrolvR(2002)213CLR635 RaadvDPP[2007]VSC330

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Colonialgenocideandstatecrime
MichaelGrewcock FacultyofLaw UniversityofNewSouthWales m.grewcock@unsw.edu.au Introduction WhenKevinRudddeliveredthelongoverdueapologytomembersoftheStolen GenerationinFebruary20081,hepointedlyavoidedanyreferencetotheterm genocide.ForsomeoneasinstinctivelyconservativeasRudd,adoptingthe controversialterminologyappliedtotheforcedremovalpolicybytheBringingThem Homereport(HREOC1997)wasneverontheagenda.So,whenaskedbytheABCs LatelineprogramwhyhehadavoidedusingthetermRuddreplied:thetermhasa specificdefinitionininternationallaw,andIdontbelieveitiseitherappropriateor helpfulindescribingtheeventsastheyoccurredorintakingthecountryforward (ABC2008). Appropriateornot,Ruddsapproachwassubsequentlyendorsedbythe conservativecommentatorGerardHenderson(2008),atrenchantcriticoftheuseof theterm,whoarguedthatdescribingforcedremovalasgenocidemake(s)the resolutionoflongstandingproblemsmoredifficultthantheyotherwisemightbe. Hendersondidnotspelloutwhatformtheresolutionmighttakebutitseemsclear thatcompensationisnotoneofthem.WhenSenatorBobBrownmovedan amendmenttotheapologyspeechmotioncallingforjustcompensationtoall thosewhosufferedloss,allbutBrownsfellowGreenssenatorsvotedagainstit. Whiletheuseofthetermgenocidemightcontinuetobeentwinedwiththe lingeringlegal,politicalandmoralissueofcompensation,thispaperseeksto
1

Thefullspeechcanbeaccessedathttp://www.pm.gov.au/media/Speech/2008/speech_0073.cfm

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addresssomeofthebroadercriminologicalquestionsraisedbytheconceptof genocideinAustralia.Giventheprominenceofthegenocidedebatewithinthe culturewarsandthescaleofdiscriminationagainstAustraliasindigenous population,criminologists,unlikehistorians,havewrittensurprisinglylittleabout thistopic.Yetmuchofwhatcriminologistshavewrittenabout,suchasthepolicing ofIndigenouspeople,hascolonialismasitsbroadsocialandhistoricalcontext. Moreover,colonialgenocidehasnotbeenthesubjectofrecentcriminological literatureongenocideandstatecrime.Forexample,GreenandWardsonly discussionofthethemeintheir2004bookonstatecrimeistodismissinthree sentencesthenotionthattheforcedremovalofchildrencomeswithina criminologicaldefinitionofgenocide.Instead,theylabelforcedremovalas institutionalisedchildabuse(GreenandWard2004:165166),whichapartfrom beinganinadequatedescriptionoftheassimilationistintentanddevastatingsocial impactofthepolicy,leavesoutthewholeissueofsettlerandfrontierviolence againstAboriginalpeopleandhowthatmightrelatetothevariousremoval practices. Nevertheless,GreenandWardscriminologicaldefinitionofstatecrimestate organisationaldevianceinvolvingtheviolationofhumanrights(GreenandWard 2004:2)doesprovideastartingpointforexaminingthecrucialroleofvarious stateinstitutionsinarangeofstatepracticesthatIsuggestconstitutecolonial genocide. SomeofwhatIwillargueisstillinaveryrudimentaryformandwillrequiretesting throughmuchfurtherresearchanddebate.Italsoformspartofawiderexercise followingonfrommyPhD(Grewcock2007)thatlooksatthevarioussystemsof exclusionhistoricallyimplementedbyAustralianstateinstitutions.Whilethisisstill verymuchaworkinprogress,thecoreargumentthatIamdevelopingisthat exclusionwasoneofthefundamentalfunctionsofAustralianstateinstitutionsand thatitoperatedinrelationtobothinternalandexternalfrontiers.

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Thecriminologicalimplicationofthisisthatthedeviancethatcanbeattributedto abusiveexclusionarypracticesrestsinpartonthenatureofthestateitself,rather thanaberrantdeparturesfromputativeAustraliandemocraticnormsortheruleof law. WhatIwillbeputtingforwardisthattheprocessesofcolonisationwereresponsible forcolonialgenocideinAustraliaandthatcolonialgenocidearisesfroma continuumofabusivepractices,conductedoverlengthyperiodsoftimeandwith varyinglevelsofdirectstatesupport.Insomesituations,thepolicyrationalesfor thesepracticeshavebeenquitedifferentandthestatedintentionsbehindsomeof thepoliciesbenign.Butasawhole,thesepracticeshaveresultedinthe dispossession,marginalisation,culturaldestruction,socialfragmentationand widespreadkillingofAboriginalpeople. Animportantdistinctiontomakeattheoutsetisthatcolonialgenocideisnot directlycomparablewiththeconcentrated,systematic,statecontrolledmasskilling thatcharacterisedtheHolocaust.Butwhiletheabsenceofgaschambersisa significantpointofdifference,Iwouldarguethatcolonialgenocideissystemicand cannotoccurwithoutstateacquiescenceorcomplicity. Fundamentally,colonialgenocideisabyproductoftheoverallprojectofcreatinga Westerncolonialsettlerstateandasaconsequenceraisesimportantquestions aboutthenatureofthatstate;thevariousmeasuresusedbythestatetolegitimise andlegalisetheseizureofland;thelegitimacyofnationalistnarrativesthat constructalargelypeacefulhistoryofprogressanddevelopment;and contemporaryapproachestoindigenouspeoplethatminimiseordenyhistoriesof disruptiveandviolentstateintervention,compoundedbylongtermneglect. So,howcanthisbeplacedwithinacriminologicalframework?

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Conceptualissues Fromacriminologicalperspective,colonialgenocideraisestwomainconceptual challenges. Thefirstisthedefinitionofgenocide.AsGreenandWard(2004:166)note,thereare atleast13differentdefinitionsofgenocidebutthetermisgenerallyattributedto thePolishjurist,RaphaelLemkin(1946),whointheimmediateaftermathofthe Holocaust,wasseekingtodescribeacrimewithoutaname. Lemkinwasoneofthekeyarchitectsofthe1948GenocideConventionwhich describedgenocideinArticle2asanyofthefollowingactscommittedwithintent todestroy,inwholeorinpart,anationalethnical,racialorreligiousgroup,assuch: (a)Killingmembersofthegroup; (b)Causingseriousbodilyormentalharmtomembersofthegroup; (c)Deliberatelyinflictingonthegroupconditionsoflifecalculatedtobring aboutitsphysicaldestructioninwholeorinpart; (d)Imposingmeasuresintendedtopreventbirthswithinthegroup; (e)Forciblytransferringchildrenofthegrouptoanothergroup. TheAustraliangovernmentratifiedtheConventionin1949butwithoutany acknowledgementthatitmightberelevanttoAustralia.Duringtheparliamentary debateontheConvention,forexample,oneLiberalMPcommented:Nooneinhis rightmindbelievesthattheCommonwealthofAustraliawillbecalledbeforethe barofpublicopinion,ifthereissuchathing,andaskedtoanswerforanyofthe thingswhichareenumeratedinthisconvention(ArchieCameron,Memberfor Barker,citedinTatz1999) However,theBringingThemHomereportsfindingthattheintentionalremovalof childrenforthepurposesofabsorptionorassimilationviolatedArticle2(e) becauseitaimstodestroytheculturalunitwhichtheConventionisconcernedto

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preserve(HREOC1997:part4)raisedtheissueoftowhatextenttheConvention alsocoveredculturalgenocideandbyextension,colonialgenocide. WhilethereissomeevidencetosuggestthatLemkindidcontemplatetheinclusion ofculturalgenocideinhisframework,therelationshipbetweenforcedtransferof childrenandmasskillingremainsambiguousandhasbeencentraltothecritiquesof theHumanRightsandEqualOpportunitiesCommissionsuseoftheterm.Isuggest thatrelianceonforcedremovalassetoutinConventionaninsufficientbasisfora criminologicaldefinitionofgenocideandtothatextent,IagreewithGreenand Ward.However,amorefundamentalissueforcriminologistsistheextenttowhich intentionaldestructionormasskillingofaparticulargroupshouldbecentralto definitionsofgenocide. InBringingThemHome,itwasarguedthatintentioncouldstillbeimplied,even thoughtherelevantstatepracticeswerenotsolelymotivatedbyanimosityor hatred.Butforthosewhotaketherequirementofintentliterally(referredtointhe literatureasintentionalists),theabsenceofanystatedpolicytodestroya particulargroupmaybesufficienttoremovetheimpactoffrontierviolencefrom theorbitofgenocidebecauseitwasnottheresultofacoordinatedstatepolicy. ThisisparticularlyrelevanttothecolonialexperienceinAustralia,where,overmany yearsandindifferentregionalcontexts,lowlevelconflictbetweenwhitesettlers andtheindigenouspopulationwaspunctuatedbyoutburstsofintenseandlethal attacksbysettlersandavarietyofstateagencies.Insomeisolatedinstances,most notablyfollowingtheMyallCreekmassacrein1838,thestateintervenedtopunish someofthoseresponsiblebyinthiscasehangingsevenstockmen.Butthiswasnot thenorm.Typically,iftherewasnotdirectstateinvolvement,therewas acquiescenceorvaryinglevelsofstatecomplicity. Thisraisesthesecondmainconceptualissuestatedeviance.IfweadoptGreen andWardsdefinitionofstatecrime,thisisconceptualisedlargelyintermsof

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organisedhumanrightsabuses.Withinthisframeworkanydefinitionofgenocide wouldconstitutestatecrimewhenmeasuredagainsttheformalhumanrights standardsofthetwentiethcentury. Buthowaresuchnormstobeappliedtothe18thand19thcenturies;especiallyif formalcolonialpolicywasnottodestroytheAboriginalpopulation?Furthermore, howcantheybeappliedtotheassimilationpoliciesofthe20thcentury,which, althoughtheyimplicitlydeniedthelegitimacyofAboriginality,wereinformalterms justifiedasimprovingtheconditionsoflifeofthosetargetedbypoliciessuchas forcedremoval? Theshortanswertothesequestionsisthatifhumanrightsaretobeunderstoodas universal,thentodenytheirapplicationtoearlierperiodsrendersthemhostageto historicalandculturalrelativism.Moreover,despitethedegreeofhegemony historianshaveoftenattributedtodominantideassuchascolonialracism,there wassomedirectresistancetoitsimpact.Primarilythiscamefromindigenous peoplethemselves,whointhemostbasicwayfoughttomaintaintheirrightsto landandcommunity.Buttherewerealsocriticswithinthepoliticalestablishment; divisionsbetweentheColonialOfficeinLondonandlocalauthoritieshereand substantialregionaldifferencesinlevelsofviolenceandthemethodsusedto enforcewhiterule.Inotherwords,therewerepointsofoppositiontostatepolicy andopposingmoralframeworksthroughwhichthestatecouldbeviewedin18th and19thcenturytermsasdeviantandabusive.

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Historicalcontexts ThesubjugationofAustraliasindigenouspeoplecannotbeunderstoodasafluid transitionfromoneformofsocietytoanother.Ratheritischaracterisedby dislocation,violenceandtheimpositionofcomplexformsofstateauthoritythat werecentraltodenyingtoAboriginalpeopletherightstowhichthesettler populationwereformallyentitled.Neverthelessaretwobroadandoverlapping contextsinwhichconceptualissuessuchasintentionanddeviancemustbe considered. Thefirstisthebattleforlandandtheprocessesofcolonisationandfrontierviolence thatoccurredlargelyduringthelate18thand19thcenturies;thesecondisthe shiftingterrainofofficialstatepoliciesthatrangedfrompeacefulcoexistenceto protectiontoassimilationandincludedpracticessuchasforcedremoval. Colonisation TheinitialcolonisationofAustraliawasastaggeredandconvulsiveprocess,which hadadevastatingimpactontheIndigenouspopulation.Between1788and1911,it isestimatedthattheIndigenouspopulationdeclinedfromaprecolonisation estimaterangingfrom300,000tooveronemilliondownto72,000by1921(Year BookAustralia1994). Notwithstandingthevariationinthepresettlementestimate,thiswasadeclineof genocidalproportionsandwastheproductofdeliberatekilling,kidnapping, diseasessuchassmallpox,dispossessionandmarginalisation.Itrepresentedthe wholesaledisruption,ifnotelimination,ofanestimated400tribalgroupings. ThisprocesswasparticularlyacuteinTasmania,whereapopulationestimatedat between4,000and9,000in1803declinedtolessthan200by1835,allofwhomhad

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beencapturedanddeportedtoFlindersIslandinBassStrait.By1847,this populationhadfurtherdeclinedto46(Reynolds2001:78). Suchaprofoundpopulationdeclinewascompoundedbytheprevailingideology amongstthecolonialadministrationthattheIndigenouspopulationwoulddieout. Butthisraisesthequestionofwhetherthatprevailingbeliefcanbeequatedwithan intentiontoeliminatetheindigenouspopulation.Theanswertothisisnot straightforward.TheoriginalinstructionsfromtheColonialOfficeinLondonto GovernorPhillipweretotreatthenativeswithamityandkindness(Reynolds 1996:34)anditwaswidelyexpectedthattheIndigenouspopulationwoulddrift awayfromthenewlycolonisedareasandthatcontactwouldbelargelypeaceful andonthecoloniststerms. Butcolonisation,whichhadbeenfarfrompeacefulinotherpartsoftheworld, inevitablyposedthequestionofcontroloflandandunlesstheIndigenous populationofferedabsolutelynoresistance,frontierconflictwasinevitable. HistorianHenryReynolds(1996and2001),whoarguesthatwhatoccurredduring thecolonialperiodisbetterunderstandasaseriesofgenocidalepisodesratherthan theproductofgenocidalstatepolicy,documentshownotwithstandingofficial policy,punitiveraidsquicklybecameanestablishedmethodforintimidatingand drivingawaytheindigenouspopulationintheSydneyarea. Theleaderofoneoftheseexpeditions,MarineCaptainWatkinTench,describedin hisjournalhowtheNSWGovernorsoughttostrikeadecisiveblowagainstatribe intheBotanyBayareainorder,atoncetoconvincethemofoursuperiority,andto infuseanuniversalterror,whichmightoperatetopreventfurthermischief(quoted Reynolds1996:33). OncethesettlementsbeganextendinginlandandintoVanDiemansland,settlers ratherthanorganisedstateagenciesplayedanincreasingroleinenforcingcontrol ofthelandwhichonthebasisofthelegalfictionofpeacefulsettlementhad

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becomethepropertyoftheCrown.Themethodsusedincludedkilling;kidnapping andrape;isolatingpopulations;denyingaccesstoland;andbreakinguptraditional patternsoflanduse. Collectively,theseweresystemicallyviolentpractices.Reynolds(1996:4)quotesthe ethnographersFisonandHowittwhowrotein1880: Itmaybestatedbroadlythattheadvanceofsettlementhas,uponthefrontieratleast, beenmarkedbyalineofblood.Theactualconflictofthetworaceshasvariedin intensityandduration,asthevariousnativetribeshavethemselvesinmentaland physicalcharacterButthetideofsettlementhasadvancedalonganeverwidening line,breakingthetribeswithitsfirstwavesandoverwhelmingtheirwreckswithits flood. Tracingthedirectroleofthestateincreatingandmaintainingthelineofblood requiresfocusedhistoricalresearch,particularlytotestandfurtherdevelopthe followingpropositions. First,regardlessofformalstatepolicy,frontierviolencewasprolongedand widespreadwithstateinterventiontopunishperpetratorsofviolenceagainst Aboriginalsrareanddeeplyunpopularwithinthepoliticalestablishment. Second,distinctionsbetweenthestateandthesettlersarenotnecessarilyclearcut. Leavingasideissuessuchaswhoorganisedandauthorisedpunitiveexpeditions, squattersandlargelandholderswereeconomicallyandpoliticallypowerful;often exercisedlegalauthoritythroughthemagistracy;andinmanycasescamefrom militarybackgrounds. Third,theimpositionofstateauthoritythroughtheestablishment,forexampleof courts,prisonsandamilitaryandpolicingpresenceinthemoreremoteareaswas

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importanttothelegitimisationoftheseizuresoflandunderpinningfrontier violence.Iestateinstitutionsweredrawninbehindthesettlers. Fourth,theemergencefromthemid19thcenturyofprotectorswithextensive policingpowersandtherighttocontrolwhereAboriginalpeoplelived,whothey associatedwith,whotheycouldhavesexualrelationswithetcprovidedthe infrastructureforthesystemsofpunitivewelfarismthatwerelatertoinstitute forcedremoval. Suchgeneraltrendspointinthedirectionofstatecomplicityforwhathappenedto Indigenouspeople.Thatthiscouldbedefinedasdeviantevenbytheprevailing standardsofthetimeisindicatedbysomeofthecriticalvoicesthatwereraised. Manyoftheseweremissionariesinfluencedbyearly19thcenturyChristian philanthropy,whichwasanimportantelementofthecampaignsagainstslavery andinfluentialwithintheColonialOfficeinLondon. Withtheirlimitedmessagesofracialequalityanddivinevengeanceforthe treatmentmetedouttotheblacks,thesepeopleweremetwithconsiderableofficial hostilityontheirarrivalinthecoloniesandwereoftenostracisedandisolated.Butit seemsclearthatthevisibledeclineintheIndigenouspopulationwasanissueabout whichtherewasvocalandvehementdissent. However,twonotesofcautionarerequired. First,theviewthatgodcreatedallmenasbrothersdidnotnecessarilychallenge thenotionthatEuropeansweresuperiortoAboriginals.Itwasoftenlittlemorethan codefortheviewthatAboriginalsshouldbeallowedtodieoutinpeace. Second,thosesuchasthemissionaryG.A.Robinson,whowasadrivingforce behindtheestablishmentoftheFlindersIslandsettlementforTasmanias

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Aboriginals,equatedprotectionwiththeisolationandremovalofAboriginalpeople fromareaswhichhadbeencolonisedbythewhites. So,whiletheoppositionofRobinsonandotherstotheroutineacceptanceof frontierviolenceprovidesanimportantinsightintotheideologicalbattlesofthe time,itisalsoanindicatorofhowpoliciesformulatedintermsexplicitlyopposedto violenceandmistreatmentcouldneverthelessplayapartinproblematisingthe existenceofIndigenouspeopleandinstitutionalisingtheirseparationand differentialtreatmentfromwhites. Inthissense,thenotionofprotectionprovidedanimportantlinkbetweenovert frontierviolenceandthevarioussocialpoliciesdevelopedatastatelevel. Protection/assimilation/forcedremoval Whiletheprotectionpoliciesthatdevelopedduringthelatterpartofthe19th centurywerestilllargelybasedonthenotionthattheIndigenouspopulationwould dieout,theassimilationpoliciesthatdevelopedduringthe20thcenturywerepartly anacknowledgmentthatthepreviousassumptionsaboutinevitableextinctionwere wrong. Likeprotection,theassimilationpolicywasconceivedasavehicleformaintaining whiteAustralia.ItwasunderpinnedbyracistbeliefsbasedonnotionsofEuropean culturalsuperiorityandincludedscientificracistideassuchaseugenics.Theforced removalpoliciesthatwereinstitutionalisedaspartofthisshiftinofficialapproach werebasedontherationalethatmixedracechildrencouldbe assimilated/socialised,whilefullbloodscouldbeisolatedonreservesorinremote settlements. Whileforcedremovalwasjustifiedinbenigntermsasapolicyaimedatrescuing Indigenouschildrenfrombackwardprimitivism,andinmanyareaswasdrivenby

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stateofficialspreviouslyresponsibleforprotection,thepolicywasultimately reliantuponforceanddesignedtodenytheverylegitimacyofAboriginality. Thiswasanintentional,highlyorganisedpolicythatdeliberatelysoughttobreakup familiesandcommunityties,destroyculturalpractices,andstripawayanysenseof Indigenousidentity. Byimplicationitsoughttoremoveanyprospectofclaimstotraditionallandor widerchallengestotheimpactofcolonialism.Itwasalsotobepursuedwith unremittingbureaucraticendeavour.AccordingtotheChiefProtectorofAborigines inWesternAustralia,A.O.Neville(1947:8081), Thenativemustbehelpedinspiteofhimself.Evenifameasureofdisciplineis necessaryitmustbeapplied,butitcanbeappliedinawayastoappeartobegentle persuasion[T]hedisciplineweproposehereisonlyakintothatwhichweusually imposeuponourselves.Letustryitforagenerationortwo,andweneednotfearthe outcome.ButwhenIsaytryit,Imeanthateveryagencynowinforceandtobe employedforthebettermentofthenativepeoplemustlookuponthepursuanceofthe acceptedunitedpolicyasparamount.Theremustbecompleteandenthusiasticco operationbetweenthosechargedwithitsinitiationandconductwithoutreservation, andnobacksliding,changesorletdownbehindAuthoritysbackmustbepermitted. Politicalinfluencemustkeepout.Therewillbedifficultiesandfailures,buttheendin viewwilljustifythemeansemployedtowipeoutforeveranexistingblotupon Australiasescutcheon,andsucceedintheultimateelevationofaminorityofour peopletosocialequalitywiththemajorityand,whatisequallyimportant,togivethem theabilitytothinkforthemselves. Inthelightofsuchcomments,theextensiveresearchassociatedwiththeHREOC Inquiryandtheongoingtestimoniesofthosewhowerethevictimsofthesepolicies, establishingthatforcedremovalwasbothintentionalanddeviantisnotas problematicasitisfortheinitialcolonialperiod.Theabusesforcedremovalinflicted

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uponIndigenouspeopleclearlybringsthepolicywithinacriminologicaldefinitionof statecrime.Butisitgenocide? Towardsacriminologicalframework Themainpurposeofthispaperhasbeentosetoutsomeofthekeyelementsofa criminologicaldefinitionofcolonialgenocide.Suchadefinitionwouldnotdraw directlyontheGenocideConvention,withitsimmediateoriginsintheHolocaust, butwoulduseitasamarkeroftheseriousnessofgenocideasacategoryofstate organisedorsanctionedabuse. While20thcenturygenocidecanbecharacterisedasanextremeanddeviant departurefrompreviousformsofrule,generallyoccurringinperiodsofconflictover relativelyshorttimespans,colonialgenocidehasitsrootsinthenatureofthe colonialprocessandcanoccurovermuchlongerperiodsoftime.Moreover,while thecolonialstatecanplayacentralroleindirectingandlegitimisinggenocidal policies,italsoowesitsexistenceinparttotheirsuccess. ColonialgenocideisnotuniquetoAustraliabutitdoeshavesignificantlocal dimensions.TheframeworkIproposeisconsistentwiththestructuralistapproach togenocideanddrawspartlyonthedefinitionofindigenocideformulatedby historiansRaymondEvansandBillThorpe(2001),althoughIseenoparticular reasontoinventanewword. Ithassixelements:(i)theintentionalinvasion/colonisationofland;(ii)the subjugation,forcedmovementandseparationoftheIndigenouspopulation;(iii)the removalfromtheIndigenouspopulationoftheirtraditionalmeansofexistence;(iv) thekillingoftheindigenouspopulationtotheextentnecessarytoallowtotal impositionoftheeconomicandpoliticalrelationsenforcedbythesettlerstate;(v) theclassificationoftheIndigenouspopulationasraciallyandculturallyinferiorto

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thesettlerpopulation;and(vi)thesystemicdenialofAboriginalitythroughthe destructionoffamily,kinshipandsocialties. Whilemuchworkneedstobedonetorefinethisframework,Isuggestitprovidesa startingpointforacriminologicalanalysisofthelethal,abusiveanddiscriminatory relationshipsbetweenAustralianstateinstitutionsandtheIndigenouspopulation.It alsoestablishesafoundationforlookingatmoreimmediateissuessuchasthe impactofthecriminaljusticesysteminIndigenouspeopleandthedeeply entrenchedinstitutionalprejudicesandpracticesthatoperatewithinit.

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References ABC(AustralianBroadcastingCorporation)(2008)TonyJonestalkstoPrime MinisterKevinRudd,Lateline,14February, http://www.abc.net.au/lateline/content/2007/s2163296.htm,accessed8June2008. Evans,RandThorpe,B(2001)TheMassacreofAboriginalHistory,Overland, Number163. Green,PandWard,T(2004)StateCrime:Governments,ViolenceandCorruption, PlutoPress,London. Grewcock,M(2007)CrimesofExclusion:theAustralianstatesresponsesto unauthorisedmigrants,PhDthesis,FacultyofLaw,UniversityofNewSouthWales. Henderson,G(2008)Therealmeaningofgenocide,SydneyMorningHerald,8 April. HREOC(HumanRightsandEqualOpportunitiesCommission)(1997)BringingThem Home:ReportoftheNationalInquiryintotheSeparationofAboriginalandTorres StraitIslanderChildrenfromtheirFamilies,Author,Sydney. Lemkin,R(1946)Genocide,AmericanScholar,Volume15,Number2,onlineat http://www.preventgenocide.org/lemkin/americanscholar1946.htm,accessed7 February2008. Neville,A.O(1947)AustraliasColouredMinority:ItsPlaceintheCommunity, Currawong,Sydney. Reynolds,H(1996)Frontier:reportsfromtheedgeofwhitesettlement,Allenand Unwin,Sydney.

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Reynolds,H(2001)AnIndelibleStain?ThequestionofgenocideinAustraliashistory, Viking,Ringwood. Tatz,C(1999)GenocideinAustralia,AIATSISResearchDiscussionPapers,Number 8,onlineathttp://www.kooriweb.org/gst/genocide/tatz.html,accessed30April 2008. YearBookAustralia(1994)StatisticsontheIndigenousPeopleofAustralia,onlineat http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Previousproducts/1301.0feature%20A r...,accessed18June2008.

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ExtremeTransport:CustodialTransportinWesternAustralia& Beyond

CliffHoldom OfficeoftheInspectorofCustodialServices WesternAustralia cliff.holdom@custodialinspector.wa.gov.au Thepresentdecadehasseenarapiddevelopmentintheapplicationofhuman rightsstandardstocustodialtransportsystemsandinmechanismstoenhance compliancewithsuchstandards.Thiswasperhapstimelyduetoglobalshifts towardsprivatisedprisonertransportthatdistancedserviceprovisionfrom traditionalgovernmentaccountabilitymechanismsandtowardsuseofpodstyle transportsthatmaximisednotonlysecuritybutsensorydeprivationanddiscomfort ofdetainees. BothtrendsbecamemanifestinWesternAustraliawiththecommencementof custodialtransportserviceson1August2000oftheCourtSecurity&Custodial Services(CSCS)ContractbyAIMSCorporation,whichhadcommissionedafleetof 39podstylevehicles(DoJ2000).1TheLiberalGovernmenthadalsobeenforcedby theDemocratstoestablishanInspectorofCustodialServices,inordertogetits privatisationlegislationthroughtheLegislativeCouncil,whichcreatedasignificant newmechanismforenhancingpublicaccountability.ThepublicationoftheCSCS ContractbygovernmentandofCSCSAnnualReportswasalsoanimportantreform forpublicaccountability,indirectcontrasttotheKennettgovernmentapproach,in whichsuchcontractsweresubjectto"commercialinconfidence".

ThecontractwaswiththeCorrectionsCorporationofAustraliaLtd,whichwasjointlyownedbythe CorrectionsCorporationofAmericaandFrenchcateringconglomerateSodexho.However,the companywasrebadgedasAIMSCorporation,afterwhichSodexhoboughtouttheinterestofits Americanpartner.

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Afternearlyayearofoperation,theInspector,ProfessorRichardHarding, completedhisfirstinspectiononCSCStransportservices(OICS2001).Henotedin hisreportthatthecontracthadbeenpoorlyscopedorunderbid.Indeed,while CabinethadbeentoldinApril1998thatafullyear'soperationwouldcost$8M,its actualcostin2000/01was$16.17M.2 Thereport,however,mainlyfocussedon issuesofsafety,dutyofcareandqualityofservice.Vehicleswerefoundtolack safetyrestraints,naturallight,airflow,dignifiedtoilets,views,seatpaddingand were,eventhen,pronetobreakdown.Restraintswereoverused,especiallyfor womenandminimumsecurityprisonersonmedicalsandfunerals.Itfoundthat: transportationforthoseincustodyisinconsistentinqualityand,atitsworst, unacceptable. Itwasconcludedthatdeficienciesindemandmanagement,contractmanagement, andincooperationoftheparties,especiallyinregardtovehiclesafety,weresuch thatthehazardstothispoint,haveoffsetthebenefits.Thiswasnottooverlook significantadvantagesforPolice,CourtsandcustodialmanagersundertheCSCS Contract,butitdidsignaltheInspector'sconcernwithoutcomesforpeoplein custody,andinparticularinhowtheirhumandignityisrespected. Historysuggeststhatcontractmanagementinitselfcannotberelieduponto safeguardhumandignityandsafety.Thesecondandsubsequentfleetsofconvict shipstoAustraliawereprivatisedtransports.TheSecondFleet,operatedbyslave traders,wasadisasterforitsconvictpassengers,ofwhom24%diedonthejourney, andmanymoresoonafterarrival,comparedwithonly3%onGovtPhillipsFirst fleet.ChaplainJohnsonwhoobservedtheembarkationsaid:Greatnumberswere notabletowalknortomoveahandorfoottheywerefilthyandcoveredintheirown nastiness(Shaw1977,108).

Thesecostsincludedbothcustodialtransportandcourtcustodyandsecurityoperationswhichwere inseparablepartsoftheCSCSContract.

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GarySturgess,oftheSercoInstitutehasarguedthatitisamyththatthewidely differingoutcomesbetweenthefirstandsecondfleetswasduetoonebeingpublic andtheotherprivatelyoperated(Sturgess2005).HehasfoundthattheFirstFleet wasalsooperatedbywayofprivatecontract,justonewithafarmoresympathetic operator,theevangelicalWilliamsRichards.Nevertheless,onepresumesthatthe leadershipofCaptainPhilip,theextraresourcesheobtainedforcolonisationand dispersalofmarinesthroughoutthefleetratherimprovedtheprospectsofthe originalfleet. HumanrightsinAustraliatodayaresafeguardedvariouslybycommonlaw,bystate andcommonwealthlegislationthatgivesforcetointernationalhumanrights covenants,byhumanrightsandotherpublicaccountabilityagencieswhicheducate theAustraliancommunityandinvestigatebreaches,andbyassenttovoluntary codeswhichelaboratetheapplicationofhumanrightsinparticularsectors.The StandardGuidelinesforCorrectionsinAustralia(2004),assentedtobytherespective MinistersforCorrectionsineachjurisdictionisanexampleofthelatter. Someofthemostbasichumanrightsstandardsapplydirectlytocustodialtransport operationsastheydotoanyothercustodialoperations.Forexample,Article5of theUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights(UN1948)saysthat:Nooneshallbe subjectedtotortureortocruel,inhumanordegradingtreatmentorpunishment. However,itwastheStandardMinimumRulesfortheTreatmentofPrisoners(UN 1957)thatfirstmadespecificprovisionsrelatingtocustodialtransport.Theseare presentedinthefirstcolumnofthetable,withthosefromAustralia'sStandard Guidelinesinthesecondforcomparison:

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StandardMinimumRules (UN1957)

StandardGuidelinesforCorrections (Australia2004) 1.81Transportationofprisonersshould takeplaceinasafeandefficient manner,underconditionsappropriateto thelevelofsecurityforthoseprisoners

45(1)Prisonersbeingtransferredareto beprotectedfrominsult,curiosityor publicity. 45(2)Conveyanceswhichsubject prisonersbeingtransferredto unnecessaryhardshipshallbe prohibited. 45(3)Transportistobeattheexpense 1.83Prisonertransportshouldbecarried 1.82Prisonertransportshouldnotbe afflictiveorsubjectprisonersto unreasonablehardshiporunnecessary exposuretopublicview.

oftheprisonadministration,andequal outattheexpenseofthe conditionsshallobtainforallprisoners. AdministeringDepartment,unlessan approvedarrangementexistsbetween theAdministeringDepartmentand anotheragency.TheAdministering Departmentisnotrequiredtomeetthe costsincircumstancessuchaswherea prisonerisgrantedspecialleaveto attendafuneral. TheStandardMinimumRulesonprisonertransporthavebeenreaffirmedand expandedtoalimiteddegreeinsubsequentUNInstruments,includingfor juveniles.3Butwhatdosuchhumanrightsstandardssignify,howshouldtheybe
3

Seeforexample:BodyofPrinciplesfortheProtectionofAllPersonsunderAnyFormofDetentionor Imprisonment(UnitedNations1988),Principle16,UnitedNationsRulesfortheProtectionofJuveniles DeprivedoftheirLiberty(UnitedNations1990),Rule22.UNHumanRightsinstrumentscanallbe viewedat:http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/.

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regarded?Shouldwemakedowithminimumuniversalstandards,ordotheyneed applicationandelaborationindifferentculturesandsocieties,underneweconomic conditionsandwithnewtechnologies? Forsocalled"firstworld"nationsofEurope,NorthAmericaandAustralasia,itwas LordRamsbotham,theChiefInspectorofHerMajesty'sInspectorateofPrisons (HMIP)justpriortohisretirementin2001whoshowedtheway,publishingthefirst versionofExpectationsCriteriaforAssessingtheConditionsinPrisonsandthe TreatmentofPrisonersasanAppendixtothatInspectorate's19992000Annual Report.412 Expectationswasintendedtoprovidestandardsagainstwhichcustodialinstitutions andservicesinEnglandandWalescouldbeinspected.Thesestandardsweretested insubsequentinspectionsandrefinedthroughtwofurthereditionsandreferenced againstinternationalhumanrightsinstruments.TheThematicReview:Prisoners UnderEscort(HMIP2004a),demonstratedtherelevanceofthesestandards(HMIP 2004b).Thefollowing,tableshowsafewofthereviewfindingsagainstthese Expectations.

Expectationsforprisonsisnowinitsthirdedition;therearealsoversionsforjuvenilesand immigrationdetention.See:http://inspectorates.homeoffice.gov.uk/hmiprisons/.

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SomeExpectations Minimisetimeincellularvehicles Comfortbreaksatleasteverytwohours

Findings:PrisonersUnderEscort Prisonersdislikedcellularvehicles Averagetimetocourt2hrs10min,many muchlongerwithoutbreaks

Vehiclesshouldbesafe,secure,clean andcomfortable Maximiseuseofvideolink Give24hrnoticeofplannedtransfers Transportmen&womenseparately

Prisonersfearedfortheirsafetyinthe eventofanaccident. AveragetimeawayforCourt8hrs26min Insufficientinfogivenonmoves Womenfeltunsafeduetoabuse& intimidation

Treataccordingtoindividualneeds

Specialneedsnotanticipated& arrangementsmade.

ReturningtotheWesternAustraliacontext,by2004thecontractualrelationship betweentheGovernmentandAIMSwaslookingdecidedlybruised.ThenewLabor Governmenthadapolicyopposingprivatisationofcorrectionalservices,CSCScosts hadcontinuedtoescalatedespitereducingprisonernumbersandtheDepartment CEOhadstatedinhis2003AnnualReportthattheleveloftrustinseniorAIMS management,whichcontinuedtotransferoperationalrisktotheDepartmentandtake littleresponsibilityforserviceissueshaddeteriorated(DOJ2003,2).Therewasadeath incustodyinanAIMSvanon6May2003,and9prisonersescapedfromthe SupremeCourtHoldingRoomson10June2004,promptingtheHookerInquiry (Hooker2004). ThedeathincustodywasquiteextraordinaryinsofarasCharlesRaymondGamble managedtotakehisownlifebyhangingusinghisownshoelacesduringafive minutejourneyfromtheWatchhousetotheCentralLawCourts.TheCoronial inquiryfoundissuesofintersystemsharingofatriskinformationbetweenPolice, Correctionsandthecontractor,andaneedtoremedypoorcamerasurveillanceand hangingpointsinthecellofthevehicle(Hope2004).Thispromptedvideocamera

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upgradesthroughoutthefleetandthecoveringofgrillsoninnercelldoorsby imperviouslexcenscreenstopreventpotentialhangingpoints.Therewasalsoan efforttoincreasepassengercomfortbycoveringmetalseats,butthisstalledafter onlytwoofthefourlonghaulvehicleswereupgraded. Aswellasfundingtheseminorvehicleupgrades,theDepartmenttookownershipof thefleetfromthecontractor'sfinancierforitsresidualvalueof$300,000,despite AIMShavingin2004,amuchneededfleetreplacementplan.Morepositively, responsibilityformetropolitanjuveniletransportwastransferredbacktothe Department,asweremedicalsandfuneralstometropolitanminimumsecurity prisons,toensurebetterservicequalityintheseareas. ButitwasanincidentintheFederalsphereon1718September2004thatshowed justhowcrucialhumanrightsconsiderationscanbeincustodialtransport operationsinAustralia.AccordingtotheHamburgerInquiry,inthecourseofa transferfromtheMelbourneImmigrationDetentionCentre,VictoriatotheBaxter ImmigrationDetentionFacility,SouthAustraliaovertwodaysbyGSLcontractors, detaineesexperienceduseofforcethatmayhavecausedinjuries,failuretoprovide medicalcare,inadequaterest,foodoraccesstotoilets,sensorydeprivation, humiliation,disregardtoappealsforassistanceandinhumaneanddegrading treatment(Hamburger2005).Interestingly,thevehicleusedwasaprisoner transportvehicleborrowedfromtheVictorianprisonertransportfleet. TheOICSdelayeditsfollowupcustodialtransportduein2004toallowthe DepartmenttorespondtothefindingsoftheHookerInquirywhichhadsharply criticiseditssupervisionoftheCSCSContract.InspectionworkfortheThematic ReviewofCustodialTransportServices,forwhichthepresentauthorwaslead researcherandwriter,commencedinNovember2005(OICSMay2007). However,intheperiodfollowingcompletionoffieldwork,andbeforepublicationof thisReview,twosignificantincidentscametolight.Thefirstofthesewasthedeath

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inaChubbTransportvaninAuckland,NewZealandinAugust2006of17yearold LiamAshley.TheDepartmentwaspromptedtopublishthereportofitsinternal InspectoratebytheinvestigationandpublicationofabroaderreportbytheOffice oftheOmbudsmen,andthesetwodocumentstogethermakeilluminatingreading (Belgrave&Smith2007,andMacDonald2006).Theobviouspointwasfailureto separateajuvenilefromadults,contraveninglongstandinginternationalhuman rightsconventions.However,theinquiriesalsodocumentedadriftbetween legislationandpractice,monitoringfailures,failuretopassonatriskand segregationinformationtocontractorsandinadequatesurveillancebyChubbstaff. InterestinglytheOmbudsmenconcludedthat:weconsiderstaffopportunitytokeep prisonersundersurveillanceisunsatisfactoryduetothedesignofmanyprisoner transportvehicles,yetstoppedshortofrecommendingblanketvideosurveillanceas theDepartmenthadindicateditcouldnotaffordthis!TheCommissionerof CorrectionsrespondedtohisDepartment'sfailuresinpolicy,procedures,contract managementandvehicledesignbyannouncingatrial,withanintentionto normalisetheuseofhandcuffslinkedtobodybeltsforallprisonersunderescort. Hesaidthiswasnotundignified,norwoulditcausepainordiscomforttoprisoners (Rowe,Louise,MediaCoordinator,DepartmentofCorrectiveServices,Press Release:PrisonVanDeathPromptsTrialofRestraints,Perth,WesternAustralia,July 2008). BackinWesternAustralia,on17October2006,aninterprisontransportvanleft BroomePrisonat8.15amforaninehourjourneytoRoebournePrison.Just3hours intothejourney,somesixtosevenkilometrespasttheSandfireRoadhouse,itbroke downin40.5degreesheat.AIMSorganisedrecoveryvehiclesfromRoebourne, whicharrivedonlyat08.15pmthatnight.Confinedtotheircellsonthetransport andlackingairconditioningoranyeffectiveairflow,prisonersexperienced dangerouslysuffocatinganddistressingconditionsintheirmetalcellsintheheatof theday.Airflowwasespeciallyconstrainedbythepresenceoflexcenoverthegrills oftheinnerdoors,exceptingasmallstriplowerdown.

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TheyeventuallyarrivedatRoebourneRegionalPrisonat4.15amthefollowing morning,havingbeenconfinedinsmallcellsforsome20hours,exceptduringtheir transfertothesubstitutevehicles,andabrieftoiletstopatSouthHedlandPolice lockup.WhiletheMinisterrequestedthattheDepartmentscrutiniseexisting procedurestoensurethatsimilarincidentsdonotoccurinthefuture,noinquirywas undertaken,noranyspecificreformsannounced(Quirk,Margaret,Ministerfor CorrectiveServices,Hansard,ParliamentofWesternAustralia,Legislative Assembly,pagenumber:8153b8153b/2,2/11/06). TheThematicReviewwastabledinParliamentthefollowingJuly.TheInspector statedinthereportthat: TheReportthatfollowsisthemostcomprehensiveaccountofthechallenges andproblemsofcustodialtransporttoappearintheliteraturetodate.Itshould setaplateaufordiscussionoftheseissuesandthedevelopmentofoperational standardsinalljurisdictions,particularlythosewherelonghaullandtransport isaprominentaspectoftherequiredservices(OICSMay2007,19). Thereportwascertainlysupportedbythoroughfieldwork,analysisofavailable data,consultationwithallpartiesandreviewsofliteratureandbestpracticeinother jurisdictions.ItnotedthatWesternAustralia,isperhapsthelargestsubnational jurisdictionintheworldandthatahighlevelofriskattachestoescortjourneysin regionalareasduetoextremetemperatures,vastdistances,vehiclebreakdown, remotenessfromhelp,stockandwildlifeonroads,driverfatigue,poorroad conditionsandfloodevents. Thereportalsodrewattentiontotherealitythatthemajorityofprisonertransfers, some57%,involvedatransferbetweenametropolitanprisonandaregionalprison orbetweenregionalprisonsandthattheprisonersinvolvedinsuchlonghaul transportswereoverwhelminglyAboriginal.Asat31March2006,24.7%ofprisoners

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weredisplacedfromtheirhomeregions(OICSMay2007,53).Thisreflectsatrendof increaseddisplacementofAboriginalprisonersfromtheirhomeregions,dueto failurebysuccessivegovernmentseithertopreventAboriginalimprisonmentorto provideadequateprisoneraccommodationandservicesintheregions. DespitesignificantdisruptioncausedbyWesterncolonisation,WesternAustralian Aboriginals,andespeciallythosefromremoteregions,retainstrongcultural sensibilitieswhichtiethemtoparticularareasandextendedfamilygroupingsliving inthoseareasandtoparticularframesofculturalreference(SeeLRCWA2006, Chapter3).YetAboriginalpeopleincustodyaredisproportionatelyrequiredtobear theburdenofriskfromlonghaulcustodialtransportsastheyareshuntedfrom institutiontoinstitutionaroundthestate.CustodialtransportinWesternAustralia, therefore,isanintegralcomponentofajusticesystemtaintedbysystemicracism (LRCWA2005,Part5,94ff). TheThematicReviewmade42recommendationstotherelevantDepartmentsand transportcontractor,including: Unifiedoperational&vehiclestandardsincludingforlonghaulvehicles toilets,redundantairconditioning,standingroom,views; Governmenttoconsideralternativemeansegairtransport,coachesfor longhaultravel; Safetyrestraintstobeprovidedforallpassengers; Comfortbreaksatleastevery2.5hours; Increasevideolinkstoreducetransports; Releaseatminimumwithcash&IDs/assistwithjourneyshome;

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Ensureprovision(andreserves)offood/water/medicine&nicotine lozenges; Provideforinfirm/pregnant&disabled; Spurnuseofsubstandardpolicelockupstoaccommodateprisonerson transportjourneys; However,whiletheDepartmentofCorrections(astheadministeringDepartment) hadnotionallyagreedtotwentyoftherecommendations,littlenewactionwas triggered,althoughinprincipleadoptionofvehiclestandardsfornewvehicles, includingtheinstallationofpassengersafetyrestraintswasanimportantadvance. Fifteenothershadqualifiedagreementandsevenweredisagreed.TheReviewhad alsocontributedtodevelopmentofnewWesternAustralianstandards,withthe publicationinApril2007ofthefirstversionoftheCodeofInspectionStandards (OICSApril2007).ThesewereaddedtomorerecentlybytheInspectionStandards forAboriginalPrisonerswhichincludesanumberofstandardsofrelevanceto custodialtransportofindigenousprisoners(OICS2008). ProfessorHardingalsowarnedtheCEOofGlobalSolutionsLimited(GSL),as GovernmentconsiderednovationofcontractswithAIMSthroughpurchasebyGSL, ofthelogisticalchallengesofcustodialtransportinWA,andoftheparlousstateof thefleetanddisgracefulPolicelockups(Harding,R:MediaRelease,26/11/07, downloadedfromwww.custodialinspector.wa.gov.au). Sadly,MrIanWard,anAboriginalelderonremand,wasfounddeceasedinaGSL vanatKalgoorliePrisonon27January2008,followinga450kmjourneyinhot conditionsfromLaverton.Amidstsignificantpublicangerandconcern,theMinister orderedaDepartmentalinquirywhichgaveparticularattentiontoremotearea Changedescortarrangementsforjuveniles.

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vehicle&operationalstandardsandfleetreplacementandrevisitedsomeofthe recommendationsoftheThematicReview(DCS2008). TheDepartmenthassinceenergeticallypursuedreformsinitsmanagementofthe CSCSContract.HeadsofjurisdictioninWA,ledbytheChiefJusticehavealsobeen meetingtoattempttoleveragereformsaimedatreducingunnecessarytransportof adultsandjuvenilesforcourtandremandpurposes.However,enormouschallenges remaininupdatingthevehiclefleet,inimplementingoperationalstandards,in attractingnewstaffduringaresourcesboom,inextendingeffectivemonitoringof services,inreformingtheperformancemanagementrequirementsofthecontract, inreducingcancellationsofmedicalappointmentsandinchanginglegalpractices.It alsoremainstobeseenwhethertheGovernmenthastheappetitefortheadditional expendituresthatasaferandmoredecentcustodialtransportsystemwillrequire. Inthemeantime,theSupremeCourtinVictoria,onthe20March2008madea pivotaljudgementthattouchedoncustodialtransportconditions.Thisconcerned anapplicationforastayoftrialbyallegedterroristBenbrikaandothersonthebasis thatconditionsofconfinementandtransportpreventeddefendantsfrom participatingeffectivelyintheirtrialduetotheirdeterioratingmentalstate(Rv Benbrikaandors(RulingNo.20)VSC80:20).Theyhadbeenheldinadverse conditionsinthesupermaxunitatBarwonforanextendedperiodandexperienced anarduous2.5hourdailytransporttoMelbournefortheirtrial. TheSupremeCourtforeshadowedupholdingthestayiftheDepartmentfailedto complywithchangesincludingthattheybeheldatMelbourneAssessmentPrison, thattheyhavedirecttransporttocourtrestrainedonlybyhandcuffsandwithout extrastripsearches,thattheyhave10hoursoutofcelleachdayandnormalaccess tovisits.Notably,thejudgementdidnotreferencetheVictorianCharterofHuman Rights,norotherhumanrightsinstruments,butsolelythecommonlawrighttoa fairtrial.

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ReturningtoWA,thereformeffortsoftheDepartmentofCorrectiveServices culminatedinaCustodialTransportForum,heldinPerthon78August2008,which soughtdevelopnationalcustodialtransportoperationalandvehiclestandards.This involvedrepresentativesfromallCorrectionsandPoliceDepartmentsinAustralia andNewZealand,privatesectorrepresentativesfromAustraliaandtheUK,and localparticipationfromtheAboriginalLegalServiceandtheOfficeofthe InspectorateofCustodialServices.Itiscertainlythefirsttimesuchaforumhasbeen heldinAustraliaandcertainlyindicatesthatcustodialtransporthasemergedasan importantareaofattentionforjusticeadministrators.Itiscertainlyworthyofcloser attentionbyresearchers. TheRuddGovernmenthasdeclaredanintentiontosigntheUnitedNations' OptionalProtocoltotheConventionAgainstTortureandOtherCruel,Inhumanor DegradingTreatmentorPunishment(OPCAT).TheHumanRightsandEqual OpportunityCommissioniscurrentlyinvestigatinghowbesttoestablishthe NationalPreventiveMechanisms(NPMs)thatwillberequiredtofulfilour obligationsunderthisProtocol.Thismeansindependentinspectionsofallclosed facilitieswhethercontrolledbypolice,corrections,immigration,healthandwelfare officialsortheircontractors. TheOICSinWesternAustraliaandthecycleofcontinuousimprovementinwhichit isengagedwiththedepartmentandgovernmentisthereforeaharbingerofthings tocome,atleastinthisnation.Specialisedandgenuinelyindependentcustodial inspectionisanessentialcomponentinsystemstoensurethathumanrightsare properlycodifiedandobservedincustodialtransportoperationsandovercome shorttermpoliticalcyclesthatdrivesomuchofpubliccorrectionsdiscourse.Andas DamienMcLean,theWarburtonAboriginalCommunityadviserinthewakeofthe IanWarddeathcommented: Ifyouvegotthebenefitofbeingabletoappointanindependentinspectorof prisonsandsaythatyouvegotone,theflipsideisyouactuallyneedtolistento

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them(sic)(McLean,Damien,quotedinTheWestAustralian,February27, 2008,7).

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References Belgrave,J&Smith,M(2007):InvestigationbyJohnBelgrave,ChiefOmbudsmanand MelSmith,OmbudsmanoftheDepartmentofCorrectionsinrelationtothetransport ofprisoners,presentedtotheHouseofRepresentativespursuanttosection29of theOmbudsmenAct1975,GovernmentofNewZealand,Wellington,12June2007. ConferenceofCorrectionalAdministrators(COCA2004):StandardGuidelinesfor CorrectionsinAustralia2004. DepartmentoftheAttorneyGeneral(DOTAGSeptember2006):AnnualReportfor theProvisionofCourtSecurityandCustodialServices,30September2006,Perth (downloadedon18/02/08fromwww.dotag.wa.gov.au/publications). DepartmentofCorrectiveServices(DCS2008):ReviewofPrisonerTransport Services,Perth,February2008. DepartmentofJustice(DoJ2000):ContractfortheProvisionofCourtSecurityand CustodialServicesbetweentheStateofWesternAustraliaandCorrectionsCorporation ofAustraliaPtyLtd,Perth,January2000. DepartmentofJustice(DoJSeptember2003):AnnualReportfortheProvisionof CourtSecurityandCustodialServices,30September2003,(downloadedon18/02/08 fromwww.dotag.wa.gov.au/publications). Hamburger,K(2005):FindingsandRecommendationsfromReportofInvestigationon behalfoftheDepartmentofImmigrationandMulticulturalandIndigenousAffairs ConcerningAllegationsofInappropriateTreatmentofFiveDetaineesduringTransfer fromMaribyrnongImmigrationDetentionCentretoBaxterImmigrationDetention Facility,KnowledgeConsultingLtd,2005.

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HMIP(2004a):ExpectationsCriteriaforAssessingtheConditionsinPrisonsandthe TreatmentofPrisoners,SecondEdition,HMInspectorateofPrisons,London. HMIP(2004b):PrisonersUnderEscort:ThematicReportbyHMInspectorateof Prisons,December2004. Hooker,R(2004):InquiryintotheEscapeofPersonsHeldinCustodyattheSupreme CourtofWesternAustraliaon10June2004,GovernmentofWesternAustralia,Perth. (availablefromhttp://www.slp.wa.gov.au/publications) Hope,AN(2004),RecordofInvestigationintoDeath,Perth:CoronersCourtof WesternAustralia,2004. LRCWA(2005):AboriginalCustomaryLaw,ADiscussionPaper,ProjectNo.94,Law ReformCommissionofWA,(downloadedon12/06/2006from: http://www.lrc.justice.wa.gov.au/Aboriginal/ACLpublications.htm) LRCWA(2006):AboriginalCustomaryLaw,FinalReport,LawReformCommissionof WA. MacDonald,L(2006):InvestigationoftheCircumstancesSurroundingtheDeathat AucklandPublicHospitalofprisonerLiamJohnAshleyofAucklandCentralRemand Prisonon25August2006,ReporttoChiefExecutive,DepartmentofCorrections, Inspectorate,Wellington,2006(downloadedfrom http://www.corrections.govt.nz/public/news/on30/08/07). OfficeoftheInspectorofCustodialServices(OICS2001):ReportNo.3:Reportofan AnnouncedInspectionofAdultPrisonerTransportServices,Perth,WesternAustralia, October2001.

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OfficeoftheInspectorofCustodialServices(OICSApril2007):CodeofInspection StandardsforAdultCustodial,VersionOne,Perth,WesternAustralia,19April2007 OfficeoftheInspectorofCustodialServices(OICSMay2007):ReportNo.43: ThematicReviewofCustodialTransportServices,Perth,WesternAustralia,May 2007. OfficeoftheInspectorofCustodialServices(OICS2008):InspectionStandardsfor AboriginalPrisoners,Version1,Perth,WesternAustralia,July2008. Shaw,AGL(1977):ConvictsandtheColonies:AStudyofPenalTransportationfrom GreatBritainandIrelandtoAustralia&otherpartsoftheBritishEmpire,Melbourne UniversityPress,1977. Sturgess,GL(2005):BoundforBotanyBay:ContractingforQualityinPublicServices, DiscussionPaperNo.1,TheSercoInstitute,London,2005.

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UsingaFlashpointsmodelofPublicOrderPolicinginIndigenous communitiestoexplorethestructuresandpracticesofinternal colonialpowerrelationsinAustralia

ChristineJennett SchoolofSocialSciences CollegeoftheArts UniversityofWesternSydney cjennett@ozemail.com.au Introduction Throughoutthe1960smanyformercoloniesofmetropolitanpowers(suchas Britain&France)achievedindependence,frequentlyduetotheeffortsofanti colonialliberationmovements.Theybecametheperipherycountriesofthe internationalsystemofpowerwhilethemetropolitancountriesremainedatthe core.Indigenouspeopleswhoformedsmalldomesticminoritiesinindependent settlerstates,suchasAustralia,remainedinaninternalcolonialrelationshipwith therulingpowergroup,thewhites(MoretonRobinson2007),theylivedatthe peripheryandwhiterulersatthecore(Rowley1972a,b).Despiteattemptsby IndigenousactivistsandtheirsupporterstoalterthebalanceofpowerinAustralian societybymakingclaimsagainstthestate(Werther1992,Jennett1991;Lippmann 1981);andtheemergenceofanAboriginalmiddleclass(Howard1982);thereare stillmanyAboriginalpeoplewhoremainconcentratedinthestructuralperipheryof Australiansociety,experiencinglowincomes,highratesofunemployment,poor healthandhighratesofcrimeandintracommunityviolence(Memmotetal.2001; Jennett&Greer2001). Inthispaper,firstitisbeingarguedthatnow,nearlyhalfacenturylater,aninternal colonialmodelofpowerrelationsisstillrelevanttoexplainthesituationinwhich

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manyAboriginalpeoplefindthemselves.Second,theFlashpointsmodelwillbe appliedtoapublicorderpolicingeventatWadeye,whichisaparticularly dysfunctionalperipheralcommunityinwhichN.T.Policearechargedwiththetask ofkeepingthepeace. InternalColonialism Throughoutthe1960sand1970stherewasmuchdiscussionabouttheconceptof internalcolonialism,i.e.thesortofcolonialrelationshipwhichcontinuedtoexist betweenthesettlersandtheIndigenousoraboriginal(Werther1992)peoples whenthesettlerstateachievedindependencefromthemetropolitancolonial power.Therewereseveralmodelsofinternalcolonialismofferedbyvarious authors. Blauner(1969:393),discussedtheconceptinrelationtoBlackAmericanswho,while theyarenotIndigenouspeoples,havebeenusedandabusedintheinterestsof whites(Lacey1972).Heanalysedtheghettorevoltswhichtookplaceinthe1960s intheUSAseeingthemascollectiveresponsestocolonizedstatus.Henotedthe useofthediscourseofcolonialismbyghettoprotestorsastheytriedtoarticulate theirexperienceofbeingcontrolledbyoutsidersandtheiridentificationwithanti colonialliberationmovementswhichwereoperatingatthattime(Blauner1969: 394).Blaunerdistinguishedbetweencolonisationasaprocessandcolonialismasa social,economic,andpoliticalsystem(Blauner1969:393). Blauner(1969:394)arguedthatcolonialismdescribesaprocessofsocial oppressioncommontobothclassicalcolonialandinternalcolonialsituations.He thereforeviewedthesituationintheUSAasaspecialformofcolonialismoutside thecontextofthecolonialsystem(Blauner1969:393)andidentifiedfourbasic componentsofthecolonisationcomplex. 1. Colonisationbeginswithaforced,involuntaryentry.

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2. Thecolonisingpowercarriesoutapolicywhichconstrains, transforms,ordestroysindigenousvalues,orientations,andwaysof life. 3. colonisationinvolvesarelationshipbywhichmembersofthe colonisedgrouptendtobeadministeredbyrepresentativesofthe dominantpower. 4. Racismisthefinalfundamentofcolonisation.Blaunernotesthat racismgenerallyaccompaniedcolonialism.Notingthatracial prejudicecanexistwithoutcolonisation,hearguesthat, nevertheless,racismasasystemofdominationispartofthe complexofcolonisation(Blauner1969:396) Inamoredevelopedconceptualtreatmentofinternalcolonialism,Hechter (1975)arguedthatsuchasituationexistswhenthereisaculturallyallocated divisionoflabourwithinastate.AccordingtoHechter: Nationaldevelopmentisaprocesswhichmaybesaidtooccurwhenthe separateculturalidentitiesofregionsbegintolosesocialsignificance, andbecomeblurred.Intheprocess,theseverallocalandregional culturesaregraduallyreplacedbytheestablishmentofonenational culturewhichcutsacrossthepreviousdistinctions.Thecoreand peripheralculturesmustultimatelymergeintooneallencompassing culturalsystemtowhichallmembersofthesocietyhaveprimary identificationandloyalty.(Hechter1975:5;emphasisadded). NotingtheexistenceofseparatistpoliticalmovementsinsuchsocietiesasCanada, BelgiumandtheUnitedKingdom(allliberaldemocracies)Hechter(1975:5)argues thatthisethnicpersistencesuggeststhatsuccessfulincorporationofperipheral

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groupsoccursonlyundercertainconditions.Hechterofferstwoalternativemodels ofnationaldevelopment,thediffusionmodelandtheinternalcolonialmodel. Thediffusionmodelofnationaldevelopmentpredictsthat,following industrialisation,thepeoplesoftheperipherywilleventuallybecomeacculturated tothecultureofthecore,thatis,thecultureoftheethnic/racialgroupwhich dominatestheState.Interactionsbetweenthecoreandtheperipherywill,inthe longrun,bringaboutacommonsetofeconomic,culturalandpoliticalinstitutions andpractices,andthefoundationsforaseparateethnicidentitywilldisappear (Hechter1975:68).Thisistheviewofnationaldevelopmentuponwhichthepolicy ofassimilationwasbased. Bycontrast,intheinternalcolonialmodelofnationaldevelopmentthecoreisseen todominatetheperipherypoliticallyandtoexploititmaterially(Hechter1975:9). Thefactthatracial/ethnicconflictpersistsisrelatedinhisviewtoaculturaldivision oflabourinwhicheconomicdisadvantageprevailsintheperiphery. Notingtheliteraturewhicharguesthattheperipheryremainsculturallyisolated fromthecoreindeveloping(ThirdWorld)countries,Hechter(1975:26)says[i]tis difficulttoarguethatperipheralgroupsinindustrialsocietiesareeconomically, politicallyandculturallyisolatedfromthecore.However,becausetheperipheral groupissuffusedwithexploitativeconnectionstothecoreitcanbedeemedan internalcolony(Hechter1975:32).Thiseconomicdependencewhichpromotes backwardnessinperipheralgroupsisreinforcedthroughjuridical,political,and militarymeasures. Thereisarelativelackofservices,lowerstandardoflivingandhighlevel offrustrationAmongmembersoftheperipheralgroup.Thereis nationaldiscriminationonthebasisoflanguage,religionorother culturalforms.Thustheaggregateeconomicdifferencesbetweenthe

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coreandtheperipheryarecausallylinkedtotheirculturaldifferences. (Hechter1975:34) InHechtersstudy,thepenetrationoftheculturalinstitutionsofthecorenarrowed socialisationdifferencesbetweenthecoreandperipheralcollectivities.Infaceof thesepressuresforacculturationthepersistenceofadistinctiveculturein peripheralareascouldnotbeexplainedbytheperipherysisolationfromthecore culture.Instead,thepersistenceofperipheralculturesuggestedforHechter(1975: 27)avirilepatternofresistancetoassimilation. Ontheissueofsuffusionoftheperipheralgroupwithexploitativeconnectionswith thecore,Blauner(1969:404)notedthat,intheUSA,outsideofsomeareasofthe South,therewasnoBlackeconomyandthatmostBlackAmericanswereinevitably caughtupinthelargersocietysstructureofoccupations,education,andmass communication.Heobservedthat,asaresultofcontradictorypressures,similarto thosenotedbyHechter,BlackAmericanshadbothanethnicnationalistorientation whichreflectedtherealityofcolonisationandanintegrationistorientationwhich correspondedtotherealitythattheinstitutionsofthelargersocietyweremuch moredevelopedthanthoseoftheincipientnation(Blauner1969:404;emphasis added). OtherinfluentialmodelsofinternalcolonialismwereputforwardbyLatinAmerican writerssuchasCasanovaandStavenhagen.AccordingtoCasanova(1965:32)the newnationswhichemergedaftergainingindependencefromacolonialpower preservedthedichotomouscharacterandcontradictorytypesofrelationssimilarto thosefoundinthecolonialsociety.Stavenhagen(1965:64)maintainedthatthe citybecomesthecoreofthenewnationandtheruralareastheperiphery. InAustralia,withitsfederalsystemofgovernment,wecanseethenational governmentinCanberraasconstitutingapoliticalcore,whichhasdrivenpolicyin AboriginalAffairssincethe1967ReferendumenhancedtheCommonwealths

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powersinthisarea.However,Stategovernments,withtheircontroloflandand policinginparticular,continuetooperateasasecondarylevelofthepoliticalcore whichalsogeneratespoliciesandinstitutionswhichaffectAboriginalpeoples. Capitalistbusinesses,especiallylargescaleones,tendtohavetheirheadquartersin themajorcities,andeveninmetropolitancountriesandtheUSA(theonesettler statewhichisaninternationalsuperpower),anddrivetheframeworkofeconomic structuresfromtheeconomiccore. Aboriginalpeopleslivetheirlivesinstructuresofpoliticalandeconomicpowerdictated fromthecore.Thesearetheexploitativeconnectionstothecoreidentifiedby Hechter(withreferencetotheCelticfringeintheUK).Nevertheless,itmustbe acknowledgedthattherealityofAboriginalsettlementin2008is(a)mostlyurban and(b)showscharacteristicsofintegrationintotheAustralianeconomyinways predictedbyBlauner,evenifthishasbeenlargelythroughthepublicsector,non governmentagenciesandtheAboriginalsectorratherthroughmainstream businesses. Police,asagentsofthecore,dothebesttheycantoadministerthelawsofthecore inlocalenvironments,someofwhicharesignificantlyatvariancewithassumptions uponwhichpolicymakersinthecoredevelopedthelaws.Economicandpolitical dominancedoesnotnecessarilytranslateintoculturalacceptanceintheperiphery ofcoredrivenlawsandpolicies. PublicOrderPolicing Disturbancestopublicordertakeplacealongacontinuumfromdisorderlystreet behaviourtolargescaleorganisedprotestsorriotsandterroristbombings.They maybestatic,suchasafootballmatch,ormobile,suchasmarchesandparades. HumanrightsinstrumentswhichCrawshaw,DevlinandWilliamson(1998)identify asrelevanttopolicingpublicordereventsaretheUNHDR,ICCPR,Hague Conventions,GenevaConventions,theUNCodeofConductforLawEnforcement

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Officials,andtheUNBasicPrinciplesontheUseofForceandFirearmsbyLaw EnforcementOfficials. Thekeyhumanrightswhicharerelevantinpublicordersituationsare: 1)therighttolifewhichisguaranteedbyUNHDRArticle3;ICCPRArticle6.1.While nooneshouldbearbitrarilydeprivedoflife,therighttolifeisnotabsoluteinthe waytherightnottobesubjectedtotortureortoslaveryareprotectedabsolutely. Forexample,thedeathpenaltyisnotprohibitedbytheseinstrumentsbutitshould onlybeimposedforthemostseriouscrimesafteracompetentcourthasimposed thesentence(Crawshawetal.1998:91).Notonlymuststatespreventassaultson theircitizensrightsbutthey: mustadoptpositivemeasurestoprotecttherighttolife,to preventactsofmassviolence,topreventarbitrarykillingsbytheir ownsecurityforces.(Crawshawetal.1998:91) Crawshawetal.(1998)notethattheseobligationsonstateshavesignificant implicationsforpolicing.Theysaythatpolicingpolicy,strategyandtacticsfor dealingwithconflictanddisordermustbeinformedby:therequirementtoprotect therighttolife;andtheprohibitionofarbitrarydeprivationoflife[i.e.officersmust nottakealifeunnecessarily].Theymustalsobeinformedby:therequirementto takepositivestepstoprotectlife;topreventdisorderfromoccurring;andtoensure properinvestigationsintodeathscausedbystateofficials.(2)FreedomofAssembly isanotherkeyhumanrightwhichisrelevanttopublicordersituationsPrinciple12 oftheUNsBasicPrinciplesontheUseofForceandFirearmsbyLawEnforcement OfficialsLawfulandPeacefulAssemblies.(3)Peoplewhoaredetainedhavethe RighttoHumaneTreatment(Article10ICCPR);theprohibitionoftortureisabsolute (UNHDRArticle5;CAT;ICCPRArticle7.(4)RighttoaFairTrialhasimplicationsfor policebehaviourinrelationtoearlystagesofaninvestigation,gatheringevidence, treatmentofallegedoffender(s).(5)RighttoPresumptionofInnocencei.e.from

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theearlieststagesoftheinvestigation.TheselattertwoRightsareembodiedin Articles10and11oftheUNHDRandinArticle14oftheICCPR. Animportantconsiderationinrespectingtheserightsistheuseofforcewhich,in ordertopreventthearbitrarydeprivationoflifemustbegovernedbytheprinciples ofproportionalityandnecessity.Theonlyacceptablereasonsforpoliceactionwhich resultsindeathare:personaldefence(i.e.theirownlifeorthatofanotherperson mustbeindanger);toeffectanarrestorpreventanescape.Quellingariotor insurrectionisincludedintheEuropeanConvention(Crawshawetal.1998) Here,policingofpublicordereventswhicharedescribedinthepressasriotswillbe thefocusofdiscussion.Ariotisadisorganisedpublicorderevent.Thespecificcase tobeexaminedistheremoteAboriginalcommunityofWadeye.Kingand Waddington(2005)provideaflashpointsmodelforanalysingpublicorder occurrences.ThemodelwasdevisedbyDavidWaddingtontoexplainwhysome potentiallydisorderlyincidents(flashpoints)failtoignite,whileotheroneswhich appeartobesimilar,triggeroffanexplosivereaction. TheFlashpointsmodelforanalysingpublicorderoccurrenceslooksatsix integratedlevelsofstructurationasfollows:structuralmaterialinequalitieswhich leadtocollectivegrievances;political/ideologicalthewaykeypoliticaland ideologicalinstitutionsreacttodemandsandactivitiesofprotestinggroups;cultural contrastingwaysoflifeandthought;contextualmacroouteredge;dynamic communicationprocessesinthebuilduptoanevent(eg.predictionofviolence leadstoviolencetakingplace);situationalactualsocialsettingoftherelevant socialinteraction,presenceoftargetsofderision;interactionalatthemicro/core level;qualityofsocialinteractionbetweenpoliceandprotestors;thewayeachparty readstheother(KingandWaddington2005:257). KingandWaddington(2005:256)arguethattoexplainriotousbehaviourweneed tolookattheprecipitatingincidentandwidercontextualfactorsasLordScarmandid

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inhisreportontheBrixtonRiots(UK1981).Centraltothewidercontextualfactors istheinternalcolonialrelationshipthatcontinuesbetweenthestateandthese peripheralcommunities,suchasWadeye.1 PublicorderpolicingofariotatWadeye(NorthernTerritory) InOctober2002apoliceofficershotdeadayoungAboriginalmanandwounded anotherduringaviolentconfrontationbetweentworivalgangs,theJudasPriests andtheEvilWarriors.2Muchdestructionofhouses,carsandpublicproperty followed.Thepoliceofficer,SeniorConstableWhittington,wassubsequently chargedvariouslywithcommittingadangerousactcausingdeath,thenmurder, latermanslaughter,andeventuallyintheNTSupremeCourtin2006hewas chargedwithcommittingadangerousact(ABC2007:1).However,JusticeMildren ruledthatbecausethechargewasnotlaidwithintwomonths,asrequiredunderthe NTPoliceAdministrationAct,theindictmentwasquashed(NTSupremeCourt 2006:5). IfweapplyWaddingtonsFlashpointsmodeltotheoriginalriotandshootingwe findthattheprecipitatingincidentwasasituationwherealargegroupofpeople wereheadingfortheovalamidtalkthatweaponswerecirculating.Whittington, actingofficerincharge,andtwootherofficers,followedthegroupandbegan confiscatingweapons.Whittingtonspreadthewordthatnoweaponswereallowed andthatfightshadtobeevenlymatched.Thensomeonecalledgun,gunandthe shootingstookplace. SixdaysafterSeniorConstableRobertWhittingtonarrivedatWadeyehe experiencedsomeonewavingashotgunathimforthefirsttimeinhiscareer(NT
Wadeyeisgeographicallyperipheralaswellaseconomicallyandsociallyso,butevenacommunity suchasRedfern,whichislocatedatthecentreofAustraliasmostpopulouscity,isperipheralin manywaysaswasdemonstratedinthe2004riot(Ridgeway2004;Jennett2008). 2 InpartsofAustraliaitisthepractice,outofrespectfortherelevantAboriginalcommunitysbeliefs, nottousethepersonalnameofadeadpersonforsomeyearsaftertheirdeath.Thatisthesituation withthismemberoftheJongminfamily.
1

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MagistratesCourt2007:24),judgedthatliveswereindanger,drewhispistoland accidentallykilleda18yearoldman,whohadbeenstrugglingwiththegunwielder, teenagerTobiasWorumbu,whoWhittingtonalsoshotandinjured.Worumbusaid thathehadbeenwavingashotgunintheairtoscarethegroupwhichwasbeating hisbrotherinwhat,inhisview,didnotconstituteafairgofight(NTMagistrates Court;Australian13/10/17).Thesefairgofights,organisedbyeldersandsupervised bypolice,wereasafetyvalveforlettingoffsteambeforefeelingsexplodedand theywereanindicatoroftheinteractionalstructurationoftheeventswhichledupto thisparticularriot. AtthestructurallevelofstructurationWadeyeisacolonised,deprivedcommunity, peoplehaveverylowincomes,andunemploymentisveryhigh.DuringtheHoward yearswhenthemassmediawantedscaryfootageofAboriginalcommunitiesout ofcontroltheyoftentrottedoutscenesfromWadeyeofyoungwildeyedmen, wavingverynastylookingweaponsaboutateachother.PrimeMinisterHoward andMinisterMalBroughusedimagesofsuchdysfunctionalitytoselltheirN.T. Intervention,throughwhichtheyliterallybroughtinthetroopsratherthan respondtoAboriginalserviceorganisationsrequeststohavetheirfundingrestored orincreasedsothattheycouldaddresstheproblemsaboutwhichtheGovernment wasexpressingconcernjustpriortoanelectionandaboutwhichthese organisationshadbeenvoicingconcernformanyyears(Altman&Hinkson2007). OnepoliceofficerwhohadworkedtheredescribedWadeyeasbeingcharacterised byaseeminglypermanentstateofhostilitybetweencertainfamilygroups.Often suchhostilityhasitsrootsindisplacementbywhitespatialmanagers(Hage1998; Jennett&HellerWagner2001)orinternalcolonialrulersofAboriginalfamiliesonto thelandofonegroup.UnderAboriginallawothergroupsdonothavearighttobe thereunlessasguestsofthelandownersandmanagers(Maddock1982)and certainlynotbecausewhiteadministratorshaddecidedthatitwouldbeagood idea.

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Political/IdeologicallevelofStructuration Overlaidonandintertwinedwiththestructuralsituationarecolonialinstitutionsof selfdeterminationusuallyconsistingofalocallyruncouncilonwhichthosewho cancommunicatewithwhites,readtheirlettersetc.sitinanuneasyrelationship withtraditionalownersandelderswhohavestatusunderAboriginallaw(Maddock 1982).Whitesseewhattheycansee,Blacksseetheirsystem,unrespected.All theadministrativeandeconomicperformanceindicatorsarewhiteandthisleads tofrustration,whichisexhibitedaslackofrespectfortheelders,lackofrespectfor eitherthewhiteortheblacksystemsofstatusandpowerand,hence,spillsoverinto communalchaos(orriots)attimes. Structuralandculturalfactorsemphasisedifferenceandinequality ThemainrivalgangsatWadeyearetheEvilWarriorsandtheJudasPriestBoys(it wasformerlyPortKeatsMission).Therewere3Policeand2500Indigenous residentsatthetimeoftheshooting.PoliceintheN.Tareawarethatthe communitieswithwhichtheyaredealingdonotnecessarilyfitneatlywiththe communitieswhichthelawmakersofthepoliticalcorehadinmindwhenthelaw wasconceived.Thisisduetoculturaldifferencescoupledwithmultideficit communitycharacteristics,suchasveryhighlevelsofunemployment,andlow levelsofeducation.Intheearly2000seldersandthepolicehadtheirownwayof defusinghostility.Insteadofwaitinguntilitbuiltupandtherewasariot,withrocks, spearsandaxes,theywouldsanctiononeononefistfightsatthelocaloval,the interactionalstructurationpreviouslynoted. Whenaproblemaroseafairgofistfightwouldbearrangedtosettlethedispute andpolicewouldsupervise,i.e.theywouldprovidecrowdcontrol.Theywould ensurethefightingdidnotgetoutofhandandthatnoweaponswereused.They wererefereesofcommunityhostilities(Australian13/10/07;N.T.MagistratesCourt 2007).

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SeniorConstableCarmenButcher,whohadbeeninthecommunityforsometime, saidthatsherarelycarriedhergunatWadeyebecauseitwouldhavebeenseenasa signofaggressionanddistrust.Whenpeoplegotoutofcontrolshetalkedthem down(Australian13/10/07).Thisishowpolicemanagedtheirsideofthe interactionalfactorsinordertoavoidbecomingtargetsofderisionand,hence, hostility.SeniorConstableWhittington,havingjustarrivedinthecommunityand withnosignificantexperienceofpolicinginbushcommunitieswasunlikelytohave appreciatedtheseinteractionalsubtleties.AstheCoronernoted[h]ehadnothad timetoestablishanycloserelationshipwiththeAboriginalcommunity(N.T. MagistratesCourt2007:6). WhittingtonsactionswerescrutinisedbytheCoronerwhoconcludedthatpolice mighthavebrokenthelawbysanctioningthefights.TheCoronersaidthatthey werecondoningviolencebytheirmerepresenceatthefights.Hewascriticalof Whittingtonsjudgementonthedayandthefactthathehadnotfollowedthe proceduresinwhichhehadbeentrained,i.e.toscantheareapriortodischarging hispistol(N.T.MagistratesCourt2007:23).TheCoronerconsideredthat Whittingtonhadpanickedwhileactingunderconsiderablestressandmadea seriouserrorofjudgement(N.T.MagistratesCourt2007:24).TheCoronerfound thatacrimemayhavebeencommittedwhereanordinarypersonsimilarly circumstancedwouldhaveclearlyforeseensuchdangerandnothavedonetheact (N.T.MagistratesCourt2007:29). Sincethen,disputeresolutionatWadeyehaschanged:eldersnolongerorganise fairgofights;policehaveofficiallyruledoutsanctioningthem;thedeadmans fatherisreportedlyfeelingdisillusionedwiththewhitelegalsystem;Senior ConstableWhittingtonrefusestoworkinAboriginalcommunitiesduetotheunder resourcedconditions.

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ThisexampleofayoungmansdeathatWadeyein2002demonstratestheextentto whichstructural,culturalandideologicalfactorsareoftenoutsideofpolicecontrol, i.e.determinedlargelybytheexploitativeinternalcolonialconnectionspreviously described.TheseconnectionsinvolveadivisionoflabourinwhichIndigenous peopleatWadeyearelargelyexcludedfrommainstreamopportunitiesbutunable toliveaviablealternativelifestyle.Thepolitical,economicandculturalsystemsof whichtheyareontheperipheryareadministeredfromelsewhere. Ontheotherhand,itispossibleforpolicetoinfluencethecontextual,situational andinteractionalfactorsidentifiedbytheFlashpointsmodelbutthisisusuallyonly withsupportfromlocalauthorityfiguresandthecommunityleaders.However,if theseareoperatinginasystemcontrolledbyanotherculturalgroup (representativesoftheWhiteAustralianState)ontheonehand,anddividedover whatcommunityinterestsare,ontheother,thenpolicehavetoworkvery creativelyindeedandrequireadequateresourcestodoso.Thepeopledonotwant thekidsoutofcontrol(Jennett&Greer2001;Memmotetal.2001)buttheydonot wantthemtobeshoteither! DuringthecoronialhearingtheCoroner,GregCavanagh,toldtheJongminfamily (towhomthedeadmanbelonged)thathewantedthemtohavefaithinthe coronialprocessandtounderstandthatthiswasnotjustanycourtroomsceneof thewhiteman(TheDailyTelegraph2/10/07).TheDPPwrotetothefamilysaying: Myofficecarefullylookedatalltheevidenceandconcludedthatthere wasnoreliableevidencethatRobertWhittingtonhadmurderedyour son.Therewasevidencethatheshouldnothavefiredhispistolwhenhe did,thatheshouldhaveknownwhenhefiredthatthereweretwomen closetogetherandthathemighthavehiteitheroneofthem.(ABC 5/04/07)

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AmbroseJongmin,fatherofthedeadman,said[t]thepoliceactuallyshotmyson, buthewasahero.whathedidtheresave[d]manylives(ABC5/04/07).Mr. JongminwasatfirstinclinedtosettlethematterusingtraditionalAboriginallaw saidbutIthoughtIdbestgiveittothewhitemanlawsotheycanhandlethat.But whatdidtheygiveme?Nothing.(ABC5/04/07).Wecanseefromthefathers reactionthattheculturalandpowerdifferencesbetweenthepoliceofficer,acting asanagentoftheN.T.State,andtheAboriginalfamily,caughtbetweentwo systemsoflawandpower,arevast. Conclusion AboriginalcommunitiesoftheperipheryofAustraliansocietyexperienceAustralian administrativesystemslargelyasthepowersystemofthecoloniserbutastheseare themostpowerfulinstitutionsinthesocietytheyhavenooptionbuttobe integratedintotheminmanyways.Policeoperateattheboundaryofthetwo systemsofpowerandunderstanding,tryingtoenforcethelawsofthecolonial powerinasacceptableawayastheycan.Itisinevitablethatsituationssuchasthe oneinwhichSeniorConstableWhittingtonfoundhimselfwillhappenfromtimeto timeunlessthefrustrationandalienationlevelsinsomeofthemoredysfunctional communitiesareaddressedconstructively.WaddingtonsFlashpointsModelof publicorderpolicingprovidesaframeworkthroughwhichtheinteractingfactors involvedineventssuchastheshootingatWadeyecanbeexaminedandthelimits topoliceeffectivenesscanbeidentified.

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References Altman,J.&Hinkson,M.2007CoerciveReconciliation:stabilize,normalize,exit AboriginalAustralia,ArenaPublicationsAssociation,NorthCarlton,Australia. AustralianBroadcastingCommission(ABC)20075/04/07 Blauner,R.1969InternalColonialismandGhettoRevolt,SocialProblems,Vol.16, No.4,pp.393408. Carmichael,S.&Hamilton,C.V.1967BlackPowerthePoliticsofLiberationin America,VintageBooks,NewYork. Casanova,P.G.1965InternalColonialismandNationalDevelopment,Studiesin ComparativeInternationalDevelopment,Vol.12,No.4,pp.2737. CommonwealthSecretariat2006CommonwealthManualonHumanRightsTraining forPolice,http://www.the commonwealth.org/Templates/Internal.asp?NodeID=15274 Crawshaw,R,Devlin,B&Williamson,T.1998HumanRightsandPolicing:Standards forGoodBehaviourandaStrategyforChange,KluwerInternational,TheHague. Hage,G.1998WhiteNation:FantasiesofWhitesupremacyinamulticulturalsociety, PlutoPress,Annandale. Hartwig,M.1978CapitalismandAborigines:TheTheoryofInternalColonialism anditsRivals,inE.LWheelwright&K.Buckley(eds)EssaysinthePoliticalEconomy ofAustralianCapitalism,Vol.3,ANZBookCo.,Brookvale,

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Hechter,M.1975InternalColonialism:TheCelticFringeinBritishnational Development15361966,Routledge&KeganPaul,London. Howard,M.C.1982AboriginalBrokerageandPoliticalDevelopmentinSouth WesternAustraliainM.C.Howard(ed.)AboriginalPowerinAustralianSociety, UniversityofQueenslandPress,St.Lucia. Jennett,C.1991AboriginalNationalism,paperpresentedatTASA91Conference, MurockUniversity,Perth,December1014. Jennett,C.&Greer,P.2001FearofCrimeinIndigenousCommunitiesinNewSouth Wales,ANZSOCConference,UniversityofMelbourne,Melbourne. King,M.&Waddington,D.2005FlashpointsRevisited:acriticalapplicationtothe policingofantiglobalizationprotest,Vol.15,No.3,pp.255282. Lacey,D.1972TheWhiteUseofBlacksinAmerica,McGrawHillBookCompany, NewYork. Lippmann,L.1981GenerationsofResistance,LongmanChesire,Melbourne. Maddock,K.1982TheAustralianAborigines,2nd.ed.,Penguin,Ringwood,Victoria. Memmot,P,Stacey,R,Chambers,C.&Keys,C.2001ViolenceinIndigenous Communities,AttorneyGeneralsDepartment,Canberra,http://www.ncp.gov.au MoretonRobinson,A.2007SovereignSubjects:IndigenousSovereigntyMatters, Allen&Unwin,CrowsNest. NTMagistratesCourt2007InquestintotheDeathofRobertJongmin, http://www.nt.gov//justice/ntmc/docs/judgements/2007/20071203ntmc080.html

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NTSupremeCourt2006WhittingtonVTheQueen[2006]NTSC(1March2006), http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/nt/NTSC/2006/16.html Rowley,C.D.1972aTheDestructionofAboriginalSociety,Penguin,Ringwood, Victoria. Rowley,C.D.1972bOutcastesinWhiteAustralia,Penguin,Ringwood,Victoria. Ridgeway,A.2004TheunderlyingcausesoftheRedfernriotsrunthroughout Australia,OnLineopinion,23February, http://www.onlineopinion.com.au/print.asp?article=1989 Stavenhagen,R.1965Classes,ColonialismandAcculturationinMezoamerica, StudiesinComparativeInternationalDevelopment,Vol.1,No.6,pp.5357. Werther,G.F.A.1992SelfDeterminationinWesternDemocracies:AboriginalPolitics inaComparativePerspective,GreenwoodPress,Westport,Connecticut. Newspaperarticles Australian13/10/07 TheDailyTelegraph2/10/07

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VictimsasSurvivors
JanJordan InstituteofCriminology(TePouHaratutanga) SchoolofSocialandCulturalStudies(TeKuraMahingaTangata) VictoriaUniversityofWellington(TeWhareWanangaoteUpokooteIkaa Maui) jan.jordan@vuw.ac.nz Introduction Womanasvictimcontinuestobeaniconicimagewithinsociety,andwithin criminology.Thestereotypicalportrayalofapassivefemale,helplesstoresista maleattacker,dominatesmediaaccounts,suggestingthattobefemaleistobe afraid.Thisperspectivehasbeenvigorouslychallengedbysomefeministsand victimsthemselves(eg.Burton,1998;Kelly,1988;Lamb,1999),yetthedebatehas tendedtopresentwomenwhohavebeenrapedorbeatenwithtwooppositional positions:toseethemselves,andbeviewedbyothers,aseithervictimsorsurvivors. Implicitinthisconstructionistheassumptionthatavictimbecomesasurvivorover time,withthisoftenbeingreferredtoasajourneyfromvictimtosurvivor. InthispaperIwanttoexplorethenuancesofthisdebatebydrawingoninterview materialobtainedwith15women,allofwhomwereattackedbythesameserial rapistinNewZealand(seealsoJordan,2008).Iarguethatthesewomen'saccounts ofhowtheyweresimultaneouslyimpacteduponandprovokedtoactprovideamore complexlensthroughwhichtoexplorethesignificanceofashiftfromseeingvictims orsurvivorstoviewingvictimsassurvivors.Ialsocanvasssomeoftheimplications arisingfromthisshiftinperception.

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Whatisavictim? Adictionarydefinitionofavictimincludesthefollowingdescriptions: 1. Onewhoisharmedorkilledbyanother:avictimofamugging. 2. Alivingcreatureslainandofferedasasacrificeduringareligiousrite. 3. Onewhoisharmedbyormadetosufferfromanact,circumstance,agency, orcondition:victimsofwar (TheAmericanHeritageDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage,4thedition,published byHoughtonMifflinCompany.) Theemphasisisonwhatisdonetoanotherpersontheyaremadeavictimbythe actionsofanoffender.Criticismsofthevictimconstructhavethereforeemphasised thepassivityitdenotes,alongwithnotionsofsubmissionandsurrender(Bart,1985; Kelly,1988).Theimpressionconveyedisofhelplessness,ofpersonsunableto engageintheirownselfdefence. InthispaperIwanttousethewomen'snarrativestopresentanexpandedversionof whatselfdefencemeans,andarguethatthepositionsofvictimandsurvivorneedto beappliedinwaysthatfitmorecloselywiththecomplexitiesandcontradictions containedwithinvictimisationexperiences.Firstlytheresearchcontextand methodologyusedinthisstudyissummarised.Abriefsynopsisfollowsofthenature oftheattacksthesewomenhadtosurvive,beforeexaminingtworelatedquestions regardingthewaystheydefendedthemselvesagainstbothvictimisationand secondaryvictimisation. Researchcontext AsaresultofearlierraperesearchIhadconductedinNewZealand,Iwasintroduced byadetectiveinvolvedinalargeserialrapecasetooneofthevictims/survivorsand, followingdiscussionswithherandsomeoftheotherwomen,embarkedonamajor researchstudywiththem(seeJordan,2005andJordan,2008forfurtherdetails).

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Thisresultedinmyinterviewing15womenintotal;thisnumberincluded14ofthe27 womenwhosecaseswereheardinthe1998trialofMalcolmRewa,plusawoman whomRewahadbeenconvictedofrapingin1975whowascalledtoappearasa witnessinthelatertrial.Keyconceptsarisingfrommypreviousearlierresearch (Jordan,1998,2001)wereusedtoinformtheinitialinterviewschedule,whichwas adaptedtoreflecttheissuesemergingfromdiscussionswiththewomen.I endeavoured,throughmyquestionsandtheinterviewenvironmentIestablished,to puteachwomanathereaseandminimisethepowerdifferencesinherentinthe interviewingdynamic.Theinterviewsweretypicallylong,lastingfromtwotwo fourhoursandsometimesovermorethanonesession. Withthewomenspermission,theinterviewswererecordedandlatertranscribedto facilitateanalysis.Aseparatefilewascreatedforeachofthewomencontainingmy interviewnotes,thetranscript,andnotesfromherpolicefile(obtainedwithher permission).ThismaterialIthenanalysedusingagroundedtheoryapproach (GlaserandStrauss,1967)toidentifythemesandissuesarisingfromthewomens narrativesandexperiences.Fromthese,ideaswereformulatedandexaminedfor theirabilitytodemonstratepatternsanduniformitiesinthewomensresponses, whilestrivingtoensureuniqueexperienceswerenotlostfromtheanalysis. Epistemologically,Iacceptedthewomensnarrativesoftheirexperiencesas legitimatesourcesofknowledgeintheirownright.Ininterpretingandpresenting theseaccounts,however,Iamawareofthepossibilitiesbothofmyinfluenceinhow thesewereframedandtold,aswellastheimpactoftimeonhoweachwoman articulatedherexperience.Itispossiblethattheaccountspresentedbythewomen reflectedthepositiveresponsesandinterventionstheyhadexperiencedfromearlier retellings,andthatthesemayhavecontributedtoanincreasedsenseofpersonal agency.These,afterall,werewomenwhosestorieswerebelieved,whoseoffender wasconvicted,andwhothemselveshadbeenpubliclycommended(forexample,by thejudgeatsentencing)fortheirstrengthandcourage.Ontheotherhand,many madecommentssuggestingthisinterviewwasthefirstoccasionwheretheyfelt

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theyweregiventhespacetopresenttheirownversionofeventsandtostresswhat wasimportanttothem,assupposedtosatisfyingpolicerequirementsorreassuring familymembers. Thenextsectionprovidesabriefoverviewofthewomensattackerandwhatthey hadtosurvive. Backgroundtotheattacks MalcolmRewawasborninNorthland,NewZealand,andraisedbyrelatives followinghismother'sdeathinacaraccidentwhenhewasababy(Williams,1998). Hecommittedhisfirstknownsexualattackin1975when,afterdroppinghiswifeat thematernitywardofAucklandHospital,heheadedforthenurses'homeand sexuallyattackedayoungnurse.Hewassubsequentlyarrestedandpleadedguilty, receivingafourandahalfyearprisonsentenceforthisoffence.Theyearsfollowing hisreleaseindicateextensiveinvolvementinabikergang,aswellasagrowing recordofburglaryoffences.Bythenexttimehewastostandtrialforrapeoffences, itwas1998andhewasbeingtriedon45countsrelatingto27differentwomen attackedbetween1987and1996.Hewasconvictedonthemajorityofthese chargesandsentencedtopreventivedetentionwitha22yearminimumnonparole period. Rewawasidentifiedandconvictedinlargepartthroughthedistinctiveattack patternhedeveloped.Hetargetedwomenaloneintheirhomes,orthosewithonly youngchildrenpresent.Hewouldtypicallybreakinwhiletheywereasleepand overpowertheminablitzstyleattack,subduingthemquicklythroughtheuseof gagsandbinds.Oftenhepositionedtheirbodiessothattheydrapedovertheside ofthebed,andwouldremovetheirclothingfromthewaistdown.Hesometimes shoneatorchontheirgenitals,andengagedinvariousmasturbatoryactivitiesashe soughttomanagehiserectiledysfunctionproblems.Afterrapingorsexually assaultingthewoman,hewouldoftenleavethemboundandgaggedwhilehe searchedthehouseforvaluablestosteal,sometimesreturningtorapethemagain

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beforeleaving. Profileofthewomen RewatendedtofavourmiddlehighersocioeconomicareasinAucklandcity.His victimswereaged1543years,withmostintheirthirties.Themajoritywere Caucasianwomen,mostofwhomwerewelleducatedandholdingprofessionaljobs. Formostthisattacksignalledtheirfirstexperiencewiththepolice/criminaljustice system.Thehighcourttrialranfor3monthsandwasoneofthelongestandmost publicisedinNewZealand,withthepoliceandprosecutorsmakingspecialeffortsto lookafterthesewomenandpreparethemforthecourtcase.Inparttheyreceived suchpositiveinputbecausetheyfittedthestereotypeofthe'perfectvictim',unable tobecriticisedfordoinganythingto'getthemselvesraped.' Iwanttousethenarrativesfromthewomentoexploretworelatedquestions associatedwithselfdefence: 1.Howtodefendtheselfagainstvictimisation? 2.Howtodefendtheselfagainstsecondary(re)victimisation? Howtodefendtheselfagainstvictimisation? Traditionalviewsofselfdefencehavestressedtheimportanceofacquiringthe physicalskillsrequiredtofightoffawouldbeassailant.Whilemanyendeavorto promoteattitudinalchangeaswell,andcanbeconfidencebuildingand empowering,theemphasisisoftenonacquiringthephysicalskillsandtactics.Such coursescanobviouslybeusefulinteachingsurvivaltechniquesandstrategies (Heydenetal,1999).Whencommentsaremadeaboutusingselfdefence knowledge,theexamplesgivenaretypicallyoftheeyegouging,nosebreaking, ballkickingvariety.Thusalthoughwomenaresocializedagainstbeingaggressive andexpectedtobesubmissiveintheirrelationshipswithmen,

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Theironyisthatwhenconfrontedwitharapistwhoisphysicallystrongerandmaybe armed,awomanissuddenlyexpectedtostruggle,fight,andresisttoadegreenot otherwiseexpected.(Burgess,1999,8) Suchaviewreflectsinpartaperceptionthattheattackisphysicalandsothe resistanceanddefencemustalsobephysical.Accordingly,theemphasishasbeen onenhancingpotentialvictimsabilitiestodefendthemselvesphysically. Whileacceptingthatthephysicalcomponentcanbeanimportantpartofself defence,thewomen'scommentsreflectedamuchbroaderconceptionofwhat defendingtheselfmeans.InpartthiswasnecessitatedbyRewaveryquickly demonstratingthathewasnotthekindofattackerwhowouldbedeterredby attemptstoresisthimphysically.Hecommunicatedhisdeterminationtosucceed veryforcefullythroughsuchmeansashisphysicalaggression,throughthewayshe disabledhisvictims,andhowherespondedtoanyattemptsontheirparttoresist himphysically.Rewadisplayedwhatseveralofthewomenreferredtoasadont messwithmeattitude;ifthewomenscreamedoreventalkedtohim,hewouldhit theirfaces,gagthem,andshutthemup. Notsurprisingly,hisactionsinstilledhugeandoftendisablingfearinthewomen. Somesaidtheywerescaredhewasgoingtokillthemtheydidnotthinkthey wouldemergefromthisexperiencealive.Ifthewomenhadchildrensleepinginthe house,Rewawouldmakethreatsagainstthemtoobtainhisvictim'scooperation. Hedidallhecouldtosecurehisvictims'compliance. Someofthewomendescribedtheirhurtwhenthosearoundthemqueriedwhythey hadnotemployedselfdefencetechniquesagainstRewa.Suzanne13,forexample,

Allnamesusedarepseudonymsornameschosenbythewomen,asusedinthebookSerial Survivors:Women'sNarrativesofSurvivingRape(Jordan,2008).

13

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feltothersblamedherlackofselfdefenceknowledgeinwaysthatimpliedshe shouldhaveavoidedbeingraped: [P]eopleafterwardsweresaying,Well,whydidntyoudothis,whydidntyouknee himbetweenthelegs?andthingslikethat.Icouldn'tkneehimbetweenthelegs becauseIwasinbedwhenhecamein.HewasexpectingmebutIwasn'texpecting him.(Suzanne,quotedinJordan,2008,p.27) Itwasalsoevidentfromthewomensaccountsthatphysicalselfdefencemaynot alwayshavebeenthebestoption.InRewascaseherespondedevenmore aggressivelytowardsanywomanwhotriedtophysicallyresisthim,promptingsome toquicklydeviseotherwaysofresponding.Raquel,forinstance,wasattackedwhile gettingintohercarlateonenight,andwasscathingaboutassumptionsthatself defencetechniqueswouldhavesavedher: Ifsomeonecomesupfrombehindyouandifyouvenotseenthem,notheardthem,the firstthingyoufeelisahit,awhacktothebackoftheheadnoamountofselfdefence isgoingtosaveyou.Ifyouturnaroundandtryandfightsomebodywhosabittaller thanyou,abitheavierthanyou,whoisstrongerthanyouandwhohasalsogota weapon,youreanidiot.(Raquel,quotedinJordan,2008,p.17) WhatRaquelsuggestedwasaquickappraisalofthesituationtodeterminewhatthe bestoptionmightbeforher,inthatspecificenvironment,andwiththatparticular attacker.Shesaid: Youreallyjusthavetoworkitoutatthetimeandthatsthehardpart,whethertofight ornot. Whatshedecidedtodowastopretendtheblowtotheheadhadknockedherout. ThewayIwasattackedwastocompletelyhavetotaldominationandtotalpowerover

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mybody.Basically,Imanobject.ImnotapersonImanobject.Iwastiedup,itwas like,Donttryandfightback.'Theresnowaythathewouldhaveattackedwiththat levelofviolenceifhewasntabsolutely,totallyintentonrapingme.Ithought,thisis notaguythatyoumesswith,whathewantshewillget,talkingtohimisawasteof time. Ithought,heshitmereallyhardonthebackoftheheadIcouldquiteconceivablybe unconsciousorhalfunconscious.IfhethinksImunconscioushewonthurtme, becausetheresnoreasontobecauseImnotgoingtofightback,soselfpreservation Itworked.Hewasvery,verycarefulwithmeandthatswhatIfoundfascinating,the wayhewasreallyquitegentlewithme,thewayhereallytreatedmybody.Isuffered nofurtherinjuryafterthat,nofurtherphysicalinjury.(Raquel,quotedinJordan,2008, p.21) Raquelwasstillraped,andsufferedtheeffectsofrape,butwhatshedidwasforher ameansofselfdefence.Shefoundawaythatkeptapartofherselfdefended againstRewascontrol,beyondhisreach,andthisplayedakeyroleinhersurvival andrecovery.Theveryfactthatshesuccessfullyfooledhimintothinkingshewas actuallyunconsciouswashugelysatisfying: Ifooledhim,andthatcameoutincourttooitwaslike,Iwon!.ThefactthatId fooledhim,thefactthathereallybelievedthatandthatIgotthebetterofhim.He didntlikeitandthatmademefeelsogood,itslikemylittletriumph,itslike,You didnthavecompletecontroloverme.Ihadcontroloverhimmentallyinthesense thatIfooledhim,Idontknowhowtodescribethatitsreallyamazing.(Raquel, quotedinJordan,2008,p.22) Manyoftheotherwomenalsodescribedwaysinwhichtheytoocreatedand strategisedinthesituationwhenphysicalselfdefenceseemedimpossibleasan option.Somequicklyadoptedtheroleofobserverandrecorder,thinkingaheadto thelevelofdescriptiontheywouldpassontothepolicethesewomenfoundaway

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tostaypresentbutwithapurpose.Otherschosetodissociate,toleaveRewatheir bodyandmentallyremovethemselvesonesaidthathersenseofhumoureven kickedinatthispointasshelookeddownonherboundandgaggedbodyandfound herselfasking:WhatwouldMacGyverdo?(Kathleen,quotedinJordan,2008,p.23) AnotherwomanGabrieldescribedclearlythesenseoffearandpowerlessnessthese womenexperienced.Shedescribedherinitialpanicandthenfindingherselflying thereinclassicvictimmode,waitingtobefurtherharmed: Thisguyhadmestrewnoverabedhalfnaked,boundwithblanketsovermyface,in position,justtotallyreadytorapemeandhe'sgoingthroughtheknifedrawer,coming backintotheroom.Ithought,WhatcanIdo,whatcanIdotoprotectmyself?SoI closedmyeyesreallyhardandIdecidedtojustfilluptheentireroomwithmyselfso thatasmuchofthatroomhadmeinit,sothattherewasnoroomforhiminthere,and itwasareallyhardprocessbecauseIdidn'thavemuchtime. IjustclosedmyeyestotryandthinkaboutmeandhowbigIcouldpossiblymake myselfinthisroomwithoutmoving.Biggerandbiggerandbiggerandbigger,andnot focusingonwhatheisdoingoutthere,andbiggerandbiggerandbiggerandbigger. Andhecomesbackinandhetriestorapemeandhecan't.(Gabriel,quotedinJordan, 2008,p.2526) Gabrielsexampleillustratesthepowerofmentalselfdefencewhenphysical defenceisimpossible,andalsohowvictimisationandsurvivalcancoexist.Thus evenatthesametimeasshewasbeingvictimised,Gabrielwas,likeRaquel,actively resistingRewa'scontrol,searchingforsomemeanstolimithispoweroverher. Althoughmuchfeministliteratureonrapehasdocumentedwomensvicitmisation, somewritershaveexploredtheconceptofsurvival(e.g.GregoryandLees,1999; Kelly,1988;Lamb,1999).Therehasbeenconsiderabledebateregardingthe'right' terminologytodescribethosewhohavebeenraped,arguingwhethertheyaremost

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appropriatelydescribedas'victims'or'survivors.'Thepassivityoftheconcept, victim,wasrejectedinfavourofatermthatmoreappropriatelyrecognizedand affirmedwomensabilitiestomanage,surviveandintegratetheirexperienceof sexualassaultthroughtherecoveryprocess.Bothlabelshavebeencriticisedforthe wayinwhichtheymaydistortwomensperceptionsoftheirexperiences,forcing themtobeviewedthroughaparticular,andpossiblyalien,lens.ThusSpryobserves ofrape: Thepainandconfusionfollowingtheassaultisfurthercomplicatedbyhavingto structureandmakesenseofherexperiencewithintheassailantslanguage.Sheis alreadyandalwaysheldinrelationtothephallus;sheisvictimtoitorsurvivorofit. (Spry,1995,27) Whethertheysawthemselvesasvictimsorsurvivorswassomethingsomeofthe womenattackedbyRewaalsoconsciouslythoughtabout.Gabrielsaidshewrestled forsometimeastohowbesttodescribeherselfandfinallyapproachedthedebate thisway: Youknowwhat,thattransitionfromvictimtosurvivor,Ithinkthatthevictimandthe survivorcanbeparallel.Thatyouarenever,thatyoudon'tswitchfrombeingvictimto survivor.Youchoosetotakethepathofthesurvivor,whichisstillthepathofthe victim,butitisdifferent. Idon'tthinkthereisashiftinwhathappens,Ithinkthereisashiftinconsciousness.I dothink,IwasavictimofsexualabuseandIhavesurvivedit.(Gabriel,quotedin Jordan,2005,551552) WhatIseereflectedinherresolutiontothisquestionistheimportanceofnotlosing sightoftheeithersideoftheequation.Toonlystresstheharmofvictimisation ignorestheveryactofsurvivalandallthewaysavictimmaytrytoreduceormanage theeffectsofvictimisation;whiletoplacealltheemphasisonsurvivalcanshunt

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victimsprematurelyintofeelingtheyhavetobeoverit,theyhavetobestrong,in waysthatcanignoretheveryrealharmstheyhaveexperiencedandtheneedsthese mayengender.Intermsofthepolarisedoptionsdrawnbetweenbeingavictimora survivor,thesewomendemonstratedhowtheycouldholdbothpositionstogether theyweresimultaneouslyvictimsandsurvivors.Atthesametimeastheywere beingphysically/sexuallyvictimised,theywerementallyandpsychologicallyacting intheirowndefence.Theirbodiesmayhavebeenpassive,throughfearorfrom beingphysicallyboundandrenderedimmobile,buttheystilldescribedwaysin whichtheyactivelysoughttolimitRewa'scontrolofthemevenattheverytimeof theattack.Itwasimportantforthemtoknowtherewasapartofthemhecouldnot reach,thattheycouldresisthimmentallyandkeepapartofthemselvesseparate fromhiscontrol. This,Iwouldargue,isalsoselfdefence.Itdemonstratesthatevenwhenphysical selfdefenceisimpossible,womencananddodefendthemselvespsychologically. Thisissignificantwhenviewedinthecontextofmuchoftheliteratureaddressing raperesistance.Traditionalpoliceadvicetowomenurgedthemnottoresistifthey wereattacked,implyingsubmissionwasasaferroutetotake.Suchaviewwas challengedonthebasisthat,firstly,itinterpretedphysicalcomplianceas submission,andequatedalackofphysicalresistancewiththeabsenceofmental resistance.LizKellyisoneofthefewwriterstohaveobserved: Womenresistbyrefusingtobecontrolled,althoughtheymaynotphysicallyresist duringanactualassault.Resistance,therefore,involvesactiveoppositiontoabusive mensbehaviourand/orthecontroltheyseektoexert.(Kelly,1988,161) Secondly,theadvicenottoresistreflectedaviewofrapeassimplyunwantedsex.It assuredwomenthatiftheygaveintheywouldbeokay.AsBetsyStankohasargued, theviolationofrapecannotbeavoidedbysubmission(Stanko,1990).Tosuggest thispossibilityreflectsalackofunderstandingofwhatrapemeans,forboththe victimandtherapist.Theveryessenceofrapemakesitimpossibletosubmitto

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rapebydefinitionimpliesbeingtakenagainstoneswill,inacontextwherethewill andpoweroftherapistprevails.Heinvadesherbody,inanattemptedactof colonisation. Astheexamplesprovidedaboveshow,thewomenattackedbyRewaactively resistedhim.Althoughhemaystillhaverapedandviolatedtheirbodies,theywere engagedinactiveresistancenevertheless.Suchmeasuresplayedanintegralrolein theirabilitiestosurviveandmoveonfollowingtheattack.Thewomen'sneedto keeponsurvivingextendedfarbeyondtheinitialrapeattack.Theyhadtosurvive policeprocesses,themedicalexamination,andthetrial,aswellasmanagehow othersclosetothemreacted.Inallofthesesituationsitwasclearthatthepotential forrevictimisationexisted.Thisbringsmetothesecondquestion: Howtodefendtheselfagainstsecondary(re)victimisation? Secondaryorrevictimisationcanariseincontextswherethesystemsandagenciesa victim/survivorinteractswithtreatherinwaysthatrecallherinitialrapeexperience. Thishasbeenexpressedparticularlyinrelationtothepotentialforrapetrialstofeel likeasecondrape(Freckelton,1998;Lees,1997;Orth,2002;Scutt,1997).Asone raperesearcherconcludedafterfollowing150crapecasesthroughcourtsin Australia: Thisisstatesanctionedvictimisation.(vandeZandt,1998,125) Whilethereisaccuracyinsuchdepictions,Iwouldalsoarguethatitrisksportraying victimsaspassivepawnsinthehandsofthejusticesystem.Undoubtedlysomeof thewomenfeltlikethisattimes,butwhatwasevidentwasthewaysmanychoseto managecourtprocessesinordertolimitthepotentialnegativeimpacts.They activelyresistedbeingpawnsagain,theyfoundwaystodefendthemselvesand survive.

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Onewaythiswasevidentwaswhensometookstepstoasserttheircontroloverthe physicalspaceofthecourtroom,ahardthingtodogivenhowrigidandunyielding courtstructurescanbe.Onewomanaskedforpermissiontosprinkleglitterbefore shetookthestand,andwasgrantedit. WiththisfriendofminetheboxwhereIwasgoingtobe,weglitup,withtheglitterof courage.Wealsoputitintohis[MR]box.Wewentoverthereandsoweshoweditmy strengththiswasmyroom,thiswasmyspace.Soalotofthatwasverymuch,Iam theGoddessofJustice,verymuchsettingitupformyself.Itsgreattoknowthathe [MR]probablywouldntknowwhatthehellallthisglitterwasonthefloororaroundhis box!(Helen,inJordan,2008,95) SowhileHelenstillfoundthecourtexperiencehorrificanddegrading,whileitstill revictimisedhertosomeextent,shealsofoundwaystohelphertakebacksome senseofcontrolinwhatisotherwisesuchadisempoweringenvironment. Othersrefusedtobetreatedlikepawnsinthesystemandactivelyurgedpoliceand prosecutorstoseethemasindividuals.Forexample,Gabriel,reactedangrilywhen shewentintocourtexpectinganinitialbriefingwiththeprosecutoronlytodiscover shemightberequiredtotakethestandthatsameday.Whensheobjected,he explained: Butwe'vefoundthatformostwomenitisbettertobebriefedinthemorningandthen gointheafternoon. Gabrielresponded: Isaid,WellI'mnotmostwomen,I'mmyself!Andmysupportpersonneedsnotification sothatshecangettimeoffworkandI'msonothappyaboutyoujustassumingthat everythingwillfitintoplaceandIwillgointhere.Thisisareallyimportanttimeforme andI'mreallypissedoffwithyou.

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Hewasshocked.ThisisthesecondtimeI'vemethimandhejustkepttalking,kept talkingandputhisfootinhismouthandtalkedaboutprocedureandalltherestofit untilIsaid,I'mnotinterestedintheprocedurerightatthissecond,I'mmoreinterested inmymentalstateofwellbeingthenyourprocedureactually.Thenhesaid,OhGod, ofcourseyou'reupsetandwhocanblameyou.Andthenhewasveryunderstanding aboutit.Andheapologisedforthatandsaidthathenowknowstodothat differently.(Gabriel,inJordan,2008,82) Whattheseexamplesindicateiswhenthewomenassertedtheirownrightswithin thesystem,someindividualsatleastwerewillingtoacknowledgetheirneedsand adapttheirproceduresaccordingly.Thisenabledthewomentobenefitfromgreater supportandconsiderationandalsoprovidedcriminaljusticepractitionerswith valuablelearningopportunities.Severalofthepoliceofficersinvolvedlatertoldme thatthesewomentaughtthemalotabouthowtobemoreresponsivetovictims' needsandtoacknowledgethatthesemightdiffer,giventhatnotallvictimsarethe same. Conclusion Iwouldarguethatthesewomensaccountsareimportantonavarietyoflevels,but particularlyforthewaystheychallengeconventionalapproachesinarangeofareas. Firstly,theychallengetraditionalaccountsthatportrayvictimsaspassiveandonly impactedupon. Insteadweareconfrontedwithneedingtoattainabalancebetweenacknowledging theveryrealanddamagingimpactsofvictimisationwhilealsovalidatingthediverse andvariedwaysinwhichvictimsacttodefendthemselvesandensuretheirsurvival. Theiraccountsrevealtheimportanceofacknowledgingandrecognisingvictimsas survivors,andhowimportantresistinganattackerscontrolpsychologicallycanbein contextswherelittlepossibilityforphysicalresistanceexists.

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Secondly,theyalertustothewaysinwhichsurvivingrapeisnotaoneoffeventbut anongoingprocess.Itwasphysicallylivingbeyondtheeventanditwasalsoso muchmorethanthat. Intheaftermathofrapetherearemultiplesituationsvictimsmustfacethatcan triggerfeelingsoffear,vulnerabilityanddisempowerment.Therearemanyways thatrevictimisationcanoccur,eachbringingwithitthechallengeofneedingtobe managedandsurvived.Thenarrativesprovidedbythesewomenshowhow survivingrapealsomeanssurvivingtellingothers,survivingeachanniversaryofthe rape,survivingthetrial,survivingallthemanylifeeventsthatcanpotentiallyplunge thembackintothefeelingsassociatedwiththerapeitself.Theirlivesafterrape suggestanongoingseriesofsurvivals. Thirdly,thewomen'snarrativeschallengethoseworkinginthecriminaljustice systemtorecognisethepotentialforcriminaljusticeprocessestocausesecondary victimisation,andtobewillingtolistentothevoicesofsurvivorsandhearwhatthey need.Fromtheiraccountsitisclearthatvictimsofrapearenotahomogeneous group,andthatwhilesomeneedsmaybeheldincommon,differentwomenwillbe impactedondifferently.Thisnecessitatesappreciationofindividuals'concernsand theirneedtobevalidatedasindividuals,ratherthantreatedaccordingtoa'onesize fitsallrapevictims'packagedeal. ThefinalpointIwishtomakeisthatawomanfacingamanintentonrapingherwill dowhatshecaninthemomentandmustalwaysbevalidatedforthatthereareno rightorwrongwaystosurvive.WhatIamwantingtoshowfromthesewomens accountsisthatalargerepertoireofpossibleresponsesexists,manyofwhichmay notbedirectlyobservablebyothersbecausetheyareoccurringonamentalor psychologicallevel.

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Thesewomenmayhavebeenbetterplacedthanmanyintermsofbeingabletoask forwhattheyneededandobtainsupporttohelpthemsurvive.Thereweremanyof them,andthepolicewerewillingtolistenandlearnfromtheminpartbecausethey neededthesewomenonsidetogetRewafinallyputaway.Thismakesthisgroupof rapevictimsunusual,butIwouldarguetheyarenotunique.Rather,thedifferent circumstancesofthiscaseenableustoseemoreclearlyhowthejusticesystemcan stillrevictimiseevenwhentryingitshardesttosupportvictimsandwincases. Moreover,thewomen'sarticulatenessandcapacitiesforreflectionprovideuswith clearexamplesofallthevariedanddiversewaysthatsurvivalcanoccur.Whetherit wasfindingthemostappropriatepersontosupportthemorsprinklingglitteraround thebox,thewomenchosethesemeasurestoprovideatleastsomesenseof personalempowermentinthemidstofahighlycontrolledandcontrollingsystem. ALLsurvivorsofrapeneedtobevalidatedfordoingwhattheyknewtodoatthe timetosurvive.Atthesametime,weneedtocontinuetobreakthesilenceand shamearoundrapeandencouragegreaterdiscussionaroundraperesistance,rape preventionandwaysofsurvivingrape.Weneedtoresearchanddevelopmore sophisticatedunderstandingsofthecomplexconnectionsbetweenvictimisationand survivaland,mostimportantlyofall,doallwecantoreducethelevelsof victimisationsothatthereisnorapetosurvive.

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References Bart,P.,&OBrien,P.H.(1985).StoppingRape,SuccessfulSurvivalStrategies. Oxford:PergamonPress. Burton,N.(1998).ResistancetoPrevention,ReconsideringFeministAntiviolence Rhetoric.InS.G.French,V.Teays,&L.M.Purdy(eds.),ViolenceAgainstWomen, PhilosophicalPerspectives.Ithaca:CornellUniversityPress. Freckelton,I.(1998).Sexualoffenceprosecutions:Abarristersperspective,in Easteal,P.(ed),BalancingtheScales:Rape,LawReformandAustralianCulture. Sydney:TheFederationPress. Glaser, B. and Strauss, A. L. (1967). The Discovery of Grounded Theory. Chicago: Aldine. Gregory,J.,&Lees,S.(1999).PolicingSexualAssault.London:Routledge. Heyden,S.M.,Anger,B.F.,Jackson,T.,&Ellner,T.D.(1999).'Fightingbackworks: Thecaseforadvocatingandteachingselfdefenseagainstrape.'JournalofPhysical Education,RecreationandDance,70(5):3135. Jordan,J.(1998).ReportingRape:WomensExperienceswiththePolice,Doctorsand SupportAgencies.Wellington:InstituteofCriminology,VictoriaUniversityof Wellington. Jordan,J.(2001).WorldsApart?Women,RapeandtheReportingProcess.British JournalofCriminology,4(41):679706. Jordan,J.(2005).WhatwouldMacGyverdo?Themeaning(s)ofresistanceand survival,ViolenceAgainstWomen,11(4):531559.

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Jordan,J.(2008).SerialSurvivors:WomensNarrativesofSurvivingRape.Sydney: TheFederationPress. Kelly,L.(1988).SurvivingSexualViolence.Cambridge:PolityPress. Lamb,S.(1999).'ConstructingtheVictim:PopularImagesandLastingLabels.'InS. Lamb (ed.) (1999). New Versions of Victims: Feminists Struggle with the Concept. NewYork:NewYorkUniversityPress,1999. Lees, S. (1997). Ruling Passions: Sexual Violence, Reputation and the Law. Buckingham:OpenUniversityPress. Orth, U. (2002). 'Secondary victimization of crime victims by criminal proceedings'. SocialJusticeResearch,2002.15(4):313325. Scutt,J.(1997).TheIncredibleWoman:PowerandSexualPolitics.Vol.1. Melbourne:Artemis. Spry,T.(1995).Inthe absence of word and body: Hegemonic implications of victim and survivor in womens narratives of sexual violence. Women and Language, 18 (2),2733. Stanko,E.A.(1990).'Whenprecautionisnormal.'InL.GelsthorpeandA.Morris (eds.),FeministPerspectivesinCriminology.MiltonKeynes:OpenUniversityPress. vandeZandt,Pia(1998).Heroinesoffortitude.InEasteal,Patricia(ed.), BalancingtheScales:Rape,LawReformandAustralianCulture.Sydney:The FederationPress. Williams,T.(1998).TheBad,theVeryBadandtheUgly:WhosWhoofNewZealand Crime.Auckland:HodderMoaBeckett.

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TheGrowthofVictimAgencyinAustralianJurisprudence: LimitationsandChallenges
TyroneKirchengast DivisionofLaw MacquarieUniversity tyrone.kirchengast@law.mq.edu.au Victimrightshavebeeninsertedintothelawinthreedistinctways.Most jurisdictionsnowofferacharterordeclarationofvictimrightsdetailingtherights andobligationsofgovernmentagenciesintheirtreatmentofvictims;modesof criminalinjuriescompensationwhichprovidesstandardamountsofcompensation forprescribedinjuriesflowingfromanallegedcriminaloffence;andtheabilityto adduceintosentencingproceedingsavictimimpactstatementtodetailtheharms occasionedasaresultoftheoffence,afterconvictionbutbeforesentencing.While debateensuesastotheextenttowhichacharterofrightsandcompensation appropriatelyrestoresthevictimfollowinganoffence(Mawby,2007:209239),the tenureofvictimimpactstatementsinsentencingproceedingsremainsthemost contentious.Whiletheuseofsuchstatementsremainscontroversialthroughoutthe commonlawworld,itisinNSWwherethejudiciaryhasassumedgreatest resistancetotheiruseinsentencing.Theargumentsfororagainstsuchresistance willbecanvassedinlightofagrowingnationalandinternationalmovementtoward theencouragementofvictimparticipationinsentencing. SincetheirinceptionintoNSWlawundertheVictimRightsAct1996(NSW),victim impactstatementshaveprovidedvictimsofcrimeincreasedopportunityto participateinthesentencingprocess.1Prescribedunders28oftheCrimes (SentencingProcedure)Act1999(NSW),bothprimaryandfamilyvictimshavethe

TheVictimRightsAct1996(NSW)insertedthecurrentprovisionsconcerningvictimimpact statementsintotheCriminalProcedureAct1986(NSW)Pt6A(ss23A23E).Thesesectionswerelater transferredtotheCrimes(SentencingProcedure)Act1999(NSW)Pt3Div2.

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abilitytotenderanimpactstatementfollowingconviction.2Familystatementsmay betenderedwheretheprimaryvictimdiesfollowinganoffence.Asentencingjudge willgenerallyconsidertheimpactsofanoffencethroughtheinformationtendered inevidence,usuallyattrial.Recognitionoftheimpactsofanoffenceuponthe victimisalongservingrationaleofpunishmentthatisspecificallyrelevanttothe formationofanappropriatesentence.Itisoutoftheneedtoconstitutesuch impactsobjectively,however,thatvictimimpactstatementshavetendedtobe poorlyreceivedbysentencingcourts.Thisisbecausesuchstatementsarenot alwaysseentobeconsistentwiththeestablisheddoctrinesofpunishmentthat requireasentencetobeobjectivelyproportionatetoallcircumstancesofthe offenceandoffender(Kirchengast,2007:127154). Giventhetendencytotakecrimepersonally,victimshavebeenidentifiedaspoor sourcesofinformationfromwhichtoconstitutetheobjectiveseriousnessofan offence.Rationalisingasentenceproportionatetothemultipleendsofpunishment, whichasRvVeen[No1](1979)143CLR458andRvVeen[No2](1988)164CLR465 suggests,involvesthetaskofbalancingvariousobjectivessuchastheneedto recogniseharmdonetothevictimandcommunity,theneedtoprotectsociety,the rehabilitationoftheoffender,andtheneedforgeneralandspecificdeterrence,is thusnotatasktobeexpectedofvictimsthemselves. Whereanimpactstatementisproducedbyaprimaryvictimfollowinganonfatal offence,acourtwillusuallyconsideritsolongastheevidencepresentedexplicates theharminquestion,inanobjectiveway.Wheretendered,impactstatementsmay informthesentencingcourtoftraumaandlossnototherwisebeforethecourtin evidence,orprovideafreshperspectiveonthoseharmsalreadyinevidence. Problemshavebeenidentified,nonetheless,wherefamilyimpactstatementsare tenderedfollowingthedeathoftheprimaryvictim.
Primaryvictimsincludepersonsorwitnessestoanoffencethathavesufferedpersonalinjuryasa resultofanoffence.Familyvictimsincludemembersoftheprimaryvictimsimmediatefamily.See Crimes(SentencingProcedure)Act1999(NSW)s26.
2

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Duetotheprinciplethatpunishmentbeobjectivelyproportionatetothe assessmentoftheharmoccasioned,RvPrevitera(1997)94ACrimR76rulesthat sentencingcourtsmustexcludeanyconsiderationoffamilyimpactstatements wheretheprimaryvictimdies.Thisisbecause,asHuntCJatCLstates,deathisthe ultimateharm,suchthatasentencingcourtmustnot,byreferencetoafamily victimimpactstatement,valueonelifeasgreaterthananother(RvPrevitera (1997)94ACrimR76at86).This,asindicatedbelow,emphasisestheneedto considerthedeathoftheprimaryvictimintermsoftheimmediatecircumstancesof theoffence.Itisthusreasonedthatnoopiniononthevictim,fromfamilymembers orothers,beallowedtoinfluencetheassessmentofharmunlessthatopinionis specificallyrelevanttotheimmediatecircumstancesofanoffence.Considering suchperspectivesonthelossofthevictimwould,underPrevitera,allowthe possibilitythattheprimaryvictimwasmorevaluedthananother.Previterathus supportsthesentencingprinciplethatalllifeisofequalvalue.HuntCJatCL indicatesthisinthefollowingterms: Aproblemarises,however,inthosecasessuchasthepresent wherethecrimeinvolvesthedeathofthevictim.Theconsequencesof thecrimeuponthevictim(death)hasalreadybeenproved(or admitted)bythetimetheoffendercomestobesentenced Thelawalreadyrecognises,withoutspecificevidence,thevaluewhich thecommunityplacesuponhumanlife(RvPrevitera(1997)94A CrimR76at86) HuntCJatCLindicatesthatvictiminterestscanbemoresuitablyadministeredasa matterofvictimscompensationthaninthecontextofasentencinghearing,which requiresanobjectiveassessmentastooffenceseriousnessandoffender

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culpability.3Intermsofthisobjectiveassessment,HuntCJatCLarguesagainstthe notionthattheviewsoffamilyvictimsnotdirectlyinjuredinthehomicidemaybe abletocontributetotheassessmentoftheoffencewithoutdiminishingthe principleoftheuniversalityofthevalueofhumanlife.4Harm,arguably,needstobe limitedtotheimmediatecircumstancesofthedeathofthevictimoutofrespectfor thisprinciple. HuntCJatCLalsorecognisestheassociatedissueofestablishingfamilyimpact evidenceonthepersuasiveburden,beyondreasonabledoubt,givenitstendencyto introducefactsinaggravationoftheoffence(Kirchengast,2007:143159;alsoseeR vSlack[2004]NSWCCA128).Previterahasnowbeensupportedbyanumberof leadingdecisions,whichconsequentlyaffirmtheviewthatharmbespecifically assessedthroughthefactualcircumstancesofthecase,particularlyintermsofthe immediatecircumstancesoftheoffence,andnotthesubjectiveexperiencesof victimstraumatisedbythelossofthedeceased.5 Unders28(3)oftheCrimes(SentencingProcedure)Act1999(NSW)acourtmust receiveafamilyimpactstatement,makinganycommentonitthatthecourtthinks appropriate.Previterarulesthatdespitetherequirementthatfamilyimpact statementsbetendered,courtsnotconsiderthemwhensentencinganoffender. Thishasledtoproblemswhereimpactstatementsarecitedinasentencingreport, wherethejudgefailstodistinguishthereferenceasnotimpactingonsentence. Sentencesareappealablewhereasentencingcourtacknowledgesreceiptofan impactstatementinthisway.Outofitsdirectrelevancetotheexplorationofthe consequencesofanoffence,theNewSouthWalesCourtofCriminalAppeal

Alsoseerecommendation3oftheNewSouthWalesLawReformCommission,Sentencing,Report No79,(1996).HuntJadvocatesthetreatmentoffamilyimpactstatementsinhomicidecasesalong similarlinestothoseproposedbytheNSWLRC. 4 TheoneexceptionrecognisedbyHuntCJatCLmaybewheretheprimaryvictimdiesaslow, lingeringdeath.Thecircumstancesoftheoffencewouldthuscometoencompassfamilyvictims, whomaycometocarefortheprimaryvictimbeforedeath.SeeRvPrevitera(1997)94ACrimR76, 86. 5 RvBollen(1998)99ACrimR510;RvDang[1999]NSWCCA42;RvNewman;RvSimpson[2004] NSWCCA102;RvKing[2004]NSWCCA444;contraRvBirmingham(No2)(1997)69SASR502.

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(NSWCCA)willquashasentencewhereanimpactstatementisnotsufficiently distinguishedasirrelevant,deemingthisnottobeanappropriatematterforthe applicationoftheproviso.6Theusualresultwhereastatementisnotclearly delineatedistheresentencingoftheoffendertosomelesserterm. Issuesofsentenceconstructionnotwithstanding,theNSWCCAhasindicatedthat thePreviterarulemaynowneedtoberevisitedinthecontextofs3AoftheCrimes (SentencingProcedure)Act1999(NSW).Section3A(g)prescribesthatacourtmay imposeasentenceonanoffendertorecognisetheharmdonetothevictimandthe community.Consideringthisnewsection,SpigelmanCJindicatesinRvBerg[2004] NSWCCA300at[4344],thatfamilyimpactstatementsmaybeabletoinfluence sentencewherethecontentofthestatementmayappropriatelyinformthecourtas totheharmdonetothecommunity. ThisargumentforreformwasagainaddressedinRvTzanis[2005]NSWCCA274.In thisinstance,theNSWCCAwasconvenedasapaneloffivejudgestodeterminethe issueoftheadmissibilityoffamilystatements.Thoughdecliningtoconsideriton thisoccasion,thecourtdidindicatethegravityofthisissuebysuggestingthatno suitablevehiclehasemergedforthepurposesofthegrantofspecialleavebythe HighCourt(RvTzanis[2005]NSWCCA274at[16]). Theissueofthestatusoffamilyimpactstatementsinhomicidecaseshasevidently emergedasoneofconsequence,especiallyintermsoftheweightofsentencing principlerequiringthatpunishmentsbeobjectivelyproportionatetoallfactorsthat presentasrelevanttothedeterminationofanappropriatesentence. IntegratingFamilyVictims:TheStatesandTerritoriesofAustralia

Foranexampleofsucherrors,seeRvDawes[2004]NSWCCA363,[30];RvDang[1999]NSWCCA 42,[15].

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Variousjurisdictionshaveresolvedtheproblemoftheconsiderationoffamily impactstatementsbyrecognisingthatfamilyvictimsmaypresentinformation relevanttosentencesolongasthatinformationaccordswithanobjective assessmentoftheseriousnessoftheharmoccasionedtothevictim.7Theuseof familystatementsasasourceofobjectiveevidencerelevanttosentenceemergesin theVictoriancaseofRvWillis[2000]VSC297.Inthisinstance,theVictorian SupremeCourtsuggeststhatvictimimpactstatementsmayinformthesentencing processwhereevidenceispresentedthatphrasestheimpactsoftheoffenceon familymembersinthebroadercontextoftheoffence.Thisbroadercontextis significanttoanysentencingcourtwhenconsideringtheseriousnessoftheoffence inanobjectiveway.Willisindicatesthatthisprovidesthemeansbywhichvictim impactstatementsgivenbyfamilymembersmaybeofsomerelevancetothe sentencingcourt: Whattheydoistointroduceinamorespecificway,factorstowhicha courtwouldordinarilyhaveregardinabroadercontext.They constituteareminderofwhatmightbedescribedasthehumanaspect ofcrimeanddrawtotheattentionofthejudgewhowouldofnecessity havetoconsiderthepossibleandprobableconsequencesofcriminal behaviour,notonlyitssignificancetosocietyingeneralbuttheactual effectofaspecificcrimeuponthosewhohavebeenintimately affectedbyit.Victimimpactstatementsprovideanopportunityfor thosewhoselivesareoftentragicallyalteredbycriminalbehaviourto drawtotheCourt'sattentionthedamageandsenselessanguishwhich hasbeencreatedandwhichcanoftenbeofverylongduration.(Rv Willis[2000]VSC297at[16])
EachstateandTerritoryallowsfortheconsiderationoffamilyimpactstatements.OnlyNSW providesadifferentpowerfortheconsiderationofprimaryandfamilystatements.SeeSentencing Act1991(Vic)s95A;ChildrenandYoungPersonsAct1989(Vic)s136A;SentencingAct1995(WA)s24; Crimes(Sentencing)Act2005(ACT)s53;SentencingAct(NT)s106B;CriminalLaw(Sentencing)Act 1988(SA)s7A;SentencingAct1997(Tas)s81A;Crimes(SentencingProcedure)Act1999(NSW)s28; CriminalOffencesVictimsAct1995(Qld)s14.
7

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WillisdealswithquestionsastotheutilityofvictimimpactsstatementsraisedinRv Penn[1994]19MVR367.Penn,acaseinvolvingculpabledrivingcausingdeath,held thattheextentthatasentencingcourtmayconsiderevidenceoftheimpactofthe offenceuponfamilymembersinthecontextofcommunitysentimentmaybe limited.Duetotheneedinterpretharmobjectively,intermsofthecommunitys reactionagainsttheneedlesswasteoflifecausedbymotoraccidents,theVictorian CourtofCriminalAppeal(VCCA)suggeststhatthespecificconsiderationofthe impactofanoffenceonfamilymembersmaygobeyondwhatmaybeconsidered anobjectiveassessment. RvMiller[1995]2VR348wentontorejectPennoutofchangesintroducedbythe Sentencing(VictimImpactStatement)Act1994(Vic).ThisActmodifiedVictorian sentencinglawtoallowasentencingcourttoconsidertheinjury,lossordamage thatoccursasaresultofanoffence.ThisActalsoamendedtheSentencingAct1991 (Vic)s5(2),directingasentencingcourttoconsidertheimpactoftheoffence togetherwithchangesinthepersonalcircumstancesofanyvictim,asaresultofan offence.Thisincludesfamilyaswellasprimaryvictims.TheVCCAinMilleralso explainedhowthe1994Actenvisagestheuseofimpactstatementsasameansby whichevidenceofharmmaybeestablishedasrelevanttosentence,whilealso emphasisinghowevidenceofvictimtrauma,injuryandlossnotprovidedbyimpact statementmayalsocontinuetobematerial. Millerrulesthatwhereimpactevidenceisconsistentwithcommunitysentiment thenitshouldbeconsideredasreflectingthatsentiment.Familystatementsmay thusbeparticularlyusefulwheretheypresentinformationrelevanttosentencing principlesthatrequirethecourttospecificallyconsiderthecommunitysattitude towardtheoffence.Familyimpactevidencewouldthereforeberelevantwhere thereisagenuineneedforgeneraldeterrenceanddenunciation.Despitethese principlesnotbeingspecificallyatissueinMiller,theVCCArulesthatfamily perspectiveswillcontinuetobegenerallyrelevanttothetaskofsentencing offenders:

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Wearenotpersuadedthatthejudgemisdirectedhimselfbyreferring to,andtakingintoaccountof,theeffectontheBendigocommunityof thiscrime,ortheanguishofherfamily.Commonsensewouldallow inferencestobedrawninrespectofthesematters,intheabsenceof directevidence.(RvMiller[1995]2VR348at354) Millerisauthorityforthepropositionthatoffenceseriousnessandoffender culpabilitymaycontinuetobeconstruedobjectivelydespitetheviewsoffamily victims.Itwouldonlybewhereafamilystatementisinconsistentwithcommunity sentimentthatexclusioniswarranted.Suchstatementsmayincludethoseseeking asentencebasedonvengeanceorrevenge,wheretheharmspokenofisunrelated totheoffence,orwheretheforgivenessofthevictimisentirelyunjustified.Miller reiteratesthepointthatfamilyimpactstatementsshouldnotbeseenasinherently prejudicedagainsttheendsofsentencingbutseenaspotentiallyuseful,especially wheretheyareconsistentwiththecommunitysattitudetowardanoffence. IntegratingFamilyVictims:InternationalDecisions TheCanadianexperiencealsoindicatesthatfamilyimpactstatementsmaybe relevanttothedeterminationofoffenceseriousness.Victimimpactstatementsare admissibleinsentencingproceedingsunders722oftheCanadianCriminalCode. Interpretingthisprovision,theOntarioSuperiorCourtofJusticeruledinRvGabriel (1999)137CCC(3d)1that,irrespectiveofthenotionthatnoonelifebevaluedabove another,thatcourtsincludetheviewsoffamilyvictimstoshowrespectfortheir significancetoandconnectionwiththeprimaryvictim.Courtsalsoneedtoshow respectforthefactthatfamilyvictimsmayalsoappropriatelyreflectcommunity viewsandperspectives.Itwasnotedthatsentencingtendstofocusontheoffence andtheoffender,totheexclusionofthevictim.Inthisway,mostvictimswouldbe reducedtoobscurityinlegalproceedingsdealingwiththeiroffence.FortheOntario

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SuperiorCourtofJustice,victimimpactstatementsthusprovideauniquetoolfor thebalancingofinterestsinthesentencingprocess: Thevictimwasaspecialanduniquepersonaswellinformation revealingtheindividualityofthevictimandtheimpactofthecrimeon thevictimssurvivorsachievesameasureofbalanceinunderstanding theconsequencesofthecrimeinthecontextofthevictimspersonal circumstances,orthoseofsurvivors.(RvGabriel(1999)137CCC(3d)1 at1112) SimilartoHuntCJatCLinPrevitera,theOntarioSuperiorCourtofJusticealso indicatesthatvictiminterestscanbeaccommodatedelsewhere,throughvictims compensationandalternativeassistanceschemes.However,thecourtalso emphasisesthatinclusiontheoffamilystatementsmayallowforthebalancingof theinterestsofjustice,specificallyincludingthevictimwheretheywouldotherwise beexcluded,tobetterinformthesentencingcourtofcommunityattitudesand expectationsfollowinganoffence. AgainstthetenorofGabriel,however,theCriminalDivisionoftheProvincialCourt ofBritishColumbiahastakenamorerestrictiveviewoftheutilityofs722inRv Readhead(2001)BCPC208.Thiscourtruledthatprivateperspectivesoughtnot informthesentencingprocess,whichmustbemanifestlyconcernedwiththepublic interest.Itisforthesentencingjudgetothusconsidertheharmoccasionedtothe victim,whomustinsteadturntocivilforprivateredress.Despitetakingthisview, thesentencingjudgedoesacknowledgetheutilityofvictimimpactstatements tenderedinhomicideproceedings.HisHonourrecognisedthat: What,then,isthepurposeofavictimimpactstatement?First,the wordsofthevictimofacrimemightwellservetoeducatetheoffender astotheeffectsofhisorhercriminalbehavior,withsomepotential rehabilitativeeffect.Second,victimimpactstatementsmayprovide

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somesenseofcatharsisforvictims,particularlythosewhochoosenot topursueanyformofredressintheparallelstreamofthecivillaw. Third,theinclusionofvictimimpactstatementsinthematerials presentedduringasentencinghearingmayservetoassurethepublic thatsentencingjudges,whileboundtosentenceinaccordancewith theprinciplesdiscussedearlier,arealwayskeenlyawareoftheunique andintenselypersonalresponseofeachvictimharmedbythecriminal conductofanother.(RvReadhead(2001)BCPC208at[14]). Theprinciplesdiscussedearlierarethosethatseektophrasethesentencing processasanindependentone;anobjectiveassessmentofoffenceseriousnessand offenderculpabilitythroughtheremoved,independentassessmentofthecourt. This,however,isentirelyconsistentwiththeprinciplesoutlinedinGabriel,which doesnotseektointroduceaprivateperspectiveintosentencingproceedings. Despitetheimpactstatementbeingdraftedbythevictimpersonally,itisforthe sentencingcourttoinferfromthematerialpresentedthefactsrelevanttothe determinationofanobjectivelyproportionatesentence.ThelaterdecisionofRv McDonoughandMcClatchey(2006)CanLii18369intheOntarioSuperiorCourtof Justice,despitealsoacknowledgingthelimitedbasisuponwhichacourtmayuse impactstatementstenderedinhomicideproceedings,nonethelessreiteratesthis point: Inexplainingtheharmdonebyandlosssufferedasaresultofthe commissionofanoffence,itisoftennecessarytogiveabriefoutlineof thecharacterofthevictimordeceased,toexplaintheimpactofthe crime.AsHillJ.expressedit,thejudgelearnsoftheindividualityof thevictim:Gabrielatpara19.(RvMcDonoughandMcClatchey(2006) CanLii18369at[29])8
8

Astoacaseinpointregardingtherelevanceofvictimimpactstatementsinthesentencingof homicideoffenders,seeRvHayden(2001)CanLII13694at[814].

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Thisisentirelyconsistentwiththenotionthatitisforthecourtitselftoconstrue sentencebyinteraliareflectingoftheharmoccasionedtoallvictimsrelevanttothe offence.ThispointwasfirstemphasizedinRvDMP[1999]AJNo1085.Inthiscase theAlbertaCourtofAppealexplained: Parliamentmakesitclearthatavictimimpactstatementis somethingwhichasentencingjudgemayandshouldconsider,and(if appropriateandconvincing)givesignificantweight.Thistrialjudge quotedalmostallofthisvictimimpactstatement,andreferredto Parliamentsdirective.Inourview,hedidasParliamenttoldhimto. Whatismore,hecitedauthorityallowinghimtotakejudicialnoticeof thelikelihoodofthesamething.(RvDMP[1999]AJNo1085at[15]) (emphasisadded) ThereasoningsupportingtheCanadiandecisionsissimilarinthisrespecttothe ultimatefindingoftheUnitedStatesSupremeCourtinPaynevTennessee(1991) 115LEd2d720.TheissuesraisedinPaynevTennesseewerefirstaddressedacross twoearlierdecisionsoftheUnitedStatesSupremeCourt,namelyBoothvMaryland (1987)96LEd2d440andSouthCarolinavGathers(1989)104LEd2d876.InBooth vMarylandthecourtheldthattheEighthAmendmenttotheUnitedStates Constitutionstoppedasentencingjuryinacapitaltrialfromhearingvictimimpact evidenceregardingthepersonalcharacteristicsofthevictim,whichalsoincluded theextenttowhichfamilymemberswerealsotraumatisedbythedeathofthe victim.BoothvMarylandwasreasonedontheassumptionthatimpactevidence limitedthedefendantsrighttoafairtrial,inthatanimpactstatementwaslikelyto inflameajuryagainstthedefendantgiventheemotivenatureofthecontentofa statement.SouthCarolinavGathersextendedthisprohibitionbylimitinghowthe useofimpactstatementbytheprosecutor.Againonthebasisofthecapacityfor impactevidencetorousethejuryagainstadefendant,SouthCarolinavGathers limitedtheprosecutorsabilitytorefertothecontentofimpactevidencewhen addressingthejury,particularlyintermsofpersonalattributesofthevictimthat

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maynotbematerialtoliability.PaynevTennessee,however,overruledtheseearlier decisions,holdingthattheEighthAmendmentdoesnotpreventajuryfromtaking accountofthepersonalcharacteristicsofthevictimincapitaltrialsnorfroma prosecutorarguingsimilarevidenceduringsentencing. PaynevTennesseemadethischangeonthebasisoftheneedforanexpanded assessmentoftheharmoftheoffence,inclusiveofthevictimsperspectiveonthe impactsoccasionedbytheoriginaloffence.Themajoritytooktheviewthatthe harmcausedtothevictimhaslongbeenaconcernofthecriminallaw.Thecourt alsonotedthefactthattrialjudgesexperiencedgreatdifficultyexcludingreference totheharmtothevictimduringsentencinginaccordancewiththetwoearlier decisions.Prosecutorswouldoftenrefertotheimpactsoftheoffenceonthevictim, ortheirfamily,andinsodoingriskthesentencebeingoverturnedonappeal.Victim impactstatementsare,intheviewofthemajorityinPaynevTennessee,another meansbywhichacourtmaybeinformedoftherelevantharmoccasionedtothe victim.Thecourtruledimpactstatementstenderinformationlongconsideredbya courtwhenmakingasentencingdecision.Assuch,theUnitedStatesSupreme Courtadvocatesaninclusiveviewtowardsthevictim. InEnglandandWales,allpersonsinjuredortraumatisedbyacriminalincidenthave theabilitytomakeavictimpersonalstatement,equivalenttoavictimimpact statementtenderedinotherjurisdictions.Avictimpersonalstatementformspartof thecasefiletobedistributedtoallpartiesinamatter,includingtheprosecution, defenceandthecourt,andcanbemadeinadditiontoanystatementgiventothe police.Personalstatementsmaybeusedbythecourtduringsentencing.Under theseconditions,courtsareabletousevictimpersonalstatementswhen consideringtheobjectiveseriousnessoftheharmresultingfromanincident. Significantly,suchstatementsmaybeusedbythecourtwithregardtothoseharms occasionedbybothprimaryandfamilyvictims.Concernovertheuseofvictim perspectivesinthesentencingprocessinEnglandandWalesdevelopedasaresult ofsomevictimsproposingparticularsentencingtermsintheirstatements.With

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limitedexceptions,9thecommonlyagreedroleofanimpactstatementenables victimstoindicate,intheirownwords,theimpactsoftheoffenceuponthem.The determinationoftheappropriatesentenceoughttobeleftforthejudge.Itistaken tobegenerallyunacceptableforavictimtospecifyaparticularsentence,suchas lengthofatermofimprisonment,orcustodialornoncustodialterm.Intheeventof sucharecommendation,theentirestatement,orpartofit,maybedisregarded. However,againstthetrendofdismissingparticularsentencingrecommendations, somegroundhasbeengainedallowingforamoreinclusiveperspectivewhere, undercertainlimitedconditions,theconsequencesofasentenceontheactual victimwillbeconsideredrelevanttothecourt.Asindicatedbycasesthathave comesforreviewbeforetheCourtofAppealofEnglandandWales,thisistrueeven forfamilyvictims. InRvPerks[2001]1CrAppR(S)19thedefendantwasconvictedofrobberyand sentencedtofouryearsimprisonment.Duringthetrial,thehusbandofthevictim, addressedalettertotheCrownProsecutionServiceindicatedthedevastating physicalandmentalimpactoftheattackonhiswife.Intheletter,heexpressedhis angertowardtheoffender,indicatingthattheoffendershouldbeimprisonedso thatanexamplecouldbemadeofhim.Theletterwasplacedinthecasefilethus makingitavailabletobereadbyanyparty,aswellasthejudge.Thegroundof appealwasthatthesentencewasmanifestlyexcessiveonthebasisthatthejudge tookthisletterintoaccountinsentence.Allowingtheappeal,GarlandJoftheCourt ofAppealstates: Theopinionsofthevictimandthevictimscloserelativesonthe appropriatelevelofsentenceshouldnotbetakenintoaccount.The courtmustpasswhatitjudgestobetheappropriatesentencehaving regardtothecircumstancesoftheoffenceandoftheoffendersubject totwoexceptions:i)Wherethesentencepassedontheoffenderis aggravatingthevictimsdistress,thesentencemaybemoderatedto
9

SeeSentencingAct(NT)s106B(5A).

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somedegree.ii)Wherethevictimsforgivenessorunwillingnessto presschargesprovideevidencethathisorherpsychologicalormental sufferingmustbeverymuchlessthanwouldnormallybethecase. ThesignificanceofPerksgoestowardwhetheraparticularsentencewillaggravate theharmoccasionedtoavictim.Wheretheoffenderandvictimareinapreexisting relationship,acourtmayreducethetermofthesentencetodiminishtheimpactof thesentenceonthevictim.Thisconsiderationwillgenerallyarisewherethe defendantandvictimaresomehowdependantoneachother,eitherfinanciallyor emotionallyorboth.Thisconsiderationwillmostlikelycometobearonthejudge wherethecourtisconsideringalengthytermofimprisonment,orimprisonmentfor anoffenceforwhichasuspendedornoncustodialsentencemaysuffice.Perkshas setthepaceforfurtherdecisionswhereminimaltermshavebeenrequestedonthe basisofsomenegativeeffectbeingreportedbythevictim.InRvNunn[1996]2Cr AppR(S)136,theappellantwaschargedwithcausingdeathbydangerousdriving, followingthelossofcontrolofhiscar,resultinginthedeathofoneofhis passengers.Followingaguiltyplea,thefamilyofthedeceasedpresentedtheCourt ofAppealwithvictimstatementsindicatingthattheoriginaltermimposedonthe defendantmadeitdifficultforthemtorecoverfromthetraumatheyhad experienced.Thefamilysuggestedthatthedefendant,bywayofhisconvictionand thelossofhispassenger,hadsufferedenough.Insentencingthedefendant,JudgeJ heldthatthevictimsopinionswereirrelevant.Hishonourthenindicatedthatinthe presentmatter,thattheimpactofthesentenceonthevictimswasindeedrelevant, albeitinlimitedcircumstances: theCourtisconcernednotwiththejudgmentofthedeceaseds motherandsisteraboutthelevelofsentenceimposedontheapplicant, butwiththeclearevidence,whichweaccept,thatbyitsverylengththe sentenceon[thevictims]friendisaddingtothegriefandanxietywhich theyaresuffering...Whenthemotherandsisterofthedeceasedandthe restofthefamilyhavealreadysufferedsomuch,wedonotthinkthat

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theseadverseconsequencesofthisparticularsentenceshouldbe disregarded.Inmercytothemweshallreducethesentenceasfaraswe can,consistentwithourcontinuingpublicdutytoimposeappropriate sentencesforthosewhocausedeathbydrivingdangerouslyunderthe influenceofdrink...(RvNunn[1996]2CrAppR(S)136at140141) PerksandNunnstandasauthorityforthepassingofalessertermofimprisonment wherefamilyvictimpresentevidencethattheactualsentenceimposedis aggravatingthetraumatheyareexperiencingasaresultoftheoriginaloffence. Nunn,however,proposesthatanyreductionofsentencebeconstruedobjectively. Importantly,thecourtemphasisesthatanyreductionnotbeinformedbythe victimsthemselves.Rather,itisforthesentencingjudgetoconstruetheaggravated harmcausedtofamilymembers,asconnectedtotheoriginaloffence,byexamining evidenceoftheimpactsofthesentenceoneachofthevictims.However,RvMills [1998]2CrAppR(S)252,thecourtviewedevidenceofaggravatedharmas presentedbythevictimwithgreaterenthusiasm.Inthismatter,thecourtlooked favourablyuponevidenceofanimprovingrelationshipbetweenthedefendantand victimfollowingthecomplaintofanattemptedrapebyaformerpartnerofthe victim.JudgeLJheld,reducingtheoriginalsentencefromsixtothreeyears imprisonment,that: Wehaveconsideredtheevidenceofthevictimwithgreatcare.Wehave reflectedonallthecircumstancesofthissomewhatunusualcase.Asa matterofprinciple,thevictimofacrimecannottellthecourtthat becauseheorshehasforgiventheperpetratorthecourtshouldtreatthe crime,ineffect,asifithadnothappened.Thiswasaseriousoffence. Attemptedrapeisalwaysamatterofgeneralpublicconcern,inaddition toitsmoreimmediateconcerntothevictim.Itisclearthatthevictimin thiscasehaschosentoforgivetheperpetratorofthecrime,andhassaid sointerms,perfectlygenuinely.Thatcannotdecidetheappropriatelevel ofsentence,butwetakeherevidenceintoaccountasindicatingthe

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currentextentoftheimpactofthisparticularcrimeonthevictim.Having consideredthematterinthelightoftheinformationbeforeus,wehave cometotheconclusionthatthesentence...wastoolong.(RvMills [1998]2CrAppR(S)252at254) MillscanbedistinguishedfromNunnonthebasisofthewayinwhichthecourt comestoreduceeachsentence,takingintoaccounttheimpactsalengthier sentencewouldhaveoneachofthevictims.ComparedtoNunn,Millsindicatesthat acourtmaybemoreinclinedtotakethevictimsperspectiveintoaccount,through evidencepresentedbythevictimthemselves.InMills,thecourtisclearly consideringtestimonyfromthevictimpersonally.Thisevidence,however,isstill scrutinisedbythecourtinordertodetermineitsobjectivity,anditisheldthatsuch evidencecannotdeterminesentencealone.However,indoingso,thecourtmoves towardamoreinclusive,restorativeapproach,thatmakesroomfortheperspective ofthevictimbyallowingfortheimpactsofthesentenceonthevictim,aspresented bythevictimthemselves. VictimsAdvocates:AReformAgendaforEnglandandWales ReviewingthedecisionsofPerks,NunnandMills,Edwards(2002)arguesthatthe CourtofAppealofEnglandandWaleshasgravitatedtowardarestorative frameworkwhichseekstoaddressvariousinterestsintermsofabroader understandingofthepublicinterest.Thecourthasshownthatitwillconsiderthe interestsofthevictim,theoffenderandthegeneralpublicindeterminingan appropriatesentence.Thesignificantofthisisthatthecourtsunderstandingofthe victimisnotsolelyconstitutedbythecourtitself.Moreover,thecourtisinvitinga perspectiveonthevictimfromthevictimthemselves,whichstandsthechanceof actuallyimpactingonthesentencetobedetermined.Inthecontextofhomicide cases,thisisentirelyinconsistentwiththeNSWapproach.Despitethisinnovation, however,issuesremainastotheexactwayinwhichvictimperspectivesmaybe includedasaroutineaspectofsentencing.Indeed,reviewsofvictimpersonal

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statementsrevealthatvictimsarenotalwaysaffordedtheopportunitytodraftone bythepoliceinvestigatinganoffence.Judicialofficerswouldalsovaryintheiruseof suchstatementsinanyevent(SecretaryofStateforConstitutionalAffairsandLord Chancellor,2005:14).Theneedtobalancethecompetingviewsofvictimsandthe publicinterest,againsttherightsofdefendants,featuresasasignificantconcern. However,asEdwardsindicates,therestorativeframeworkseekstogarner perspectivesnormallyseentobeincompatible.Thisisasignificantmovement towardamoreproportionateapproachtowardsentencing: Underrestorativeconceptionsofthesentencingprocesshoweversuch preferencescanbeaccommodatedmorereadily.Byaccordingsome weighttothefeelingsofvictims,restorativeaimscanbeachieved: catharsisforvictims,takingvictimsinterestsintoaccount,andachieving reintegrationofoffenders.(Edwards,2002:694) Tothisend,theSecretaryofStateforConstitutionalAffairsandLordChancellor, LordFalconer,issuedaconsultationpaperin2005,phrasingthisrestorative approachinpolicybyprovidingfamilyvictimsanopportunitytobeheardbefore sentenceispronouncedinhomicidematters.Followingtherestorativeframework setinmotioninPerksandNunn,the2005proposalestablishedaprocesswhereby victimswereprovidedadirectvoiceinproceedingsforhomicideoffenders.This policyhasnowmovedthroughapilotprograminwhichfamilyvictimsweregiven theoptiontoinstructprivatecounsel,knownasVictimsAdvocates,oftheharms theyhavesuffered.TheVictimsAdvocateapubliclyfundedlawyer,couldbe retainedbythefamilyvictimstopresstheirinterestsinanyproceedinginwhichthe offencewasmentioned.Intermsofthevictimpersonalstatement,theVictims Advocatewouldhelpdraftandadvocateitscontenttothebench,particularly duringsentencinghearings.Suchsubmissionswouldordinarilyconcerntherelevant impactsandinjuriesoccasionedtoeachfamilyvictimasaresultofthelossofthe deceased.Thevictimsthemselveswouldalsobeabletoaddressthecourt.The VictimsAdvocatepresentsindependentlyoftheprosecutionandonlyrepresents

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thevictimsinterests.Assuch,theypresentalongsidetheprosecutor,who continuestorepresentthepublicinterest.TheVictimsAdvocateislimitedtothe pretrialandsentencinghearings,andwouldnotplayapartinthetrialofthe offender.Itwasenvisagedthattheirrolewouldalsobeextendedtopleadealsor thedowngradingofcharges,withdrawalofchargesbytheprosecution,and discontinuanceofproceedings. Newsofthe2005reformsindicatedthatmostwereinfavouroftheproposed VictimsAdvocatespilot,withvictimsgroupsshowingstrongsupport.Concerns wereraisedthattheproposalswoulddolittleotherthanraisevictimsexpectations thattheirpersonalstatementswouldimpactsentence.Therhetoricwasthatmany sentencingjudgesdeterminedsentencepriortoanysubmissionmadebythe VictimsAdvocate.Otherconcernsincludedthedeemingofsuchsubmissionsas lessrelevantorirrelevanttothefinalsentencetobehandeddown(Secretaryof StateforConstitutionalAffairsandLordChancellor,2006:6).10Formalisingthe proceduretotheadoptedduringthepilot,thePresidentoftheQueensBench DivisionestablishedaprotocolindicatingthefunctionsoftheVictimsAdvocate, particularlyinthesentencingprocess(PresidentoftheQueensBenchDivision, 2006).11ThisdirectionappearedtolimittheformalroleoftheVictimsAdvocateto thesentencingphasealone,excludingbailapplicationsandotherpretrial proceedings,despitethepolicyrecommendingtheybeavailabletoadvisefamily victimsfollowingchargebythepolice.ContactbetweentheCrownProsecution Servicewasemphasised,however,consistentwithnewdutiesofprosecutors requiringthemtoconsultwithvictimsfollowinginthefirstinstance(Crown ProsecutionService,2005).

Ofthe83responsestothegeneralaimsoftheschemeasoutlinedintheconsultationpaper,47 wereinfavourofthescheme,19wereagainst,and17supportedfamilyvictimsgenerallybutdidnot supporttheproposalestablishingVictimsAdvocates. 11 ThisprotocoliswritteninaccordancewithIII28oftheConsolidatedCriminalPracticeDirection (UK)settingoutavictimsrighttopresentavictimpersonalstatementtoasentencingcourt,andfor thatcourttoactuallyconsideritpriortopassingsentence.

10

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TheVictimsAdvocatesschemewaspilotedfrom24April2006intheOldBaileyin LondonandtheCrownCourtsinBirmingham,Cardiff,Manchester(CrownSquare) andWinchester.InJune2007theAttorneyGeneralLordGoldsmithannouncedthat avariationofthepilotschemewillbemadeavailabletoallEnglandandWales (OfficeforCriminalJusticeReform,2007:42).12Thenewprogram,VictimFocus, doesnotprovideforprivatecounselandisrestrictedtothesentencingphase followingconviction.Thisnarrowstheschemetoprosecutorswhotenderthe victimspersonalstatementduringthesentencinghearing.14Thisvariationofthe VictimAdvocatesschemewillneedtobeevaluatedinduecourse,especiallyin termsofwhetheritprovidesanenhancedexperienceforfamilyvictimsthroughthe inclusionoftheirperspectivesastotheharmsoccasionedasaresultoftheoffence. IncludingtheVictim:TimeforReforminNSW? TheinnovativeprogramsbeingpilotedinEnglandandWales,combinedwiththe acceptanceoffamilyperspectivesinternationallyaswellasacrossthestatesand territoriesofAustralia,onlyhighlightsthepaucityofrightsaffordedtovictimsin NSWhomicideproceedings.However,theinsertionofs3A(g)intotheCrimes (SentencingProcedure)Act1999(NSW)givesnewcontexttosentencinginNSW. IdentifiedbySpigelmanCJinAttorneyGeneral'sApplicationUnders37oftheCrimes (SentencingProcedure)Act1999(No2of2002)[2002]NSWCCA515at[57][59], severalsentencingprinciplesmayneedtoberevisedinthecontextofs3A(g), prescribingthatacourtconsiderinteraliatheharmdonetothecommunity. Demonstratedthroughtheintegrationoffamilyvictimperspectivesasthoseofthe communityinVictorianandCanadiansentencinglawinparticular,afocuson communityunders3A(g)mayprovideameansthroughwhichfamily perspectivesmaybeincorporatedintoNSWhomicidecases.
InFebruary2007theVictimsAdvocatespilotwasextendedforafurther12months. TheVictimFocusschemeisavailabletofamilyvictimswheretheoffenderhasbeenchargedwith murder;manslaughter;corporatemanslaughter;familialhomicide;causingdeathbydangerous driving;causingdeathbycarelessdrivingwhileunfitthroughdrinkordrugs;aggravatedvehicle takingwheredeathiscaused.
14 12

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Theneedtofocusoncommunitysentimentindeterminationofaproportionate sentenceprovidesthebasisfortheinclusion,ratherthantheexclusion,offamily perspectives.Familystatementsontheimpactoftheoffencewouldbesignificantly usefulwhendeterminingthebasisandextenttowhichthevictimandcommunity condemntheoffence,inanobjective,fairway.Thestatementwouldthusneedto bereadinthebroadercontextoftheevidenceadducedattrial,materialputforward inmitigationoraggravationofsentence,andthesentencingjudgesownreflection onthecommunitysresponsetotheoffenceinageneralway.Familyimpact statementswouldthereforenotprovidethesinglebasisfortheobjective assessmentoftheoffence,butwouldsupport,wheredeemedrelevant,the determinationthattheoffencewasofrealconsequence,asevidencedbythe trauma,injuryandlossindicatedinafamilystatement. ShouldtheprospectofsuchreformappealinNSW,homicidesentencingmatters willbeabletoopenlyincludefamilystatementswithoutthecurrentrequirement thatthecourtacknowledgereceiptoftheimpactstatementthenexcludeitas irrelevanttosentence.Itwouldonlybeincircumstanceswhereacourtcitesa statementagainsttheweightofcommunitysentiment,orwherecommunity sentimentisinformedexclusivelythroughtheimpactstatement,thatappellate interferencewouldbeexpectedandwarranted.Arelaxingoftherulesagainstthe considerationoffamilystatementsinNSWwouldthereforepotentiallyreducethe numberofgroundsofappealcurrentlyraisedinmanyhomicidesentencingappeals. Argumentsfortheliberaluseoffamilystatementsinhomicidesentencingmatters needstoberead,however,inthecontextofthecaseagainstvictimimpact statementsgenerally.TherecentcaseofRvFD;RvFD;RvJD(2006)106ACrimR 392emphasisesseveralcriticismsoftheuseofvictimimpactstatementswhich, whenreadinconnectionwithcurrentlimitationsunderPrevitera,spellspotential doomfortheprospectsofpositivereform.InRvFD;RvFD;RvJD,SullyJraises fourcriticismsindicativeofthecontroversialwaysinwhichvictimimpact

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statementstrytobalanceintereststhatarenoteasilybalanced(RvFD;RvFD;Rv JD(2006)160ACrimR392at414.).Inthecontextofsentencingpracticeswhere harmisprimarilyidentifiedintermsoftheimmediatecircumstancesofthedeathof thevictim,SullyJvitiatestheusefulnessofimpactsstatementsonthebasisoftheir conceivedinconsistencywithanorthodoxandarguablyconservativeviewtowards theinterpretationofsentencingprinciple. SullyJraisesfourpointsinRvFD;RvFD;RvJDthatdiminishthepotentialbenefit victimimpactstatementshaveinsentencingoffenders.Therestricted interpretationofimpactstatementsinthuswarrantedduetotheneedtoprevent offendersbeingsentencedunderalynchmentality;thatitisimperativetonot allowtheoffendertobesentencedinamannerthatisdictatedbythevictim;that thevictimstilldeservesameansbywhichtheyareabletoprovideapublic statementfacilitatinganemotionalcatharsisinwhichtheimpactsoftheoffence maybeexpressed;andtoprovideforthemetingoutofapoliticalimperative seekingtorespondtotheperceivedlackoftrustvotershaveinthesentencing process,particularlyregardingmattersofseriouspersonalviolence.AsSullyJpoints out,itisthislastpointonthepoliticalimperativeoftheintegrationofvictimrights insentencingwhichmayconflictwiththeaccumulatedwisdomofthecommonlaw ofcrimeandpunishment(RvFD;RvFD;RvJD(2006)160ACrimR392at414). ThesignificanceofSullyJsfourpointsistherecognitionofthevictiminalimited andnonjusticiableform.Therecognitionofvictimimpactstatementsasan importantvehicleoftherapeuticjurisprudenceemergesforSullyJthroughthefact thattheyallowfortheexpressionofgriefandlossonthepartofthevictimwho wouldotherwisebelargelyexcludedfromproceedings.Consideringtheweightof authorityforthefurtherinclusionofvictimsonasubstantivebasis,SullyJs assessmentoftherelevanceofimpactstatementsasbeingagainstthe accumulatedwisdomofthecommonlawmustbereadcritically.Afterall,victims arepersonsintimatelyconnectedtotheconsequencesoftheoffence,apointwell recognisedinotherjurisdictions.Asfarasfamilyvictimsareconcerned,various

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jurisdictionshavedeterminedthatnotonlyisfurtherintegrationdesirableasa matterofopenparticipationinthejusticesystem,butsignificantintermsofthe substantivecontributionfamilyvictimscanmaketoadeterminationofoffence seriousnessbyprofferingevidencethatmaybeconstitutiveofcommunity sentimenttowardtheoffence.Byenablingcloserconnectionsbetweenfamily victims,thejusticesystemandthecommunityallsignificanttotherequisiteneed topassasentenceproportionatetoallcircumstancesoftheoffenceandoffender variousjurisdictionsotherthanNSWhaveorientatedthemselvestowardaposition ofrespectandappreciationforvictimsofcrime. Theprospectsoffamilyimpactstatementsbearinggreatersignificanceinhomicide casesisofappealtovariousstakeholdersintheNSWjusticesystem.Forthecurrent restrictionagainstfamilyvictimsinPreviteratobeovercome,theNSWCCAwill needtofindvalueinsuchstatementsbeyondthemereparticipationoffamily victimsinanonjusticiableway.TheNSWCCAwillneedtodeterminethatsuch statementsareofsubstantivevalueinsentencingbyrevisingthenotionthatsuch statementsdolittlemorethanvalueonelifeasgreaterthananother.Todothis,the courtwillneedtoovercomethecriticismsofimpactstatementsmoregenerallyas beingagainstsentencingorthodoxyasraisedbySullyJ.SuggestedinBergand Tzanis,wheretheissueisraisedinanappeal,theNSWCCAmustassesstheneedto recognisefamilystatementsaspresentingsomethingmorethansubjective conjecture,offensivetotheprinciplesofsentencingrequiringobjectively,andstart recognisinghowvaluablevictiminputmaybetothedeterminationofanobjectively proportionatesentenceinclusiveofavarietyofperspectives.

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References CrownProsecutionService,TheProsecutorsPledge(2005). Edwards,I,ThePlaceofVictimsPreferencesintheSentencingofTheir Offenders(2002)CriminalLawReview,September,689702. Kirchengast,T.VictimImpactStatementsandthePreviteraRule:Delimitingthe VoiceandRepresentationofFamilyVictimsinNSWHomicideCases(2005)24 UniversityofTasmaniaLawReview2,127154. Kirchengast,T.VictimInfluence,TherapeuticJurisprudenceandSentencingLawin theNewSouthWalesCourtofCriminalAppeal,(2007)10FlindersJournalofLaw Reform1,143159. OfficeforCriminalJusticeReform,WorkingTogethertoCutCrimeandDeliverJustice: AStrategicPlanfor20082011(2007). PresidentoftheQueensBenchDivision,AProtocolIssuedByThePresidentOfThe QueensBenchDivisionSettingOutTheProcedureToBeFollowedInTheVictims AdvocatePilotAreas(2006). RobMawby,PublicSectorServicesandtheVictimofCrime,inSandraWalklate (ed.)HandbookofVictimsandVictimology(2007). SecretaryofStateforConstitutionalAffairsandLordChancellor,Hearingthe RelativesofMurderandManslaughterVictims:TheGovernmentsPlanstoGivethe BereavedRelativesofMurderandManslaughterVictimsaSayinCriminalProceedings (2005).

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SecretaryofStateforConstitutionalAffairsandLordChancellor,Hearingthe RelativesofMurderandManslaughterVictims:TheGovernmentsPlanstoGivethe BereavedRelativesofMurderandManslaughterVictimsaSayinCriminalProceeding SummaryofResponsestotheConsultationPaper(2006). Cases AttorneyGeneral'sApplicationUnders37oftheCrimes(SentencingProcedure)Act 1999(No2of2002)[2002]NSWCCA515 BoothvMaryland(1987)96LEd2d440andSouthCarolinavGathers(1989)104L Ed2d876 PaynevTennessee(1991)115LEd2d720 RvSlack[2004]NSWCCA128 RvBerg[2004]NSWCCA300 RvDMP[1999]AJNo1085 RvFD;RvFD;RvJD(2006)160ACrimR392 RvGabriel(1999)137CCC(3d)1 RvMcDonoughandMcClatchey(2006)CanLii18369 RvMiller[1995]2VR348 RvMills[1998]2CrAppR(S)252 RvNunn[1996]2CrAppR(S)136 RvPenn[1994]19MVR367 RvPerks[2001]1CrAppR(S)19 RvPrevitera(1997)94ACrimR76 RvReadhead(2001)BCPC208 RvTzanis[2005]NSWCCA274 RvVeen[No1](1979)143CLR458 RvVeen[No2](1988)164CLR465 RvWillis[2000]VSC297

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TheRiseofaGlobalCarceralComplex:FromGarrisonStateto GarrisonPlanet

JudeMcCulloch CriminologyDepartment MonashUniversity jude.mcculloch@arts.monash.edu.au Introduction Throughthemilitaryandthepolice,stateshaveenormouscapacitytocoerce citizensandinflictviolence.Itisnotsurprisingthenthatstateterrorism,lookedatin termsofnumberskilledandharmed,isfarmoreprevalentandsignificantthanthat ofnonstateactors.15Andyet,terror,terrorismandterroristareconceptsthat areconsideredalmostexclusivelyintermsoftheindividualandsubstategroups.As aconsequenceofthismyopiacounterterrorismhasfrequentlybecomethe justificationforstateterrorandviolencethatfaroutweightheharmandviolence theywerepurportingtocounter.16Whenstateterrorandterrorismareconsideredit tendstobeinthecontextoffailedstatesratherthanthedemocraciesofthe West.17Thischapterfocusesontheviolenceandharminflictedonprisonersand detaineesinUnitedStatesprisonsinthewaronterrorandlinksthistotheregular, routineandnormalisedstateterrorpractiseddailyonmillionsofprisonersheld withinUSdomesticprisons.Thisstateterror,experiencedvastlydisproportionately amongcriminalisedandracialisedcommunities,amountstostateterrorismasit sendsawarningtowholecommunitiesabouttheirplaceinthesocialandeconomic hierarchyandthepriceoftransgression.
PennyGreenandTonyWard,StateCrime:Governments,ViolenceandCorruption(London:Pluto Press,2004) 16 RichardJackson,TheGhostsofStateTerror:Knowledge,PoliticsandTerrorismStudiesPaper PreparedfortheInternationalStudiesAssociation(ISA)AnnualConference,2629March2008,San Francisco,USA 17 William,Blum,RogueState:AGuidetotheWorldsOnlySuperpower(London:ZedBooks,2000)
15

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RevelationsoftortureandabuseofprisonersintheUSledwaronterrorhaveled toagrowingbodyofcriticalresearchontherelationshipbetweenUSdomestic prisonsandwaronterrorprisons.Theresponsesfromthemainstreamwithinthe UShaveincludedoutrightdenialalongsidedeclarationsthatthehorrendouscruelty inflictedonprisonersisunrepresentativeofthevaluesforwhichAmericastands.18 Criticalscholars,ontheotherhand,havepointedtoparallelsandconnections betweentortureandabuseinUSoffshoreprisonsandtheroutineandnormalised stateterrorinflicteduponprisonersanddetaineeswithintheUS.19Thereisalsoan emergingbodyofcriticalcommentary,researchandscholarshipthatfocusesonthe roleofprivatecorporations,profitandcorruptioninthewaronterror.20This chapterextendsthesecritiquesbyelaboratingonthesignificanceoftheroleofthe USasselfappointedjailertotheworldandbybuildinganunderstandingofthe driversbehindthisdevelopment,includingtheroleofprivatecorporationsand privateprofit.Itarguesthatthewaronterrorreflects,extendsandreinforcesthe penalpunitivenessandstateterrorthathavetakenrootattheheartofthecriminal justicesystemintheUSandmanyotherWesterncountries.Morespecifically,it arguesthattheUSroleasglobaljailerandthewayitexecutesthisroleneedtobe understoodaslogicalextensionsofthemassincarcerationinwhichtheUSisglobal leaderandexemplar.Understandingmassincarcerationanditsglobalspreadunder thebannerofthewaronterrorwarrantsaconsiderationofprivateprisonsalong withtheprocesses,dynamicsandconsequencesofneoliberalglobalisation.While critiquesofthewaronterroroftensetouttodocumentitsmanyandmanifest failures,thepurposehereistoconsiderandanalysewhoandwhatbenefits, particularlythewaysthatthewaronterrorandthestateterrorwhichaccompanies
See,forexample,LilaRajiva,TheLanguageofEmpire:AbuGhraibandtheAmericanMedia(New York:MonthlyReviewPress,2005) 19 AngelaDavis,AbolitionDemocracy:BeyondEmpire,PrisonsandTorture(NewYork:FreePress, 2005);JudithGreene,FromAbuGhraibtoAmerica:ExaminingOurHarshPrisonCulture,Ideasfor anOpenSociety:OccasionalPapersfromOSIUSPrograms4(2004):24;AveryGordon,Abu Ghraib:imprisonmentandthewaronterror,RaceandClass48,no.1(2006):4259 20 DaveWhyteTheCrimesofNeoLiberalRuleinOccupiedIraqBritishJournalofCriminology,2007, 47no.2(2007):177195;DaveWhyteHireanAmerican!EconomicTyrannyandCorruptioninIraq SocialJustice,2007,34no.2(2007):153168;JeremyScahillBlackwater:TheRiseoftheWorldsMost PowerfulMercenaryArmy(SerpentsTail:London,2007);PeterSinger,CorporateWarriors;Naomi Klein,TheShockDoctrine:TheRiseofDisasterCapitalism(AllenLane:Camberwell,Victoria,2007). 20 TheAge,2March2006
18

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itsucceedinopeningupnewmarketsforprivatecapitalandprofit,thereby maintainingafertileclimatefortheadvanceofneoliberalglobalisationmore generally. TheUSasGlobalJailer InNovember2001,shortlyaftertheSeptember2001attacksontheUS(hereafter knownas9/11),PresidentGeorgeW.BushissuedaPresidentialMilitaryOrderfor theDetention,Treatment,andTrialofCertainNonCitizensintheWarAgainst Terrorism.TheOrderallowsforthearrest,detentionandpossiblemilitarytrialof nonUScitizens,regardlessoftheirlocation,bytheUSDefenseDepartment.The categoryofnoncitizenssubjecttothisorderisextraordinarilybroad,including thosebelievedtohavecaused,threatentocause,orhaveastheiraimtocause injurytooradverseeffectsontheUS,itscitizens,nationalsecurity,foreignpolicy, oreconomy,orsimplyanybodywhotheUSbelievesitisintheirinteresttodetain.21 PriortotheissueoftheOrdertheUSwasattheforefrontinternationallyof punitive,longtermimprisonment.22TheUSwasalsowellestablishedastheworlds laboratoryforpenaltechnologiesofcoercionandcontrolandatrailblazerofprison privatisation.23ThePresidentialOrder,byovercomingtheterritoriallimitsof sovereignty,transformedtheUSfromglobaltrendsettertoselfappointedworld jailer. ThenumberofpeoplebeingheldinUSoffshoreprisonsanddetentioncentresis difficulttoaccuratelycalculate.Ithasbeenestimated,however,thatsince2001
21

GeorgeW.Bush,FederalRegister:November16,200166,no.222MilitaryOrderofNovember13, 2001Detention,Treatment,andTrialofCertainNonCitizensintheWarAgainstTerrorism PresidentialDocuments:5783157836http://www.fas.org/irp/offdocs/eo/mo111301.htm 22 NilsChristieCrimeControlAsIndustry:TowardsGulags,WesternStyle(LondonandNewYork: Routledge,2003),91109;DavidGarland,Themeaningofmassimprisonment,inMass Imprisonment:SocialCausesandConsequences,ed.DavidGarland(London:Sage,2001),13. ChristianParenti,LockdownAmerica(London:NewYork,1999),163169. 23 ChristieCrimeControlAsIndustry;D.Shichor,PunishmentforProfitPrivatePrisons/Public Concerns(London,NewDelhi:Sage,1995);Andrew,Coyle,AllisonCampbellandRodneyNeufeld, IntroductioninCapitalistPunishment:PrisonPrivatizationandHumanRights,eds.Andrew,Coyle, AllisonCampbellandRodneyNeufeld(Atkanta,London:ClarityPress/ZedBooks,2003),915.

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therehavebeenapproximately60,000peopleincarceratedbytheUSoutsideofthe USinplacessuchasGuantanamoBayinCubaandinIraqandAfghanistan.Between them,theUSmilitaryandtheCentralIntelligenceAgency(CIA)runapproximately twentyfiveprisonsinAfghanistanandseventeeninIraq.24Thevolumeofprisoners inoffshoreUSprisonsissignificantandincreasing.ThenumberofprisonersinIraq, forexample,iscontinuallyexpanding.AftertheclosureofAbuGhraibfollowingthe 2004releaseofphotographsandvideosrevealingtortureandabuseofprisoners there,thefirstpermanentUSprisona$60millionsupermaximumsecurity prisonwasopenedatCampCropper,nearBaghdadairport.Additionally,despite thereleaseofmanyprisoners,anew$38millionfacilityisbeingbuiltat GuantanamoBay.25 PrisonerTortureRUS The2004publicationofphotographsdepictingtorture,abuse,degradationand humiliationofprisonersatAbuGhraibprisoninIraqfocusedworldattentiononthe issueofterrorinflicteduponprisonersintheUSledwaronterror.Mainstream opinionandofficialcommentaryintheUSwerequicktodismisstherevelationsas unrepresentativeofUSpracticesinthewaronterrorandmoreprofoundly unrepresentativeofthevaluesattheheartofthenation.ThePresidentdismissed thepracticesasnotAmericanwhileothers,weddedtotheideaoftheUSasan internationalparagonofvirtueandamodelofdemocracy,framedtherevelationsin thecontextoftheideaoftheUSaslongstandingglobalmoralexemplar.26Forthese commentators,thedamagedonetotheprisonerswassecondaryandinsignificant comparedtothatdonetothenationsreputation.TypicalwasthelamentbyoneUS senatorthat:

ChalmersJohnson,Nemesis:TheLastDaysoftheAmericanRepublic2006),36. AveryGordon,TheUSMilitaryPrison:TheNormalcyofExceptionalBrutalityinTheViolenceof Incarcerationeds.PhilScratonandJudeMcCulloch(Routledge:London,forthcoming2008) 26 Davis,AbolitionDemocracy;Rajiva,TheLanguageofEmpire

25

24

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Worstofall,ournation,anationthat,toadegreeunprecedentedinhuman history,hassacrificeditsbloodandtreasuretosecurelibertyandhumanrights aroundtheworldnowmusttrytoconvincetheworldthatthehorrificimageson theirTVscreensandfrontpagesarenottherealAmerica,thatwhattheyseeis notwhoweare.27

USpatriotswereanxioustopresenttheabuseasatypical:notrepresentativeeither ofthetreatmentofprisonersinthewaronterrororofthevaluesofliberty, democracyandhumanrightsthattheybelievetheUSholdsdear.Despitethese protestations,itisabundantlyclearthatthedocumentedabuse,humiliation,sexual degradation,brutality,andtorturebyUSpersonnelinIraqandatotherlocationsis notaberrantbutsystematicandinstitutionalisedintheUSledwaronterror.28 Beyondthis,thetortureandgrossmistreatmentpractisedinUSoffshoreprisons mirrortheexperiencesofmillionsofUSprisonersincarceratedindomesticprisons andimmigrationdetentioncentres.Thesepracticesamounttoandareexperienced asformsofstateperpetratedterror.Furthermore,becausesuchpracticesare experiencedsodisproportionatelybyparticulargroupsArabsandMuslimsinthe waronterrorandAfricanAmericansindomesticprisonstheysendamessageto thesecommunitiesbeyondtheprisonwallsabouttheircollectivevulnerabilityto stateviolence,thustraumatisingandterrorisingentirecommunities.WhiletheAbu Ghraibphotographsandotherrevelationsanddocumentationoftortureandabuse inUSoffshoreprisonsarerightlythefocusofmoraloutragethereisnobasisfor beingsurprisedorshocked.29 MillionsofUScitizenshavefirsthandexperienceofsimilartreatmentand conditionsindomesticprisonsandthousandsofnoncitizenshavebeensubjectto suchinimmigrationdetentionfacilitiesinsidetheUS.In2000,JoyJameswroteof

SenatorSusanM.CollinsquotedinNeilMacMasterTorturefromAlgierstoAbuGhraibRaceand Class46no.2(2004):122atp2 28 SeymourHersh,TheOtherWar,NewYorker,April12,2004;Johnson,Nemesis:TheLastDaysof theAmericanRepublic,3345. 29 GordonAbuGhraib:imprisonmentandthewaronterror,44

27

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theinstitutionalisationoftorture,abuseandrepressionintheUSpenalsystem.30In short,USprisonsconstituteanapparatusofstateterror.Thetensofthousandsof UScitizenswhoworkinprisonshaveauthorised,supervised,witnessedordirectly participatedinthisstateterror.JudithGreenpointsoutthat[e]xperienced observers...arequicktorecognizethattheAbuGhraibphotosreekofthecruelbut usualmethodsofcontrolusedbymanyUSprisonpersonnel.31Thedehumanisation exposedbythephotographsisthemodusoperandiofthelawful,modern,stateof theartprison.32AngelaDavisarguesthatthepermissive,barbaricpractices revealedinUSdetentioninthewaronterrorareareflectionandextensionofthe normalizationoftorturewithindomesticprisons.33Shemaintainsthatthetorture ofprisonersinoffshoreprisonshasfoundationslaiddeepintheroutine,quotidian violencethatisjustifiedastheeverydaymeansofcontrollingprisonpopulationsin theUS.34 OneaspectofthephotographsandvideosfromAbuGhraibthatarousedparticular outrageanddisgustwasthedepictionofthesexualcoercionandhumiliation inflictedonprisoners.ThePhysiciansforHumanRightsreportintothesystematic useofpsychologicaltorturebyUSforcesinthewaronterrorstatesthat[t]heuse ofhumiliationasameansofbreakingdowntheresistanceofdetainees,including forcednudity...beganwhenthewaronterrorbegan.35Thisstatement,andthe outragedsurpriseaccompanyingthepublicrevelationsofsexualabuseand humiliation,beliestherealitythatsexualcoercion,mostparticularlyintheformof routinestripsearches,isalongstandingandnormalisedaspectofstateterrorwithin USdomesticprisons,aswellasinprisonsinotheradvancedliberaldemocracies.36
30

JoyJamesTheDysfunctionalandDisappearing:Democracy,RaceandImprisonmentSocial Identities6no.4(2000):483493atp.483 31 Greene,FromAbuGhraibtoAmerica:ExaminingOurHarshPrisonCulture,atp.4 32 GordonAbuGhraib:imprisonmentandthewaronterror,49 33 Davis,AbolitionDemocracyp.114 34 Davis,AbolitionDemocracyp.115 35 PhysiciansforHumanRightsBreakThemDown:SystematicUseofPsychologicalTorturebyUS Forces(Washington:PhysiciansforHumanRights,2005):5. 36 See,McCulloch,JandGeorge,ANakedPower:StripSearchinginWomensPrisonsinThe ViolenceofIncarcerationeds.PhilScratonandJudeMcCulloch(NewYork:Routledge,2008, forthcoming).

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Therearedeepconnectionsbetweensexualviolenceandthegenderedprocesses ofdisciplineandpowerembeddedinsystemsofimprisonment.37 Therearealsosimilaritiesinthedesignofthenewlybuiltwaronterrorprisonsand domesticprisons.ThemaximumsecurityprisonatGuantanamoBay,forexample, whichimposescruel,dehumanisingsensorydeprivationconditionsthatbreakdown anddestroyhumanbeings,physicallyandpsychologically,isbasedonthedesignof aMiamiprison.38Additionally,GuantanamoBaymirrorsandextendsthetrend withintheUStowarehouseprisonersinsupermaximumsecurityfacilities.39Another indicationoftheconnectionandcontinuitybetweenUSglobalprisonsanddomestic prisonsistheoverlapinpersonnel.ManyofthoserevealedtobetorturersatAbu GhraibgainedtheirinitialexperienceinprisonsinsidetheUS.One,whotookona leadershiproleatAbuGhraib,infamouslyremarkedinacommentthatreflectsa pervertedtakeonjobsatisfaction:TheChristianinmesaysitswrong,butthe correctionsofficerinmesaysIlovetomakeagrownmanpisshimself40.AsUS prisonactivistJudithGreeneputsit,thevengefulpenalphilosophyandharshprison culturehaveledtoadreadfullevelofbrutalityandhumanrightsabusesinourown prisons,andnowthismaliciouslypunitivementalityhasbeenexportedtoIraqby U.S.prisonpersonnel.41Since2003morethan5,000civilianprisonguardshave beencalleduptomilitaryservice.42 Conditions,trends,technologyandotherinnovationscirculatebetweenthevarious spacesofincarcerationsothatthebordersbetweentheUScriminaljusticesystem andtheexpandingUSglobalcarceralcomplexareintertwinedandincreasingly indistinct.Theconnectionsbetweentheinstitutionalisedstateterrorinthewaron

Davis,AbolitionDemocracyp.115 CarolRosenberg,PermanentJailsetforGuantanamoDecember92004MiamiHerald http://www.commondreams.org/headlines04/120909.htm(accessed26February2008). 39 LornaRhodes,TotalConfienment:MadnessandReasonintheMaximumSecurityPrison(Berkely: UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2004). 40 SpecialistCharlesA.GranerquotedinGreeneFromAbuGhraibtoAmerica:ExaminingOurHarsh PrisonCulture,atp.2 41 GreeneFromAbuGhraibtoAmerica:ExaminingOurHarshPrisonCulture,atp4 42 Gordon,TheUSMilitaryPrison:TheNormalcyofExceptionalBrutality

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terrorandstateterrorinUSdomesticprisonsaredemonstratedonanumberof levels,includingtheexchangeofpersonnelbetweendomesticprisonsandwaron terrorprisons,andtheroutinestateterrorinflicteduponprisonersanddetaineesin boththeglobalanddomesticprisons.Inaddition,theroutinedenialofthe systematicandinstitutionalisednatureofstateterrorisafeatureofbothdomestic andwaronterrorprisons.Increasingly,thestatescoercivecapacitiesare paralleledormirroredinsideandoutsidenationalborders.43Theevidenceofstate terroragainstprisonersinthewaronterrorisbothforetoldandprescientin relationtostateterrorindomesticprisons. CirculatingStateTerror:FromCriminalInjusticetoMilitaryInjustice Thebordersbetweenforeignanddomesticpolicies,andbetweenmilitaryaction andcriminaljustice,havebeenincrementallybutextensivelyerodedoverthepast threedecades.SincetheendoftheColdWar,thetraditionalboundariesbetween aninternallyorienteddomesticpolicesphereandanexternallyorientedmilitary spherehavebecomeincreasinglyblurred.44Thisprocesshasacceleratedmarkedly inthepost9/11era.Thewaronterrorextendsthetrendestablishedwiththe continuingUSledwarsondrugs,organisedcrimeandearlyiterationsofthewaron terror,whichwasfirstdeclaredusingsimilarrhetoricduringthepresidencyof GeorgeBushseniorinthe1980s.45Theblurringoftraditionalboundariesismanifest inhybridmilitaryandcriminaljusticeconfigurationsandoperationsatboththe nationalandgloballevels.46Nationaldefence,internalsecurityandlaw

MichaelHardtSovereignty(2002) <muse.jhu.edu/journals/theory_and_event/v005/5.4hardt.html>,(accessed15July2005) 44 P,AndreasandR,PriceFromwarfightingtocrimefighting:TransformingtheAmericannational securitystateInternationalStudiesReview3no.3(2001):3152p.32 45 NoamChomsky,PiratesandEmperors,OldandNew:InternationalTerrorismintheRealWorld (London:PlutoPress,2002)p.2 46 JudeMcCullochBluearmies,KhakipoliceandthecavalryonthenewAmericanfrontier:Critical Criminologyforthe21stCenturyCriticalCriminology,200412pp.309326;P,AndreasandR,Price Fromwarfightingtocrimefighting:TransformingtheAmericannationalsecuritystate;E,Alliez andA,NegriPeaceandWarTheoryCultureandSociety,20,no.2:109118.

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enforcementhaveincreasinglymerged.47PresidentGeorgeW.Bush,settingoutthe USnationalsecuritystrategyin2002,observed,[t]oday,thedistinctionbetween domesticandforeignaffairsisdiminishing.48Thewaronterrorhasconsolidated andextendedtheblendingofcrimeandwarsothatsecuritisationathome parallelscloselywarabroad.49 Thewaronterrorandtheaccompanyingstateofemergencyisinfinitebecauseitis nottemporarilyorgeographicallybounded,being,asPresidentGeorgeW.Bush termsit,aglobalenterpriseofuncertainduration.50Inthesecircumstancesthestate ofemergencyandtheexceptionalmeasuresthatfollowbecomethepermanent norm.51Theopeningupofaglobalmilitarisedpolitysubjecttocontinuous peacekeepingbyanarmyofglobocops,thathasemergedandintensifiedpost 9/11,hascombinedthecoercivepowersofwarwiththepunitivenessofthecriminal justicesystemtocreateaframeworkthatseekstodenythebasichumanrightsof individuals,caughtwithinthenetofwhataredeemedcounterterroristmilitary interventions.Itdeniesthemtheprotectionofinternationallawsembodiedin instrumentssuchastheGenevaConventionsandtheprotectionstraditionally affordedcriminalsuspects.52Theconflationoftherulesofwarandcriminaljustice haveprecedenceinthecolonialpast.53

JonathanWhiteTerrorisminTransitioninHandbookofTransnationalCrimeandJusticeed.Philip Reichel(ThousandOakes:SagePublications):26578;PeterKraskaandVictorKappelerMilitarizing Americanpolice:theriseandnormalizationofparamilitaryunitsSocialProblems,44,no.1(1997):1 18;MichaelHardtandAntonioNegriEmpire(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,2000),189. 48 GeorgeBush,TheNationalSecurityStrategyoftheUSofAmericaWashington:TheWhiteHouse (2002) 49 A.KaplanHomelandInsecurities:TransformationsofLanguageandSpaceinSeptember11in History:AWatershedMoment?Ed.M,Dudziak(DurnhamandLondon:DukeUniversityPress,2003); JudeMcCullochBluearmies,KhakipoliceandthecavalryonthenewAmericanfrontier:Critical Criminologyforthe21stCentury 50 GeorgeBush,TheNationalSecurityStrategyoftheUSofAmericap.i 51 GeorgioAgamben,StateofException(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2005):3 52 Seeforexample,JudithButler,PrecariousLife:ThePowersofMourningandViolence(London: Verso,2004),Chapter3;JudeMcCullochandBreeCarlton,Preemptingjustice:thesuppressionof financingofterrorismandthewaronterror,CurrentIssuesInCriminalJustice17:397412.
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Emmanuelle Saada, The History Lessons: Power and Rule in Imperial Formations, Items and Issues,SocialScienceResearchCouncil,4,no.4,Fall/Winter,(2003):1017.

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Priorto9/11,theUShadalreadytakensomeinitialstepsalongtheroadto becomingjailertotheworld.In1989itinvadedPanamainlinewithitswaron drugs,purportedlyinpursuitofnarcoterrorists.Inthewakeoftheinvasion,5,000 PanamanianswereheldindetentioninsidePanamawithoutchargeformanyyears bytheUS.54TheUSbehaviourtowardsandwithinPanamaprovidesanearly exampleoftheextensionofthelongarmofUScriminaljusticeintoextraterritorial contexts.The2001PresidentialOrder(referredtoabove)representsaformalisation andextensionofUSdomesticpolicingandpunishmentintoglobalspaces.To understandthenatureandsignificanceofthegrowthofaUSglobalcarceral complexandtheimpetusthatunderpinsit,itisnecessarytofirstappreciatethe nature,extentandfunctionofmassincarcerationwithintheUS. MassincarcerationandstateterrorintheUS Priorto9/11,prisonpopulationsinmostWesterncountriesexpandedrapidly.The forerunnerofthistrendistheUSwheretherehasbeenanunprecedentedincrease inprisonerssincethe1980s.55Inthetwodecadesbetween1980andtheturnofthe millenniumtheUSprisonpopulationroseby319%.56The1990swerethegolden ageofprisonexpansioninAmerica,withadoublingofthenumberofincarcerated menandwomen,from1.1millionin1990tonearly2millionin2000,whilespending onincarcerationapproached$40billion.57Theextentofmassincarcerationinthe USisunprecedentedinthehistoryofliberaldemocracyandhasnoparallelinthe Westernworld.58Thephenomenonisnotconfinedsimplytonumbersandratesof imprisonment.Anothersignificantdimensionconcernsthesocialconcentrationof
54

JoyJames,HuntingPrey:TheUSInvasionofPanamainResistingStateViolence:Radicalism, Gender,andRaceintheUSCultureed.JoyJames(Minneapolis:London,1996),6383. 55 RichardSparks,StatePunishmentinAdvancedCapitalistCountriesinPunishmentandSocial Controleds.T.BlombergandS.Cohen(NewYork:mAldineDeGruyer,2003),30 56 JamesAustin,JohnIrwin,andCharisKurbinItsAboutTime:AmericasImprisonmentBingein PunishmentandSocialControleds.T.BlombergandS.Cohen(NewYork:mAldineDeGruyer,2003), 433 57 K,Pranis,CampusActivismDefeatsMultinationalsPrisonProfiteeringinPrisonNationThe WarehousingofAmericasPoorineds.T.Herviel&P.Wright(NewYorkandLondon:Routledge, 2003),156. 58 Sparks,StatePunishmentinAdvancedCapitalistCountriesp.30

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imprisonmentseffects.59In2001,66%ofinmatesinprivateprisonswereracial minorities,withAfricanAmericansconstitutingthesinglelargestgroup(43.9%).60In 2003,forevery100,000blackmalesintheUSagedbetween20and44,36,932men wereinprisons.Thenumberforwhitemaleswas4,954.61Theupwardspiralof incarceration,combinedwiththeoverrepresentationofparticularcommunities andgroupsofpeopleasprisonersanddetainees,meanthatincarcerationistoo frequentlyadefiningexperienceforthesegroupsandcommunities.Beyond reflectingbroadersocialinequalitiesandstructuralviolence,imprisonmentalso playsadefiningroleinamplifyingthesephenomena.Imprisonmentisracialisedand gendered,mirroringandextendingthepainfulandburdensomelegaciesofslavery andcolonisation,alongwiththemyriadandintersectingoppressionsof patriarchy.62PrisonhasalsobeenusedtopunishpoliticaldissidentsthroughoutUS history.63Theprisonanddetentioncentrealsoprovidekeyexperiencesforthe increasingnumberofpeoplewhoworkinsidetheseinstitutions,particularlyasother employmentopportunitiesandtheabilitytoescapesuchemploymenthave contractedmarkedly.64

Garland,Themeaningofmassimprisonment,p.1 MichaelHallett,PrivatePrisonsinAmerica:ACriticalRacePerspective(UrbanaandChicago: UniversityofIllinoisPress,2006),p.4 61 MichaelHallett,PrivatePrisonsinAmerica:ACriticalRacePerspective(UrbanaandChicago: UniversityofIllinoisPress,2006),p78. 62 AngelaDavis,ArePrisonsObsolete(NewYork:SevenStoriesPress,2003);Davis,Abolition Democracy 63 WardChurchillandVanderWall,eds.CagesofSteel:ThePoliticsofImprisonmentintheUS (Washington,DC:MaisonneuvePress,1992). 64 RuthGilmoreWilson,GoldenGulag:Prisons,Surplus,Crisis,andOppositioninGlobalizing (California,Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2007).
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PrivatePrisons Theterm,prisonindustrialcomplex,wascoinedbyactivistsandscholarstocontest prevailingbeliefsthatincreasedlevelsofcrimeweretherootcauseofmounting prisonpopulationandtounderlinetheconnectionsbetweencorporateinterests andincarceration.65Prisonindustrialcomplexdrawsandbuildsfromtheterm, militaryindustrialcomplex,firstusedintheearly1960sbyUSPresidentEisenhower inhisfarewellspeechtowarnaboutthedangersoftheconjunctionofanimmense militaryestablishmentandalargearmsindustry.66Eisenhowersearlywarning provedprescient.In2003,RobertHiggssummarizedthemilitaryindustrialcomplex as:
[a]vastcesspoolofmismanagement,waste,andtransgressionnotonlybordering onbutoftenenteringintocriminalconductThegreatarmsfirmshavemanaged tosloughoffmuchofthenormalrisksofdoingbusinessinagenuinemarket, passingonmanyoftheirexcessivecoststothetaxpayerswhilestillrealizing extraordinaryratesofreturnoninvestment.67

TheboominprisonpopulationsandratesofimprisonmentwithintheUScoincided withtheestablishmentofprivateprisoncorporationsduringthe1980s.Theability ofprivatecorporationstoprofitthroughpunishmentandimprisonmentis understoodtobeasignificantdriverofpunitivepenalpolicyandassociated increasesinimprisonmentwithintheUS.AsGovernorofTexas,priortobeing electedpresident,GeorgeWBushwasinstrumentalinpositioningthatstateasthe worldcapitaloftheprivateprisonindustry.68Duringhistimeasgovernorthe numberofprivateprisonsinTexasgrewfrom26to42.69

Davis,ArePrisonsObsoletep.84 Chalmers,Johnson,TheSorrowsofEmpire:Militarism,SecrecyandtheEndofEmpire(London: Verso2004),39 67 quotedibid,309 68 JudithGreeneBailingOutPrivateJailsTheAmericanProspectSeptember10,2001 69 NaomiKlein,TheShockDoctrine:TheRiseofDisasterCapitalism(AllenLane:Camberwell,Victoria, 2007):294
66 65

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TheunprecedentednatureofmassincarcerationintheUSprovokedspeculationon thelimitstowhichitcouldbetaken.70In1995,aseniorexecutiveofCorrection CorporationofAmericaarguedthattheUSAmarketwouldexpandalmost indefinitely.71Priortotheadventofthe2001waronterror,commentators assumed,however,thatnationalbordersprovidedatleastaterritoriallimitonmass incarcerationfacilitatedthroughUSpenalpolicy.JamesAustinandhiscoauthors publishedachapterin2003,butclearlywrittenpriorto2001,observingthat:
Americahashadtoconstructitslocationsofbanishmentwithinitsborder.This hasbeendoneatfeverishpace.AswasdoneineighteenthcenturyEngland,we eventriedusingbargesinNewYorkCity.AlthoughwelackanAustraliawherewe cansetupprisoncolonies,weareincreasinglybuildinghugemegaprison settlementsinisolatedruralcommunitieswherelandischeap...72

TheNovember2001PresidentialOrder,however,substantiallydemolishedthe limitsofterritory.The1989invasionofPanama(seeabove)providesoneearly exampleoftheextraterritorialimpositionofimprisonmentbytheUS.The involvementoftransnationalcorporationsinprisonsandimmigrationdetention centresprovidedanothermeansbywhichthelimitsofterritoryonmass incarcerationwerebreachedpriortothePresidentialOrder. Shortlyaftertheyemergedinthe1980sintheUS,privateprisoncompaniesactively pursuedexpandingmarketsandprofitsbeyondtheirhomebase.73USprivateprison corporationsarerunningprisonsinorhaverunprisonsincountriesincluding Australia,Canada,NewZealand,theUnitedKingdomandSouthAfrica.74Despite
Garland,Themeaningofmassimprisonment,p.3 Richard Harding, Private Prisons and Public Accountability, (Buckingham: Open University Press, 1997),4 72 JamesAustin,JohnIrwin,andCharisKurbinItsAboutTime:AmericasImprisonmentBingein PunishmentandSocialControleds.T.BlombergandS.Cohen(NewYork:mAldineDeGruyer,2003), 441 73 StephenNathan,PrisonPrivatizationintheUnitedKingdominCapitalistPunishment:Prison PrivatizationandHumanRights,190 74 Andrew,Coyle,AllisonCampbellandRodneyNeufeld,IntroductioninCapitalistPunishment: PrisonPrivatizationandHumanRights,1
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thesesuccessesinmarketexpansion,transnationalprivateprisonscorporations have,however,encounteredsomesignificantbarriersinenteringtheinternational market.Governmentsincountriesthatareideologicallywelldisposedtoneoliberal principleshavebeenwillingtoembraceprivateprisonsaspartofthetrendaway frompublicownershipandstatecontroltowardsprivatisation.Nevertheless,ithas oftentakencompaniesseveralyearsoflobbyingtopersuadegovernmentsoutside oftheUS,particularlyinthefaceoflabourunionopposition,thatprivatisationisa goodoptionforprisons.75EvenincountrieslikeAustralia,wherestategovernments haveenthusiasticallyembracedprisonprivatisation,76privateprisonshaveruninto sustainedandsometimespassionatepublicopposition.Alongrunningcampaignby prisonactivistsinVictoria(astateinAustralia),forexample,forcedthegovernment touseitsemergencypowerstostepinandtakeoverthemanagementofawomens prisonfromtheUSprivatecorporationthathadbeenrunningitforfouryears.The campaignsucceededindocumentingandpublicisingescalatingviolence, mismanagement,coverup,andmultipleandseriousbreachesofcontractwhich endangeredbothprisonstaffandprisoners.Thecampaign,linkedtosimilaractivist groupswithintheUS,wascriticalnotonlyoftheparticularcircumstancesofthe specificprisonandtheprivateprisoncompanythatranit,butofthewholeconcept ofprisonsforprofit.77 PrivateprisonshavealsohadsomesuccessinpenetratingmarketsintheGlobal South.TheWorldBankandtheInternationalMonetaryFund,globalcrusadersfor neoliberalism,haveattemptedtoimposeprivateprisonsondevelopingcountriesas partofstructuraladjustmentprograms,butsucheffortshavemetresistance.78Even intheUS,wherethecompanieswieldconsiderablepoliticalinfluence,thebehaviour ofthecompaniescombinedwithphilosophicalobjectionstopunishmentforprofit
StephenNathan,PrisonPrivatizationintheUnitedKingdominCapitalistPunishment:Prison PrivatizationandHumanRights,164 76 PaulMoyle,ProfitingfromPunishment:PrivatePrisonsinAustralia:ReformorRegression? (Annandale:PlutoPress,2000),1 77 AmandaGeorge,WomenPrisonersasCustomers:CountingtheCostsofthePrivatelyManaged MetropolitanWomensCorrectionalCentre:AustraliainCapitalistPunishment:PrisonPrivatization andHumanRights. 78 Nathan,PrisonPrivatizationintheUnitedKingdompp.198201
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haveresultedincommunitycampaignsthathavesucceededinrevealingthemas cheats,liarsandliabilities.Theserevelationshaveledtoadeclineinprofitsanda slowdowninprivateprisongrowth.Themassiveexpansionofprivateprisonswithin theUSinthe1980sand1990shasnotcontinuedintothenewmillennium.79 ThedecelerationintheexpansionofprivateprisonswithintheUShascoincided withanexpandinginternationalmarketforprofitfromprisons.Invasionand occupationovercomethelimitationsofnationalterritoryandprovidespacesand humanbeingsthatcanbecapturedandimprisoned,thusexpandingtheUSproject ofmassincarceration.Despitethemassivelydisproportionateincarcerationof peopleofcolourwithintheUSandtheracismmanifestateverylevelofthecriminal justicesystem,longtermincarcerationtherestillrequirestheapplicationofsome formalprocessanddeterminationofguilt,althoughsince9/11domesticlegislation hassubstantiallyerodeddueprocessprotections.Thedeclarationofthewaron terror,thePresidentialOrder,andinvasionsofandsubsequentoccupationsof AfghanistanandIraq,however,havedisposedwitheventhepretextofdueprocess. PeopleinAfghanistanandIraqandindeedanywhereintheworldcanbecaptured, abductedandincarceratedindefinitelybytheUS.Thiscaptureanddetentionisnot basedonwhatpeoplehavedone,orevenonwhattheyaresuspectedtohavedone oraresuspectedofplanningtodo,butonwhattheymightdoatsomeunspecified timeinthefuturetoharmtheinterestshoweverthesemightbedefinedofthe US.80TherearetensofthousandsofpeopleinoffshoreUSprisons,heldwithout chargeorevidence,sometimesforyears.Thesepeople,manyofwhomhavehad nothingtodowithinsurgencyorviolentoppositionatall,includingchildren,women andtheelderly,makeupthenextwaveofUSmassincarceration. DisasterCapitalism:StateTerror,theWaronTerrorandPrivateProfit
79

ChristianParenti,PrivatizedProblems:ForProfitIncarcerationinTroubleinCapitalist Punishment:PrisonPrivatizationandHumanRightspp.3038 80 JudeMcCullochandBreeCarlton,Preemptingjustice:thesuppressionoffinancingofterrorism andthewaronterror,CurrentIssuesInCriminalJustice17:397412

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Thereislittleempiricalevidenceavailabledetailingtheprofitsmadebyprivate prisoncorporationsinthewaronterror.Whatwedoknow,however,isthatprivate corporationsaremakinghugeprofitsinthewaronterrorandthatprisonsarean importantandsignificantaspectofthewaronterror.PeterMcLarenandGregory Martin,commentingontheprofitsflowingtomajorUScompaniesfromthe invasionsofAfghanistanandIraq,observedthat[t]hebestbusinessintheglobal marketplacethesedaysappearstobethebusinessofbombingtheinfrastructureof acountrytotheStoneAgeandthenreceivingmillionsofdollarstorebuildit.81 Postinvasionreconstructionandtheprovisionofservicesduringoccupationhave createdhugeopportunitiesforprivatefirms.Theenthusiasticexploitationofthese opportunitieshasbeendubbeddisastercapitalismandhailed,astheriseofthe disastercapitalismcomplex.82Duringthefirstfourteenmonthsoftheoccupationof Iraq,theUSledregimespentaround$20billioninIraqioilrevenue,mostofwhich wasdistributedtoUScorporations.83Theprivatecontractorsandmercenaryarmies aremakinghugeprofitsinIraq.84Sincethefirstyearofoccupationreconstruction fundshavebeenredirectedtopayforthemilitaryandsecuritycostsofthe occupation.85WhilemoneyforreconstructioninIraqhassloweddown,moneyfor buildingprisonscontinuestoflow.TheUSStateDepartmentsonlyrequestfor rebuildingfundsfromCongressin2006was$100millionforprisons.86Atthetimeof writing,therewerecallsouttoprivatefirmsforupto$5millionofservicesforthe newlyconstructedCampCropperprisoninIraq.87Bymid2004,multinational HalliburtonsincomefromGuantanamoBaywasapproximatelyUS$155million.88

PeterMcLarenandGregoryMartin,TheLegendoftheBushGang:Imperialism,Warand PropagandaCulturalStudies:CriticalMethodologies4no.3(2004):281303atp.296;seealso,Dave WhyteTheCrimesofNeoLiberalRuleinOccupiedIraqBritishJournalofCriminology,2007,47no.2 (2007):177195. 82 NaomiKleinTheriseofdisasterCapitalismTheNation,May2,2005;NaomiKlein,TheShock Doctrine:TheRiseofDisasterCapitalism(AllenLane:Camberwell,Victoria,2007),281. 83 WhyteTheCrimesofNeoLiberalRuleinOccupiedIraq 84 Klein,TheShockDoctrine,p.9;1314;JeremyScahill,Blackwater:TheRiseoftheWorldsMost PowerfulMercenaryArmy(SerpentsTail:London,2007);PeterSinger,CorporateWarriors 85 DaveWhyteHireanAmerican!EconomicTyrannyandCorruptioninIraqSocialJustice,2007,34 no.2(2007):159 86 TheAge,2March2006 87 YMultipleAwardTaskOrderContract(MATOC)forConstructionprojectsatCampCropperwithin CampVictoryinstallation,Baghdad,Iraq

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Iamnotawareofanyspecificresearchontheroleofprivateprisoncorporationsin thewaronterror.Howeverjoiningthedotsbetweenthebehaviourofthese corporationswithintheUSandothermarketstheyhavepenetratedpreviously, suchasAustralia,andthebehaviourofprivatecorporationswithinIraqgenerally, wheresystematicandinstitutionalizedcorruptionhasbeendocumented,onecan speculatethatthedistinctionbetweenprivateprofitandpublicinterestisnon existentandthatprofitisseenasanendinitself,regardlessofhumancosts. Inabookpublishedin1995,DavidShichor,consideringtheargumentsforand againstprivateprisons,claimedthat:
nobodyseriouslyrecommendsthatthemilitarybeprivatized,thatwarsbefought bysoldiersandsailorsemployedbyIBM,orsay,FightingForcesofAmerica,Inc.If deathanddisasteronaconsiderablescaleareinevitableproductstheruleseems tobethattheresponsibilityisthebusinessofgovernment.Thegovernmentisat leastresponsivetothewilloftheelectorate,anditpresumablywillnotdeclareor wagewarwithprofitasitsmajorgoal.89

Morethantenyearsafterthesewordswerewritten,withthewidespreaduseof contractors,evencombatforces,ineveryaspectofthewaronterror,theideaofa privatisedmilitary,includingprivatemilitaryprisonsandwardrivenbythepursuit ofprofitseemslessabsurd,thoughnolessmorallyrepugnantorconfrontingto notionsofaccountablegovernment.90However,inconsideringprofit,particularly profitsfromprisons,asoneofthedriversofthewaronterror,itisimportantnotto gettoocaughtupinfocusingontheroleofspecificcorporations,thoughworkhas barelybeguneveninrelationtothataspect.Itisofahigherlevelofimportanceto

http://www.fbodaily.com/archive/2007/04April/05Apr2007/FBO01265724.htm(accessed27th February2008) 88 DavidRose,Guantanamo:TheWaronHumanRights(NewYork:TheNewPress 2004),54 89 David,Shichor,PunishmentforProfit:PrivatePrisons/PublicConcerns(ThousandOaks:Sage, 1995),vii. 90 See,forexample,Klein,TheShockDoctrine,p1314

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examinethecapitalistsystemasawholeandthebroaderpoliticsthatdriveglobal massincarceration,alongwiththestateterrorandterrorismthataccompanyit.91 CriminologistDaveWhyteconcludes,basedonfieldresearchinIraq,that[v]irulent andinstitutionalizedcorruptioninIraqhasextendedtheneocolonialreachoftheUS sustainingamuchbroaderstrategyofdomination.92 PrisonsfortheFreeWorld Violenceandincarcerationincludingtorture,abuse,sexualviolenceand supermaximumsecurityconditions,domesticallyandinthewakeofmilitary aggression,amounttostateterrorbecausetheyareinevitablyexperiencedasa formofterrorbyincarceratedpeople.Beyondthisviolenceandincarceration,both domesticallyandinthewaronterror,areaformofstateterrorism.Theimpactsof violenceandincarcerationareconcentratedinracialisedandcriminalisedgroups. Violenceandincarcerationarepartofapoliticalstrategydesignedtosenda messageaboutthesocial,politicalandeconomicsystemasawholeandstrikefear intothosecommunitiesthataredisproportionatelythevictimsofviolenceand incarceration. Beyondthepurelyeconomicrationaleoftheprison,massincarcerationintheUS servesanimportantideologicalfunction:[t]heprisonindustrialcomplexisnotonly asetofinterestgroupsandinstitutions.Itisalsoastateofmind.93Neoliberalism andrepressivesocialcontrolareapackagedealthroughwhichtherhetoricof criminalizationandpunishmentlegitimizesstatesthathaverenegedontheir commitmenttothesocialwage.94AsAngelaDavisargues,prison:

Parenti,PrivatizedProblems:ForProfitIncarcerationinTroublep.30 DaveWhyteHireanAmerican!EconomicTyrannyandCorruptioninIraqSocialJustice,2007,34 no.2(2007):164 93 SchlosserquotedinHallettPrivatePrisonsinAmericap.80 94 PhilomenaMariani,Overview:Law,order,andneoliberalism,SocialJustice,vol28,no3,(2001) pp.24

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...functionsideologicallyasanabstractsiteintowhichundesirablesaredeposited, relievingusofthinkingaboutrealissuesafflictingthosecommunitiesfromwhich prisonersaredrawninsuchdisproportionatenumbersItrelievesusofthe responsibilityofseriouslyengagingwiththeproblemsofoursociety,especially thoseproducedbyracism,andincreasinglyglobalcapitalismTheprisonhas becomeablackholeintowhichthedetritusofcontemporarycapitalismis deposited.95

WithintheUS,criminalisationofAfricanandIndigenousAmericansresonateswith theslaveryandgenocidesofformertimesandassistsinmaintainingAfrican AmericansandIndigenouspeopleasmarginalisedandvilifiedminorities,thus workingtoobscurethecontinuinghistoryofstateterrorandterrorism.Mass incarcerationofthepoor,acategorywhichsubstantiallyoverlapswithrace, blamesthevictimsforthemyriadandintensifyingfailuresofcapitalismunder conditionsofneoliberalglobalisation.Thosethatactivelyopposeandresist neoliberalismarealsoexiledandisolated,ifnotsilenced,throughincarceration. Massincarcerationisdrivenasmuchbythepoliticalprofitasthematerialprofitthat goeshandinhandwiththepromotionoffearandthepunishmentofcriminalised andracialisedgroups.Statesnolongerwillingorabletorespondtodemandsfor socialjusticeunderthetenetsofneoliberalismarequicktorespondto,exacerbate andcreatethefearsthatunderliethedemandsforsecurityinitsmostrepressive andcoerciveforms.AsGirouxobserves:Whathasemergedisnotanimpotent state,butagarrisonstatethatincreasinglyprotectscorporateinterestswhile steppingupthelevelofrepressionandmilitarizationonthedomesticfront96a shiftfromwelfaretowarfarestate.TheUSastheexemplarofneoliberalismisalso theexemplarofthisprocess.Thefearandanxietymaintainedandeven manufacturedaroundcrime,andmorerecentlyandintenselyaroundnational security,servetodetractattentionawayfromproblematicdomesticpolitics.Law, orderandsecuritypoliticsmaskarangeofinsecuritiesthatarisefromgovernment

Davis,ArePrisonsObsolete?,16 HenryGiroux,GlobalCapitalismandtheReturnoftheGarrisonStateArenaJournalNewSeries 2002no.19:141160,p.143

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policiesbyassociatingnotionsofsecurityexclusivelywiththestateornationrather thanwithindividualsorcommunities. Inthesamewaythatdomesticmassincarcerationandstateterrorreflectand amplifysocialandracialhierarchieswithintheUS,theemergingglobalpracticeof incarcerationassiststomaintainhierarchiesbetweendifferentstates,primarilythe USandtherest,butalsotheWestandtherest,andbetweenpeopleswithinstates. Thelabelingofabroadrangeofsocialmovements,armedstrugglesand protagonistsinconflictshostiletotheinterestsoftheUSasterroristsworksto obscuretherealityoftheUSpursuitofselfinterestthroughstateterrorintheform ofmilitaryaggressionandincarceration. Inthesamewaythatneoliberalismandpunitivepenalpolicyhavemarchedhandin handdomesticallythespreadofneoliberalglobalisationhasextendedand intensifiedthisprocessthroughouttheworld.AsNaomiKleinpointsout,thereisa directconnectionbetweenmilitaryshockandawe,theeconomicshocktreatment ofcoercedneoliberalrestructuringandthephysicalandpsychologicalshock deliveredthroughmassincarcerationandendemictortureinthewaronterror.97 Internationally,theUnitesStatessuffersfromasuperioritycomplexwhich providesitwiththejustificationforconquest,invasionandcolonialrule,andserves toreducequalmsoverthemoralrightnessofdomination.98Eventhoughtful critiquesofpunitivepenalregimesassumethatsuchpracticesdonotimpactonthe fundamentalnatureofWesternsocietiesasthehomeofcivilizedpeople.James Austinandothers,forexample,reflectingonmassincarcerationintheUS, commentthat:[a]sacivilizedpeoplewemustnottoleratethis.99Theideathat massincarcerationmaybeuncivilbutneverthelessundertakenbycivilisedpeople

Klein,TheShockDoctrine,p7 Chalmers,Johnson,TheSorrowsofEmpire:Militarism,SecrecyandtheEndofEmpire(London: Verso2004),29 99 Austin,Irwin,andKurbinItsAboutTime:AmericasImprisonmentBingep.463.

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suggeststhatsuchpractices,whencarriedoutinputativeliberaldemocracies,may beproblematicbutnotdefining. Thefailuretoconsideruncivilpracticesofstateterrorthroughmassincarcerationto bedefiningisrelatedtothelongheldandfirmlyestablishednotionofWestern democracyastheoriginalandnaturalhomeofideasoffreedom,equalityand justice.Thedevelopmentofpostcolonialstudiesandcriticalracescholarshiphas revealedliberaldemocracieshistoricaltendencytowardsviolenceagainstand incarcerationofidentifiablegroups,whoaresocially,politicallyandculturally constructedasuncivilised.Democraticstateshaveroutinelydeniedaccesstorights andcitizenshiponthegroundsofrace,bothathomeandintheircolonies. Exclusionfromrightsviarenewednotionsofdangerousness,relatedparticularlyto classandrace,wasestablishedattheinceptionofmodernpenalsystems.100 Imperialistnarrativeshavealsoincorporatedtheideaofwesternliberalmarketsas fair,openandtransparentasopposedtocorruptionandbackwardnessassociated withprimitivelessdevelopedstates.101AsWilliamPfaffargues,theclaimtovirtue underliesnotionsofManifestDestinyasaclaimtopower.102Inpreviouserasthe ideaofManifestDestinyinvolvedspreadingwhitecivilisation,whereastodaysuch claimsarelikelytobemadeintermsofdemocracy,humanrightsandfree markets.103Ironically,theclaimstomoralvirtuetranslatedintoManifestDestiny laidthefoundationsfortheviolationoftherightsandprocessesunderpinningthose claims,coupledwithendemiccorruptionintheformoftheactivepromotionofwar, painandwholesaledisasterforprofit.Themythofmoralvirtueworkstohide, silence,minimiseanddenythecontinuingbrutalhistoryofmassincarcerationand

B. Hudson, B Justice in the Risk Society: challenging and reaffirming justice in late modernity, (London:Sage,2003),3536. 101 DaveWhyteHireanAmerican!EconomicTyrannyandCorruptioninIraqSocialJustice,2007,34 no.2(2007):153168 102 WilliamPfaff,ManifestDestiny:ANewDirectionforAmerica,TheNewYorkReviewofBooks,vol. LIV,no.2,2007:5458. 103 S,PereraOurPatch:DomainsofWhiteness,GeographiesofLackandAustraliasRacialHorizonin the war on terror in Our Patch: Enacting Australian Sovereignty Post 2001, 2007, S, Perera ed. pp.119146at.128129)

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thesystemiccorruptionofprivateprofitlinkedtopunishmentandprisonswithin Westerncountries,theUSinparticular.Themythofmoralvirtue,exemplifiedby thehypocriticalresponsetotherevelationsoftortureandabuseinUSglobal prisons,fuelsthemoralbasisforthepursuitofthewaronterrorandtheexpansion ofmassincarcerationinternationally.TheinvasionofIraqwas,amongotherthings, toutedasawayofendingthecorruptionoftheSaddamHusseinregime.Such statementsarenowviewed,inlightofrevelationsofpostinvasioncorruption,as breathtakinglyhypocritical.104 Conclusion

Thewaronterror,andspecificallytheexpansionofUSmassincarcerationto encompasstheentireplanet,provideanemblematicexampleofstates strategicdeploymentofcounterterrorismtoengageinthewidespreaduse ofterroragainstpeopleandcommunitiesstereotypedasterrorists.Despite protestationstothecontrarythedocumentedstateterrorandtortureof prisonersanddetaineesinthewaronterrorarenotoutsidethemoral frameworkoftheUSbutinsteadrevealthevaluesputintopracticedailyupon thebodiesofmillionsofprisonersbythousandsofAmericancitizens,bothin thecountryitselfandincreasinglyinitsglobalprisonsoffshore.Increasingly theboundariesbetweenhomelandandglobalsecurity,domesticand offshoreprisons,arerenderedporousasstateterrorandterrorismcirculate betweenspacesofviolenceandincarceration.Theinternaldriversofmass incarcerationintheUSinequality,racism,prisonsforprofitand neoliberalismmoregenerallyareembracingnewfrontiersandcapturingnew markets.ThepeopleoftheworldrepresentthebodiesuponwhichUSstate terror,intheformofmassincarcerationandtorture,willbepractised.Thewar onterror,includingthePresidentialOrderthatallowsforthecaptureand detentionofnoncitizensoftheUSanywhereintheworld,theinvasionsof

DaveWhyteHireanAmerican!EconomicTyrannyandCorruptioninIraqSocialJustice,2007,34 no.2(2007):160

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IraqandAfghanistan,andtheestablishmentofaglobalcarceralcomplex,have extendedandtransformedmassincarcerationfromaUSbasedphenomena toaprocessthatencompassestheentireglobe:amovefromgarrisonstateto garrisonplanet.

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FromCaretoCrimeChildreninStatecareandthedevelopmentof criminality
KatherineMcFarlane NewSouthWalesSentencingCouncil katherine_mcFarlane@agd.nsw.gov.au In1979,notoriousNSWprisoner,BernieMatthews,publishedanarticleinagaol housemagazine,celebratingtheYearoftheChild. Formostofusbehindthesewalls,theroadtoprisonhasbeenasteady progressionofBoy'sHomesandReformatories.Tosomewearecrime statistics.Toothers,weareacombinationofanimals,brutes,deviates, psychopaths,productsofbrokenhomes,orjustplainpsychologically unbalancedindividuals..... Duringthepast9yearsinprisonthereisonethingthathasoccurredwith monotonousregularity:theguysIknewinMt.PenangandAlbionStreetand Yasmarwereinthoseplacesfortruancy,runningawayfromhome,stealing andinsomecaseshousebreaking. TodayIseethoseguysIknew14and15yearsagowalkingtheyard.Now theyaredoingtimeformurder,rapearmedrobberyandkidnapping. Somemaylookatthisexampleinacynicalveinandremarkthatitisabig stepfromrobbingabicycletorobbingbanks.Itisn'tabigstepatall.ITISA PROGRESSIVEEXTENSIONOFTHEJUVENILE/JUSTICESYSTEM.1

Matthews,BernieContact,ParramattaCorrectionalCentre,1979

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Theprogressionfromjuvenileoffendingtoadultoffendinghasbeenclearly established.2However,Matthewsilluminatedanissuewhichmostotherstudiesor commentaryhaveoverlookedordownplayed.MtPenang,YasmarandAlbionStmay havebeenjuveniledetentioncentresthatcateredtoyoungoffenders,buttheyalso housedchildwelfarecases,thoseyoungpeoplewhowerecommittedtoaninstitution forbeingabandoned,neglectedorabused.InMatthewswords,theBoysHomesand reformatoriesdetainedchildrenwhohadtruantedorrunawayfromhome.Of significanceinthisobservationisnotmerelytheprogressionofyoungoffendersfrom juveniledetentiontoadultinstitutions,butanother,moredisturbingpathwaythat oftheoffendingtrajectoryofchildrenplacedinStatecareforpurelywelfarereasons. Academicresearchhaslargelyignoredthisvitalconnection.TheNSWBureauof CrimeStatisticsandResearch1974studyAThousandPrisoners3typifiesthewaythe overrepresentationofthosewithahistoryofcarearelostintheliterature.4BOCSAR reportedthatasubstantialnumberoftheprisoners(inNSW)hadlivedinan orphanageorsomeformofchildrenshome,butratherthanhighlightingthe staggeringfactthat41.2%hadbeeninstitutionalisedaschildren(54intheirfirst5 yearsoflife,andanother358betweentheagesof6to18),theopportunitytounravel therelationshipbetweentimeincareandsubsequentoffendingwasoverlooked. BOCSARsimplyattributedthemassiveoverrepresentationofprisonersfromacare backgroundtotheirstatusasproductsofabrokenhome,andassumedthattheyhad beenplacedincarebecauseofabuse.Thispropositionwasnotexploredfurtherinthe study,andthesignificanceofacarehistoryasapredictorofdelinquencywasnot revisitedfordecades.5

Forexample,Baker,Joanne,JuvenilesinCrimePart1:ParticipationRatesandRiskFactors,NSW BureauofCrimeStatisticsandResearch,SydneyNSW1998 3 TheNewSouthWalesBureauofCrimeStatistics,StatisticalReport16:AThousandPrisoners,August 1974. 4 Infact,thestudyitselfwaslost.TheBureausresearchlistofpublicationsfailstolistthereportand theBOCSARlibraryhadnotretainedacopy. 5 Weatherburn,CushandSaunders,Screeningjuvenileoffendersforfurtherassessmentandintervention, Report109NSWBureauofCrimeStatisticsandResearch,SydneyNSW2007

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Snapshotsofprisonpopulationstheworldoverrevealthatpeoplewhohavebeenin Statecareareoverrepresentedinprisonsandjuveniledetentionfacilities.The significanceofthedatahowever,hasnotbeenpickedup,andwhilethefindingstend tobereproducedyearafteryeartherehavebeenfewattemptstoprobemoreclosely, tountanglewhysohighaproportionoftheprisonpopulationsharesthiscommon background.6Likewise,littleattentionhasbeenpaidtowhatleadstooffending amongstchildrenincare.Heavyqualificationsandassumptionshavebeenplacedon findingsthathaveindicatedthatwardsareoverrepresentedinoffending populations.7Coupledwithapparentgeneraldisinterest,thishasmeantthatresearch intooffendingbywardsisaneglectedarea.Inthisrespectthecarepopulationhas beenregardedinverymuchthesamewayasAboriginaloverrepresentationinthe criminaljusticesystemwasvieweduntilonly30orsoyearsagoassomethingtobe notedoccasionallyinprisonstatistics,butwithlittleattempttounravelthesocial, culturalandinstitutionalfactorsthatmayprovidesomeexplanation. Theprisonstudieshavehowever,servedauseful,iflimitedpurpose.Itisbecauseof thesesnapshotsthatweknowthatapproximately21%oftheCanadiangaol population,823%oftheUKadultgaolpopulationand38%ofjuveniledetaineeshave beenincare.9Almostunbelievably,UnitedStatesresearchhasplacedthenumberof prisonerswithacarehistoryashighas80%ofthecustodialpopulation.10Thefew Australianstudiesthathavebeenundertakenalsorevealanalarmingpicture.Studies ofadultfemaleprisonershavereportedthatbetween3050%wereremovedfrom
Taylor,ClaireYoungPeopleinCareandCriminalBehaviour,JessicaKingsleyPublishers,2006at13. Forexample,McDonaldetalcautionedagainstthepotentialforspuriousassociationsinthisarea, andwarnedthattheresultsmustbeinterpretedwithcaution,McDonald,Allen,Westerfeltand Piliavin,AssessingtheLongTermEffectsofFosterCare:AResearchSynthesis,InstituteforResearchon Poverty,Kansas,1993at77. 8 Mason,BrianImplementingtheYoungOffendersActAnAlbertaPerspectiveinHudson,Hornick andBurrows(Eds)JusticeandtheYoungOffenderinCanada,(pp5163)Wal&ThompsonInc1988p62 9 UKSelectCommitteeonHealth,SecondReport,InquiryintoChildrenLookedAfterByLocal Authorities,HouseofCommonsHMSOU.K.1998 10 Forexample,USDepartmentofJustice,BureauofJusticeStatisticsSpecialReport:Womeninprison, USDJ,OfficeofJusticePrograms1991:6;USDepartmentofJustice,OfficeofJusticePrograms,Bureau ofJusticesStatisticsSpecialReport,MentalHealthandTreatmentofInmatesandProbationers,1999:6; Golden,R.DisposableChildren:America'sChildWelfareSystem,Belmont,Ca;WadsworthPublishing Company,1997p171
7 6

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theirfamiliesaschildrenandplacedincare11whilethe2001NSWInmateHealth Surveyfoundthat1in3Aboriginalprisonersand1in5nonAboriginalprisonershad spenttimeincare.12 Anexaminationofjuveniledetaineesrevealsasimilarpicture.In1999theNSW CommunityServicesCommissionreportedthat3%ofthechildreninjuvenile detentioncentreswerestatewards.TheCommissionconcededthatithad substantiallyunderstatedthenumberbyrelyingonofficialnotificationsasto wardshipstatusifthefilesdidnotlabeladetaineeasawardthentheywerenot countedassuch.Nonetheless,theCommissionfoundthatevenat3%ofthedetainee population,wardsweresignificantlydisproportionatelyoverrepresentedin detention,comparedtotheirnumbersinthebroaderjuvenilepopulation.13 Essentially,theCommissionfoundthatmalewardswere13timesandfemalewards wereastaggering35timesmorelikelytogotoajuveniledetentionfacilitythantheir nonwardpeers.14Afewyearslater,asurveyoftheReibyjuveniledetentioncentre15 foundthat42%ofthejuveniledetaineeshadbeeninsubstitutecareforatleastone episode;19%werepresentlyincare;and13%werestatewards.Justlastyearthe YoungPeopleinCustodyHealthSurveythejuvenileversionoftheadultprisonsurvey reportedthat28%ofyoungoffendershadspenttimeincare.16

Hastings,F,ACensusofWomeninCustodyinNSW1998:InterimResultsfromtheWomeninCustody Survey,WomensServicesUnit,NSWDepartmentofCorrectiveServices,SydneyAustralia1997 NSWDepartmentofCorrectiveServices,WomensServicesUnit,1997;SistersInside,KilroyDWhen willyouseetherealus?WomeninCorrections:StaffandClientsConference,AustralianInstituteof CriminologyAdelaide2000pg3;Denton,Barbara,Voicesfrombelow:Womeninprisonanddrugs,1995 p37TheNationalDrugandAlcoholResearchCouncil 12 ButlerTandMilneThe2001InmateHealthSurvey,CorrectionsHealthService,SydneyAustralia, 2003 13 CommunityServicesCommission,JustSolutions,1999pg17 14 Whenyouthoncommunityorderswereexamined,theCommissionfoundthatwardswere6.5times overrepresentedonsupervisionorders,comparedtothegeneraljuvenilepopulation. 15 TheHonBradHazzardMP,GovernorsSpeech:AddressinReply,Hansard,LegislativeAssembly, NSWParliament15March2002at583 16 Allerton,M.,Champion,U.,Kenny,D.T.,Butler,T.etal(2003).2003YoungPeopleinCustodyHealth Survey.NSWDepartmentofJuvenileJustice,SydneyAustralia

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USstudiesshowthatyouthwithpreviousfostercareexperiencearefourtimesmore likelytobeearlystartjuveniledelinquentsthanyouthwithnofostercare experience.17Lookedafterchildren(theBritishtermforbeinginStatecare)ofthe ageofcriminalresponsibilityarethreetimesmorelikelytoreceiveacautionor convictionthantheirpeers.18Australianstudieshavefoundthatthereisahigherrate ofdetentionforStatewardscomparedtootheryoungpeople.While7%ofcharges levelledagainstjuvenileoffendersresultedincommitmentinajuveniledetention facility,21%ofchargesbroughtagainstwardsledtoacustodialsentence.19 StatewardshavehigherrecidivismratesthanthegeneralpopulationtheCSCfound 70%ofwardsreoffendedcomparedto59%ofthegeneraljuveniledetainee populationaccordingtoareportreleasedthisyearbytheCreateFoundation,one yearafterleavingcare,almosthalfoftheyoungpeoplewillhavecommitteda crime.20 ThereisalsoevidencethatStatewardsreoffendatvastlydisproportionaterates. Burdekinfoundthat"childrenincarewere160%morelikelytoreoffendthannon wards"21whiletheAustralianLawReformCommissionwarnedthatthecaresystem isproducinglongtermcriminaloffenders."22Youngpeopleincaremayalsobe committingdisproportionatelyviolentorseriousoffences.Astheformerheadofthe ChildProtectionUnitattheChildrensHospitalWestmead,DrSuzanneBooth,citing
AlltuckerK(2004)FactorsInfluencingtheDevelopmentofJuvenileDelinquency:DifferencesBetween EarlyandLateStarters,Thesis,UniversityofOregon. 18 Sinclair,WilsonPitthouse&Sellick(2004)FosteringSuccess:Anexplorationoftheresearchliterature infostercare,London:SocialCareInstituteforExcellence,NottinghamUniversity 19 CommunityServicesCommission,JustSolutions,1999pg17.Thequestionarisesisthisdisparity duetopoorlegalrepresentationofwards,judicialbias,ordoesitarisebecausewardsoffendearlier, morefrequentlyandathigherlevelsofseverity,thuswarrantingmoreseveresentencingsanctions? Thisisaclearindicationofthefailureofresearchinthisareatodatethattheseissueshavenotbeen unravelled. 20 CreateFoundation,ReportCard2008 21 TheHumanRightsandEqualOpportunityCommission,OurHomelessChildren:Reportofthe NationalInquiryintoHomelessChildren,AustralianGovernmentPublishingService,Canberra Australia1989 22 AustralianLawReformCommission/HumanRightsandEqualOpportunityCommissionSeenand heard:priorityforchildreninthelegalprocess:ReportoftheNationalInquiryintoChildrenandtheLegal Process,SydneyAustralia,1997
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thekillersofAnitaCobbyandJanineBaldingwarned,Statewardsareatriskof becomingperpetratorsofviolentcrime.23 Thosewhogrewupincarehavesignificantmentalhealth,andsocialneeds.Studies havetouchedonthefactthatoffenderswithahistoryofoutofhomecarehave differentphysicalandmentalhealthoutcomescomparedtothegeneraldetainee population.Forexample,the2008YoungPeopleonCommunityOrdersfoundthat theyweresignificantlymorelikelytohaverelativeswhohadbeeninprison;tohave experiencedaphysicalinjuryrequiringmedicaltreatment;tohaveexperienced unwantedsex;reporthavingnoclosefriends;receivedspecialeducationand treatmentforsubstanceabuse;belivinginunsettledaccommodation;be unemployed;andtobeinreceiptofgovernmentbenefits.24Aboriginalprisoners removedfromtheirfamiliesaschildrenwerefoundtoexperiencesignificantlyworse outcomeswithregardstomentalhealththantheirnonremovedAboriginalpeers: andweresignificantlymorelikelytobejailedmorethan5times;tohaveexperienced childsexualassault;andtohaveattemptedsuicide.25AstheRoyalCommissioninto AboriginalDeathsinCustodysexaminationofninetynineindigenouspeoplewho haddiedinStatecustodyfound,nearlyhalfofthedeceasedhadbeentakenas childrenfromtheirfamiliesbyStateauthorities,andplacedintoStatecare.26 Thesefindingshavewiderpolicyandpracticeimplications.Ifyoungpeopleincare (andthoseadultswhohavenowleftcare)haveparticularcharacteristicsthatarenot sharedbytherestoftheprisonpopulationalreadyanextremelyvulnerablegroupin termsofhealth,mentalhealthandarangeofotherindicatorsshouldnt policymakersbedirectedtowardsthis?Forexample,ifpeopleonceincareare engaginginsexualactivityearlier,whatdoesthatmeanforthedeliveryofsex
Sandham,SonyaUnderfundedwelfaresystemharmsyoung,SydneyMorningHerald,29/03/96p4 Kenny&Nelson,YoungPeopleonCommunityOrders:Health,WelfareandCriminogenicNeeds, Sydney,2008at2.8 25 Egger&Butler,ThelongtermfactorsassociatedwithremovalfromparentsamongstIndigenous prisonersinNSW,AustralianandNewZealandJournalofPublicHealth,2000vol24,no4 26 ReportoftheInquiryintotheDeathofGlennAllanClarkRoyalCommissionintoAboriginalDeathsin Custody1991,TheReconciliationandSocialJusticeLibrary,www.austli.ed.au
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educationprograms,orthetransmissionofinfectiousdiseases?Ifoverhalfthecare populationhasattemptedsuicide,whatimplicationsdoesthisholdforsuiciderisk andpreventionprogramsbothinthecommunityandinsideourprisons? Whatdoesitmeanforcrimepreventionthatcareleaversreoffendatgreaterrates, moreoften,andperhapsathigherlevelsofseriousness?Andwhatdoesthepresence ofthisgroupwithintheprisonmeanforrecidivismprograms,currentlyfocusedon familyreunification,andmaintainingfamilyandsocialconnectionsasameansof reducingthestressesthatcanleadtothecommissionofcrime? Theimportanceofpreservingfamilycontactswhensomeoneisincarceratedhasonly recentlybeenunderstood.Itiscurrentlyamajorplatforminthecorrections philosophy,bothinNSWandinternationally.Yetironically,thisemphasisonfamily preservation,communityinvolvementandasenseofbelonging,leavesthosewho havebeenincare,outinthecoldoncemore.27 Diversionaryprograms,suchasYouthConferencingandCircleSentencing,are premisedontheideathatbecauseanoffenderwillfeelshameatanoffenceheorshe willcometoappreciatetheimpactoftheiractuponthevictimandthewider community.Buttofeelshame,youhavetofeelpartofthecommunitysetuptojudge you.Thosewhohavegrownupincare,oftenareexcludedfromparticipationevenin thisstyleofprogram,becausetheydonothaveacommunityoftheirpeers,ora familyoftheirown,towhomtheybelongandthus,onewhichcanjudgeand influencetheirbehaviour. Whyhassolittlebeendonetoacknowledge,letalonetoaddress,thedisadvantage experiencedbysomany?

McFarlane, K. & Murray, J. Falling through the Cracks, Rights Now, Journal of the National Children andYouthLawCentre,pg16(2000)

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AremarkableoutburstfromaVictorianjudgeshedssomelight.Onthreeoccasionsin asmanymonthsJudgeGebhardtcriticizedtheVictorianGovernmentssloppyand disgracefulhandlingofchildreninStatecare.28Helamentedthepatternofneglect andindifference,apatternwhichweseefartooofteninthisCourtexhibitedtowards youngwards,andcriticisedtheincompetencethatledtosomanyformerchildrenin careendingupbeforecriminalcourts.TheDepartment,HisHonourdeclared,should bemadeawareoftheconsequencesoftheirincompetence.29Repeatingconcerns airedinpreviousdecisions,HisHonourcommentedinthelastsixmonthsIvehada numberofyoungoffendersbeforemewhohavebeenvictimsofsloppyand disgracefulbehaviourbytheDepartmentofHumanServices.Whatcanonesayofa departmentwhosebehaviourandactivitiesmakeslivesworse.30FormerChief FamilyCourtJusticeAlastairNicholsonwasquicktoagreewithhisVictorian counterpart.WritinginTheAge,theformerjudgedeclaredthatthestatebears responsibilityforturningoutabadpennywhenithasbeenneglectfulofits responsibilities.It,too,isinthedock.31 SuccessiveStateandTerritoryGovernmentshavefollowedtheleadoftheSenate CommunityAffairsReferencesCommitteeandapologizedfortheharmdoneto generationsofAustralianchildrenwhogrewupininstitutionalcare.32Thelatest

RvH[2005]VictorianCountyCourt,GebhardtJ02/05/05at[12] RvH[2005]VictorianCountyCourt,GebhardtJ02/05/05at[14] 30 RvRLB[2005]VictorianCountyCourt,GebhardtJ10/02/05at[16] 31 Nicholson,AlastairFailingabusedandneglectedyouthhurtsusallTheAgeMay10,2005 32 TheHonRMeagher,SenateInquiryintoChildreninInstitutionalCare,Hansard,ParliamentofNew SouthWales,23June2005;TheHonSteveBracks,Hansard,ParliamentofVictoria,9August2006; OBrienAmanda,Millionsforabusedwardsofstate,TheAustralian,13June2008citingPremierAlan Carpenter.TheCommonwealthGovernmentrecognisedthatthepoliciesthatallowedtheseoutrages tobeperpetratedoninnocentchildrenwerenotonlymisplaced;theywereinexcusableinanyeraand statedthatwhileitwouldnotbeappropriatefortheAustralianGovernmenttoissueanapologyfora matterforwhichitdoesnothaveresponsibility,theGovernmentexpressesitssincereregretthatthere childrenwereplacedinsituationswheretheydidnotreceivethecaretheydeservedTheAustralian GovernmentResponsetotheCommitteesReportsForgottenAustralians:AreportonAustralianswho experiencedinstitutionaloroutofhomecareaschildrenandProtectingVulnerableChildren:Anational challenge,CommonwealthofAustralia2005at2.
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apologybytheSouthAustralianPremieronbehalfoftheGovernmentandChurch agencieswasdeliveredjusttwodaysbeforethispaperwasdelivered.33 Yettheissueofoffendingbychildrenincare,andGovernmentresponsestoit, remainsaneglectedarea.Muchmoreneedstobedonetodeviseprogramsthat speaktothosewhohavegrownupincaresothatwemayhaveachancetobreakthe welfarejusticenexus.Historically,peoplewhogrewupincaremakeupbetween 1.35%0.2%oftheNSWpopulation.However,thenumbershaveincreasedto0.6%34 withover12,700childrennowincareinNSWanditisthoughtthatthiswilltop20,000 inthenextfiveyears.35Iftheratesofoffendingdescribedinstudiescontinues, juvenilecrimemustbesettosignificantlyincrease. Concernabouttheinevitabilityofthepathwayfromcaretocrimehasbeenechoedby theVictorianAuditoryGeneral,36successiveStateandFederalParliamentary Inquiries37andtheMinisterialCouncilontheAdministrationofJustice.38Yetcontrary

TheHonMDRann,ChildreninStateCareApology,Hansard,ParliamentofSouthAustralia,17June 2008 34 McFarlaneK,JusticeHealthPrisonerHealthResearchSymposium.SydneyNSW(2005);HumanRights andEqualOpportunityCommission/AustralianLawReformCommission,Seenandheard:priorityfor childreninthelegalprocess:ReportoftheNationalInquiryintoChildrenandtheLegalProcess,Sydney Australia,1997.Indigenouschildrenaremoreoverrepresentedinoutofhomecare,at19%of substitutecareplacements,althoughtheymakeuponly3.5%ofthechildpopulation,inSteering CommitteefortheReviewofCommonwealth/StateServiceProvision,ReportonGovernmentService Provision1997,IndustryCommission,Melbourne1997at547. 35 NSWDepartmentofCommunityServices,SubmissiontotheSpecialCommissionofInquiryintoChild ProtectioninNSW,citingtheDepartmentsAnnualReport2006/07p5 36 VictorianAuditorGeneral,ProtectingVictoriasChildren,TheRoleoftheDepartmentofHuman Services,VicGovtPrinterMelbourne1996,at266:Thehighincidenceofcriminalbehaviourandthe likelihoodofitcontinuingbeyonddischargefromwardshipisofseriouscommunityconcernand warrantsresearchastocausesandpreventionstrategies. 37 StandingCommitteeonSocialIssues,AReportintoChildrenofImprisonedParents,Legislative Council,ParliamentofNewSouthWales,No121997at57:ClearlyfromtheevidencetothisInquiry, childrenwhoaremadewardsoftheStatebecausetheirprimarycarerisinprisonpresentaseriousrisk ofinvolvementinantisocialbehaviourandentryintothejuvenilejusticesystem;SelectCommitteeon theIncreaseinthePrisonPopulation,FinalReport,NSWParliament,2001atRec1:Researchfocusing ontheneedsofformerStatewardsandcareleaversintheprisonsystemshouldensurethenumberof formerStatewardsandcareleaversintheprisonsystembecomprehensivelyidentified;Standing CommitteeonLawandJustice,CrimePreventionThroughSocialSupport,SecondReportNo142000at 86:citingMurrayJ,astrongcomponentofanycrimepreventionstrategyorservicesthattheState initiatesmustaddressthosewhohavealreadygonethroughthechildwelfaresystem,andwhohave foundthemselvesfasttrackedintothecriminaljusticesystem,homelessness,socialexclusionand

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totheNSWParliamentsassertion8yearsagothat,theDepartmentsofJuvenile JusticeandCommunityServicesdonothavetobeconvincedoftheimportanceof preventingcyclesofintergenerationaloffendingbyStatewards,39littlehaschanged toaddresstheissue. MyresearchwillprovidemoreinformationabouthowandwhyStatewardsoffend andwhatcanbedonetoaddressit.Iamhopingthatthistime,policymakersand programdeveloperswilltakeheedbecause,astheHon.JusticeJamesWood,former PoliceRoyalCommissionerandcurrentlytheSpecialCommissionerexaminingthe NSWDepartmentofCommunityServices,declaredoveradecadeagoNo communitywithanyrealconcernforthesafetyandwellbeingofitschildrencan tolerateasystemunderwhichthereisaninevitable,orevensubstantial,driftofState wardstojuvenilejustice,withitsincreasedriskofprogressiontoadult imprisonment.40

prostitution;CommunityAffairsReferencesCommittee,ProtectingVulnerableChildren:Anational challenge,SecondReportontheinquiryintochildrenininstitutionaloroutofhomecare,TheSenate, 2005at16.43Rec16:recognitionofStatewardandcareleaverinvolvementinthecriminal/penal systemcanleadtoanimprovedunderstandingofthefactorsinfluencingcrimeandsocialdisorder,and thatresearch,shouldbematchedbyappropriateresources,policiesandadministrativeeffort. 38 MinisterialCouncilontheAdministrationofJustice(MCATSIA)ReviewoftheStandingCommitteeof AttorneysGeneral(SCAG)ReconciliationActionPlan,2003:recommendedexaminationofthelegal issuesandincarcerationratesamongpreviouslyseparatedchildren. 39 NSWParliament,StandingCommitteeonLawandJustice,CrimePreventionintoSocialSupport, Report14,August2000 40 WoodJRT,RoyalCommissionintotheNewSouthWalesPoliceService,Vol5PaedophileInquiry, Sydney1997p1046

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References Allerton,M,Champion,U.,Kenny,D.T.,Butler,T.etal2003YoungPeopleinCustody HealthSurvey.NSWDepartmentofJuvenileJustice,SydneyAustralia,2003 AlltuckerK(2004)FactorsInfluencingtheDevelopmentofJuvenileDelinquency: DifferencesBetweenEarlyandLateStarters,Thesis,UniversityofOregon. AustralianLawReformCommission/HumanRightsandEqualOpportunity Commission,Report84Seenandheard:priorityforchildreninthelegalprocess:Report oftheNationalInquiryintoChildrenandtheLegalProcess,SydneyAustralia,1997 Baker,Joanne,JuvenilesinCrimePart1:ParticipationRatesandRiskFactors,Bureau ofCrimeStatisticsandResearch,SydneyAustralia1998 TheHonSteveBracks,Hansard,ParliamentofVictoria,9August2006 ButlerTandMilneThe2001InmateHealthSurvey,CorrectionsHealthService, SydneyAustralia,2003 TheCommonwealthofAustralia,TheAustralianGovernmentResponsetothe CommitteesReportsForgottenAustralians:AreportonAustralianswhoexperienced institutionaloroutofhomecareaschildrenandProtectingVulnerableChildren:A nationalchallenge,Canberra,Australia2005 TheCommunityServicesCommission,Thedriftofchildrenincareintothejuvenile justicesystem:Turningvictimsintocriminals,SydneyAustralia1996 TheCommunityServicesCommission,JustSolutions,SydneyAustralia1999

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CommunityAffairsReferencesCommittee,ProtectingVulnerableChildren:Anational challenge,SecondReportontheinquiryintochildrenininstitutionaloroutofhome care,TheSenate,2005 CommunityServicesCommission,JustSolutions,1999pg17 CreateFoundation,ReportCard2008 Denton,Barbara,Voicesfrombelow:Womeninprisonanddrugs,TheNationalDrug andAlcoholResearchCouncil,1995 Egger&Butler,Thelongtermfactorsassociatedwithremovalfromparentsamongst IndigenousprisonersinNSW,AustralianandNewZealandJournalofPublicHealth, 2000vol24,no4 Golden,R.DisposableChildren:America'sChildWelfareSystem,Belmont,Ca; WadsworthPublishingCompany,1997 Hastings,F,ACensusofWomeninCustodyinNSW1998:InterimResultsfromthe WomeninCustodySurvey,WomensServicesUnit,NSWDepartmentofCorrective Services,SydneyAustralia1997 TheHonBradHazzardMP,GovernorsSpeech:AddressinReply,Hansard,Legislative AssemblyNSWParliament,SydneyAustralia15March2002at583 TheHumanRightsandEqualOpportunityCommission,OurHomelessChildren: ReportoftheNationalInquiryintoHomelessChildren,AustralianGovernment PublishingService,CanberraAustralia1989 Kenny&Nelson,YoungPeopleonCommunityOrders:Health,Welfareand CriminogenicNeeds,Sydney,2008at2.8

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KilroyDWhenwillyouseetherealus?SistersInside,WomeninCorrections:Staffand ClientsConference,AustralianInstituteofCriminology,Adelaide2000 McDonald,Allen,WesterfeltandPiliavin,AssessingtheLongTermEffectsofFoster Care:AResearchSynthesis,InstituteforResearchonPoverty,Kansas,1993 McFarlane,KInstituteofCriminology/NSWDepartmentofJusticeSeminar,Families ofPrisoners:ImpactsandConsequences,SydneyAustralia,June2005 McFarlaneK,JusticeHealthPrisonerHealthResearchSymposium.SydneyAustralia, 2005 Mason,BrianImplementingtheYoungOffendersActAnAlbertaPerspectivein Hudson,HornickandBurrows(Eds)JusticeandtheYoungOffenderinCanada,(pp51 63)Wal&ThompsonInc1988 Matthews,BernieContact,ParramattaCorrectionalCentre,SydneyAustralia1979 TheHonRMeagher,SenateInquiryintoChildreninInstitutionalCare,Hansard, ParliamentofNewSouthWales,23June2005 MinisterialCouncilontheAdministrationofJustice(MCATSIA),Reviewofthe StandingCommitteeofAttorneysGeneral(SCAG)ReconciliationActionPlan,2003 TheNewSouthWalesBureauofCrimeStatistics,StatisticalReport16:AThousand Prisoners,SydneyAustralia,1974

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TheNSWDepartmentofCommunityServices,SubmissiontotheSpecialCommission ofInquiryintoChildProtectioninNSW,citingtheDepartmentsAnnualReport2006/07 p5 Nicholson,AlastairFailingabusedandneglectedyouthhurtsusallTheAgeMay10, 2005 OBrienAmanda,Millionsforabusedwardsofstate,TheAustralian,13June2008 RvH[2005]VictorianCountyCourt,GebhardtJ02/05/05at[12] RvRLB[2005]VictorianCountyCourt,GebhardtJ10/02/05at[16] TheHonMDRann,ChildreninStateCareApology,Hansard,ParliamentofSouth Australia,17June2008 RoyalCommissionintoAboriginalDeathsinCustody,ReportoftheInquiryintothe DeathofGlennAllanClark,TheReconciliationandSocialJusticeLibrary, www.austli.ed.au1991 Sandham,SonyaUnderfundedwelfaresystemharmsyoung,SydneyMorning Herald,29/03/96p4 TheSelectCommitteeontheIncreaseinthePrisonPopulation,FinalReport,NSW Parliament,2001 Sinclair,WilsonPitthouse&Sellick(2004)FosteringSuccess:Anexplorationofthe researchliteratureinfostercare,London:SocialCareInstituteforExcellence, NottinghamUniversity

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StandingCommitteeonSocialIssues,AReportintoChildrenofImprisonedParents, LegislativeCouncil,ParliamentofNewSouthWales,No121997at57 StandingCommitteeonLawandJustice,CrimePreventionThroughSocialSupport, SecondReportNo142000 TheSteeringCommitteefortheReviewofCommonwealth/StateServiceProvision, ReportonGovernmentServiceProvision1997,IndustryCommission,Melbourne1997 at547. Taylor,ClaireYoungPeopleinCareandCriminalBehaviour,JessicaKingsley Publishers,2006at13 UKSelectCommitteeonHealth,SecondReport,InquiryintoChildrenLookedAfterBy LocalAuthorities,HouseofCommonsHMSOU.K.1998 USDepartmentofJustice,BureauofJusticeStatisticsSpecialReport:Womeninprison, USDJ,OfficeofJusticePrograms1991:6 USDepartmentofJustice,OfficeofJusticePrograms,BureauofJusticesStatistics SpecialReport,MentalHealthandTreatmentofInmatesandProbationers,1999:6 VictorianAuditorGeneral,ProtectingVictoriasChildren,TheRoleoftheDepartmentof HumanServices,VicGovtPrinterMelbourne1996,at266 Weatherburn,CushandSaunders,Screeningjuvenileoffendersforfurtherassessment andintervention,Report109NSWBureauofCrimeStatisticsandResearch,Sydney NSW20007 WoodJRT,RoyalCommissionintotheNewSouthWalesPoliceService,Vol5 PaedophileInquiry,Sydney1997p1046

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Womensbodies,moralpanicandtheworldgame: Sextrafficking,the2006FootballWorldCupandbeyond1
SanjaMilivojevic CriminologyDepartment MonashUniversity smilivojevic@gmail.com Traffickinginpeopleandparticularlytraffickinginwomenforthepurposeofsexual exploitation(sextrafficking)reemergedintheinternationalarenaintheearly 1990s.Frequentlyreferredtoasmoderndayslavery(Bales1999,Bertone2000, Hughes2001,Jeffreys2002,King2004,vandenAnker2004,Roby2005,US DepartmentofState2008),estimatesaboutitsscopevarytotheextent2thatfigures areconsideredarbitrary(Doezema2000,Agustin2005:40,Kempadoo2005), promptingmanycriticstoarguethatdespiteincreasedinterestwhatweknowabout thisphenomenonisstillexceptionallylimited(Kempadoo1998,Kelly2002).Although suchdiscrepanciesinestimatesasKempadoo(1998:15)notedshouldbeacausefor extremesuspicionofthereliabilityoftheresearch,theyhavebeenwidelycirculated andtheagreementhasbeenreachedthatsextraffickingisgrowing(Apapetal.2002, Carrington&Hearn2003). Womenandchildrenareidentifiedasparticularlyvulnerable:a2008USDepartment ofStateTraffickinginPersons(TIP)reportestimatedthat80percentofallvictimsof traffickingarewomenandgirls(USDepartmentofState2008:7),whilesome scholarsestimatethatevenmillionsofwomenworldwidehavebeentraffickedinto thesexindustry(Raymondetal.2002).However,notallwomenwereperceivedto
ThisproceedingpaperisanupdatedversionofthepaperpublishedwithSharonPickering.Available athttp://www.vds.org.yu/File/Tem0802.pdf 2 Forexample,in2002theUSDepartmentofState(2002:1)estimatedthatbetween700,000andfour millionpeoplearetraffickedworldwideannually,whileinthe2006TraffickinginPersons(TIP)report figuresarereducedto600,000to800,000(USDepartmentofState2006).
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beindangerofbeingtrafficked:thepredominantdiscoursewithinantitrafficking frameworkportraysvictimsasyoung,pooranddisadvantagedwomenfrom developingcountrieswho,inthesearchforbetterlife,havebeentrickedorluredinto sexwork(Bertone2000,Clark2003,USDepartmentofState2006),andthenseverely abusedandexploited.IntheEuropeancontextvictimsarecommonlyportrayedas poorandnavewomenfromCentralandEasternEurope(IOM1995,Hughes2001, Miko2003,NikolicRistanovicetal.2004). Arangeofactorsjoinedforcesinwhathasbeencoinedthe21stcenturyabolitionist movement(USAmbassadorJohnMiller,USHouseofRepresentatives SubcommitteeonAfrica,GlobalHumanRightsandInternationalOperations2006: 27)inthemissiontorescuewomenfromsuchgloomyfate.Althoughsuch representationofsextraffickingisnotentirelyincorrect,itisjustapartofamore complicatedpicture.Yetthesesimplifiedimagesoftraffickingresultsininitiatives thatareultimatelyharmfulforwomenwhotheysupposedtoprotect.Thestagingof the2006FIFAWorldCupisthelatestexampleofhowawiderangingcoalitionof interestsfuelledamoralpanicaroundsextraffickinginEuropethataimedtoprevent disastroushumanrightsabuses(Crouse2006),butimpactednegativelyon womenslives,particularlyinrelationtotheirrepresentation,migrationandmobility, bothwithincountriesofdestinationandorigin. Thispaperisbasedonaqualitativeanalysisofmediacoverageofsextrafficking aroundthe2006WorldCupinGermany.Ianalyzed46articlesinEnglishlanguageon thistopicinthesixmonthspriorandduringtheevent3thatreviewthewaysthisevent broughtintofocussomeofthekeydebatesonsextraffickinginEurope.InthispaperI amconcernedwithhowtheWorldCupisarguablyanotherillustrationofmerging
ThisincludedEnglishlanguagenewspapersandmediaoutletsReuters,WorldNetDaily,Associated Press,AgenceFrancePresse,InternationalHeraldTribune,TheNewYorkTimes,WashingtonPost, IndependentOnline,TheGuardian,BBCNewsService,TheSundayHerald,DeutcheWelle,Spiegel Online,Expatica,andreligiouswebsitesChristianScienceMonitor,ChirstianNewsWire,Christian Post,ChristianityToday,CatholicNews,LifeSiteNews,Ekklesia,TheWhitehavenNews,andBaptist PressNews.Ithenusedtextualanalysistoidentifythekeyargumentsandspeakerswithinthemedia studied.
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punitiveborderprotection,thecriminalizationofwomen,andtheunderminingof womenshumanrights,underthecoverofprotectionofwomen.Finally,thispaper willhighlightthatmeasuresintroducedaroundthiseventdidnotendwithareferees finalwhistle. Themoralpanicunfolds:Football,SexSlaveryandMediaFrenzy Thestorm,itseemed,camefromnowhere:severalmonthsbeforethefootball carnivalacrossGermanykickedoff,variousorganizationsandgroupsreleased estimatesthatthe2006WorldCupislikelytoacceleratesextrafficking.Thefigures fluctuatedfrom30.000to60.000potentialvictimsexpectedtobetraffickedduring thecompetition(CouncilofEurope2006,CAREforEurope2006,IOM2006,Neuwirth 2006,SalvationArmy2006,Sparre2006).Itisunclearhowestimateswere establishedasnoneoftheorganizationsthatquotedthesefiguresstatedthesource. InitsreportpublishedaftertheWorldCup,theInternationalOrganizationfor Migrations(IOM)revealedthatestimateswerefirstcitedbytheGermanAssociation ofCitiesandTowns(DeutscherStdtetag),andwerequicklypickedupbythemedia (Hennigetal.2006).Althoughsomegrassrootsgroupsandorganisationsdismissed suchclaimsasexaggerated(DailyTimes,10March2006),andwhilethepoliceinthe hostcityofMunichsuggestedfigureswerepluckedfromtheair(Haape2006),the mediacontinuedtorefertothousandsofwomenindangerofbeingtraffickedforthe WorldCup.Meanwhile,theGermanAssociationofCitiesandTownsdisclaimedthe figure(Hennigetal.2006). TheanalysisofmediareportspriortotheWorldCupsuggeststhatestimates originatedfromtheestimatednumberofmigrantsexworkersexpectedtotravelto GermanyfortheWorldCup(DeutscheWelle,10June2005,Paterson2005,Iglesias 2006).Withinthedemandsupplyequation,thenumberofsexworkersperceivedto migratetofulfilthedemandforcommercialsexduringtheWorldCupalteredtothe numberofwomenwhomightbetrafficked,byestablishingatfirstpotentialand

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subsequentlyanexplicitconnectionbetweensportingeventsandtheincreasein demandforcommercialsex: Theeventsorganizersareexpectingatleast40.000prostitutesto descendonGermanyfromthroughoutEuropetomeetdemand. TonyPaterson(TheIndependentOnline,9December2005) Traffickersconstantlymonitorthedemandpattern,lookingfor opportunitiestomaximizetheirprofitsobtainedthroughtheillicit saleofhumanbeings.The2006WorldCuppresentssuchan opportunityItiscriticalthattheGermangovernment,civilsociety andtheinternationalcommunitylookseriouslyatthepotentiallinks betweenthismajorsportingeventandthepotentialincreaseinthe demandforsexualexploitationofwomenandchildren. AshleyGarrett(IOM,2006:301,emphasisadded) Experiencesshowthatateverybigsportingeventwherealarge numberofmengather,thereisaspectacularriseinthedemandfor sexualservices. UlrikeHelwerth,spokeswomanfortheNGOGermanWomen's Council(Iglesias2006,emphasisadded) Inthereportsthatfollowed,thisclaimthatsomewomenamongthoseexpectedto migratemightbetrafficked,thatisforcedtosexindustry,ordeceivedaboutthe conditionsofwork,alteredtoanallegationthatmajorityifnotallwomenwillbeen trafficked: TheGermanWomensCouncilhasestimatedthatanadditional 40.000womenwillbebroughtintoGermanytoprovidecommercial

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sexactsforhundredsofthousandsofmalesoccerfans.Manyof thesewomenarelikelytobevictimsoftrafficking. JaniceShawCrouse,ConcernedWomenforAmerica(Jalsevac 2006,emphasisadded) DuringtheWorldCuparound40.000youngwomenareexpectedto beimportedtoGermanyforsexualtrafficking. SalvationArmy(2006,emphasisadded) Asananalysisofmediareportsindicate,themoralpanicaroundsexslavesandthe WorldCupinGermanywasfuelledbysensationalisticreporting,inwhichtrafficking wasreducedtosexwork,andwomentraffickedforsexportrayedasinnocentand navegirlsforcedintothesexindustry(Neuwirth2006,Bindel2006).Mediaoutlets referredexclusivelytoresearchandestimatesbyabolitionistgroups,sometimes explicitlydenyingthepossibilitythatsomewomenmayfreelyconsenttosexwork.4 Afterseveralmonthsofheatedmediadebate,SpiegelOnline(26May2006)reported that, Withallthenegativecoverage,onecouldbeforgivenforthinking thatGermanyisacountryofhumantraffickingpimpsandshackled prostitutes...Youcouldbeforgivenforthinkingthatvisitorslooking towatchabitofsoccerwillbegreetedbyanarmyofskimpilyclad, underagedUkrainiansexslavesForcedprostitution,ofcourse,isa veryrealandseriousprobleminGermany.Butmuchoftheforeign coverageseemstodeliberatelyconflatethetwoissues. Thismediafrenzywassustainedbyavarietyofactors,rangingfromlocalnon governmentalorganizations(NGO),internationalhumanrightsgroups,feminist
Forexample,ChonandEllerman(TheWashingtonPost,10June2006)reportedthattraffickersand thosewhobenefitfromsextraffickingpromoteanimageofwomenfreelychoosingtobeinvolvedin prostitution...ItisthePrettyWomanmyth,whichmanyapparentlyliketobelieveinordertojustify theirinactionorignoranceontheissue.
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abolitioniststoreligiousRight.Soonafterthenewsaboutsexhutshousesbuilt specificallytosatisfythedemandforcommercialsexduringtheWorldCuphitthe headlines,thiscoalitionopenlytargetedGermanysliberalpolicyinrelationtosex work,arguingthatprostitutionistosextraffickingwhatcoalistosteamengines (ChristianityToday,2July2006).InthespecialHearingfortheHouseof RepresentativesdedicatedtotheWorldCupandpossiblemassivehumanright abusesrelatedtoit,theRepublicanCongressmenChristopherH.Smitharguedthat, [s]incethematchesarebeingheldinGermany,whichlegalized pimpingandprostitutionin2001,theWorldCupfanswouldbe legallyfreetorapewomeninbrothels...Oftheapproximately 400.000prostitutesinGermany,itisestimatedthat75percentof thosewhoareabusedinthesehousesofprostitutionareforeigners, manyfromCentralandEasternEurope.Weknowbeyondreasonable doubtthatsomanyofthesewomenarecoercedandtheyarethere becauseofforce,fraudor,likeIsay,coercion ChristopherH.Smith(USHouseofRepresentativesSubcommittee onAfrica,GlobalHumanRightsandInternationalOperations2006a: 7,emphasisadded)5 TheUSSecretaryofStatesadvisoronhumantraffickingJohnMillerhasbeen especiallyvocalinlinkingwomensmigrations,sexworkandsextrafficking,arguing that, Alltheresearchandevidenceavailableshowsthatwhenyouhave largeflowsofwomenforsexualpurposes,thereisgoingtobe trafficking.Thereisalinkbetweenprostitutionandsextrafficking JohnMiller(AssociationFransePresse,10June2006)
ItisinterestingtonotethatthissectionofCongressmenSmithsspeechwaslaterdeletedfromthe Report.
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Itwas,indeed,arareslaptoatacloseAmericanally(Cooper2006).Germanlaw enforcementofficialsarguedinvainthattherewasnomajorupsurgeinprostitution relatedcriminalityduringthesportingeventsthiscountryhostedinthepast(Haape 2006).Afewdaysbeforetheopeningceremony,Germanpolicestatedthereareno signsofanyexplosionofforcedprostitutionthathadbeenwarnedofinthemonths leadingtotheopeningday(ChristianPost,11June2006),yetitwastoolate.The newmoralpanicwaswellunderitsway. Abolitionistfeministorganizations,ledbytheCoalitionagainstTraffickinginWomen (CATW),joinedtheantisexworkcoalitionbylaunchingthecampaignBuyingSexIs NotaSport(CATW2006).WomensgroupswithsimilaragendaacrossEurope followedthesuit.InIreland,theNationalWomensCouncilofIrelandlaunchedtheir versionofBuyingSexisnotaSportcampaign(Crouse2006),whileinGermany campaignsFinalWhistleStopForcedProstitution,RedCardforForced Prostitution,andResponsibleJohnshavebeenlaunched(DeutscheWelle,23 February2006;SpiegelOnline,26May2006).Religiouscommunitiesandfaithbased organizationsalsodirectlytargetedGermanyspolicytowardsexwork.TheCatholic FamilyandHumanRightsInstitutestartedthecampaignStopWorldCup Prostitution,whileCaritas,oneofthelargestcharitiesoftheCatholicChurch, concludedthatitisimportanttorecognizethatsexualexploitation,prostitutionand traffickingofhumanbeingsareallactsofviolenceagainstwomen(CatholicNews, 25May2006).Initiativeswereequallydistributedinbothperceivedcountriesoforigin (EasternandSouthEasternEurope)anddestinationforvictimsoftrafficking (Germany):theGermanLutheranChurchdistributedleafletsaimedtoreducethe demandforsexworkinGermany(Ohmynews,27May2006),whilenunsinPoland issuedantiprostitutionleafletsineasternEuropeanlanguages(Luxmore2006)aimed towarnyoungwomeninperceivedcountriesoforiginaboutthedangerofsexwork andtrafficking.

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Thesnowballkeptrolling:AmnestyInternational(2006)calledonEuropean governmentstolaunchpreventioncampaignsincountriesoforigin,andaskedthe Germangovernmenttotakeresponsibilityandensuremeasurestocombat traffickingduringthe2006WorldCup.Italsocalledonallstateswithfootballfans travellingtoGermanytoraiseawarenessofthefactthatmanysexworkerspresentin GermanyduringtheWorldCupmayhavebeentrafficked(AmnestyInternational 2006).VolunteersfromSalvationArmyandCAREtravelledtoGermanywithleaflets designedtostopmenfromgoingtobrothels(SalvationArmy2006,CAREforEurope 2006),whileIOM,theSwedishAgencyforInternationalDevelopment(SIDA)andthe MTVEuropeproducedaTVannouncementaddressingthedemandsideofsex traffickingdirectedatbothpotentialclientsofprostitutesaswellasthosemost vulnerabletobecomingtrafficked(IOM2006). AstheWorldCupwasgettingcloser,thepressurewashighonfootballersand footballassociations.AmnestyInternationalandParliamentaryAssemblyofthe CouncilofEuropeurgedFIFAtotakeresponsibilityforeffectivelycombatingsex traffickingduringtheWorldCup(AmnestyInternational2006,CouncilofEurope 2006).FIFA,however,disclaimedthisrequestarguingthatithasnopowertotake legalactionagainsthumantraffickingandforcedprostitutionandthatitcannotbe responsibleforsuchmatters(FIFA2006).Nationalfootballteamswerenext:CARE (2006)urgedallfootballteamsplayingattheWorldCupthisyeartopublicly condemnGermanysacceptanceoftheexploitation,traffickingandpimpingof womenforsexandcalleduponhighprofileplayerstomaketheiroppositiontothe MegaBrothel.Swedenwasthefirstcountrytoreacttosuchrequests.The presidentofSwedishFootballAssociationpromisedthatSwedishplayerswillnotuse brothelsduringtheCup(Bindel2006),whileSwedishEqualOpportunityOmbudsman calledonhisteamtowithdrawfromtheCupasaprotestagainstprostitutionandthe humantraffickingassociatedwithit(SpiegelOnline,12April2006).Thecoachofthe Frenchteamwasoutraged:

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Itistrulyscandalous.Peoplearetalkingaboutwomen,importing themtosatisfythebaseinstinctsofpeopleassociatedwithfootball. Itishumiliatingenoughformethatfootballislinkedwithalcohol andviolence.Butthisisworse.Itisslavesthatwillcomeandbeput intohouses.Humanbeingsarebeingtalkedaboutlikecattle,and footballislinkedwiththat. RaymondDomenech(Chon&Ellerman2006) TheGermannationalteamwasparticularlyunderscrutiny.Aspokeswomanfor DeutscherFrauenrattheGermannationalwomenscouncilstatedthatafter seekingrolemodelsandsupportforourcampaignamongtheentireGermanfootball team,sofarwehavemanagedtogetsupportonlyfromJensLehmann(German nationalteamsgoalkeeper),atwhichexpressedtheirreactionasnotonly disappointedbutreallyangry"(Haape2006).AsaresultofthispressurethePresident oftheGermanFootballFederationTheoZwanzigersaidtheFederationneedsto changeitspositiononsexwork(SpiegelOnline,8March2006). InspiteofnoconclusiveevidencethatGermanysliberalapproachtoprostitution madeitmoreattractivetohumantraffickers(MicheleClark,theHeadofanti traffickingassistanceunitattheOrganizationforSecurityandCooperationinEurope (OSCE),citedinTzortzis2006),thepressureonGermanytoaddressitspolicy towardssexworkpromptedtheGermandelegationtotheOSCEtoissueastatement thatwemustassumeeveniftherearenoreliablefiguresthatwomenwillbe forcedintoprostitutionandwillperhapsbebroughttoGermanysolelyforthis purpose(DelegationofGermanytotheOSCE2006).Althoughsupposedlynota campaignagainstnormalprostitution(Expatica,8March2006),themoralpanic aroundWorldCupbecameexactlythat.AstheEUemploymentcommissioner VladimirSpidladeclared,veryfewpeoplebecomeprostitutesoutoftheirfreewill anddeclaredprostitutiontobeincompatiblewithhumandignity(Expatica,8March 2008).Womensagencyhasbeenundermined,andtheirpossiblechoicetoengagein

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sexworkeffectivelydenied.Suchanapproachtosexworkandsextrafficking affectedlivesofwomenengagedinGermansexindustry,andthosewho,for whateverreasonwantedtomigrateduringtheWorldCup. TheOutcome Asaconsequenceofconflatingtraffickingandsexworkthecrackdownonillegal prostitutionandsextraffickingresultedinlargescaleraidsthroughoutGermany, withnearlyonehundredpeople,seventyfourofthemsexworkers,arrestedbythe Germanpolice(AssociatedPress,1June2006).TheinteriorministeroftheHesse provincedirectlylinkedtheseraidswithconcernsexpressedbyhumanrights organizationsandothergroupsthatthousandsofwomen,mostlyfromEastern Europe,couldbesmuggledintoGermanyandforcedtoworkasprostitutesduring theWorldCup.InneighbouringprovinceofRhinelandPalatinate22peoplewere arrestedand34wereissuedcitationsmostlyforimmigrationviolationsandfailureto complywithbusinessregulations(AssociatedPress,1June2006). AntitraffickingmeasuresaffectednotonlyGermansexworkers,butalsowomen fromthesupposedcountriesoforiginwho,forwhateverreason,wantedtovisit GermanyduringtheWorldCup.Aswomenindangerofbeingtraffickedforsex duringtheWorldCupwereconstructedasyoung,navewomenfromEasternand CentralEurope(Ekklesia2006,Haape2006,Tzortzis2006),whoseekalifefreeof povertyorabuse(Neuwirth2006)butinsteadendupbeingseverelyvictimized,their bodieshavebeenyetagainconstructedasweakandvulnerable. WeareveryanxiousaboutwhatwillhappeninGermanynext month.Thestoriesofthesegirlslockedinhousesareabsolutely horrendous.Theseyoungwomenareeithersoldbytheirfamilies, kidnappedorbelievetheyaregoingtodecentjobstoearnmoneyto sendhome.Theyendupwithoutanyrightsandwithruinedlives

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GwynethSmith,CumbriaDistrictMethodistWomen'sNetwork (Morgan2006) Inordertohelpthem,asEUChiefJusticeFrancoFrattiniexplains, [v]isarequirementsshouldbeslappedonallnonEUcitizens travellingtoGermany...asapartofadrivetopreventanexpected increaseinthetraffickingWeneedtointroduceandreintroduce temporaryvisasforallthirdcountrieseventhosenotrequiring visassofarbutwhicharepossibleorigincountriesfortrafficked womenandchildrentheauthorities(needto)ensurethatpeople potentiallycompromisingpublicorder,oneofthegroundsfor refusalofentryintotheSchengenarea,areindeedrefusedsuch entry EUChiefJusticeFrancoFrattini(EUObserver,9March2006) Coincidentallyornot,thislatestrestrictionofwomensrightshasbeenlaunchedon theInternationalWomen'sDay. Conclusion Thisresearchindicatesthatthebodiesthatenforcebordersarenotonlythoseagents thatpatrolthephysicalborderbutthose(maleandfemale)agentsthatpatrolmoral bordersaroundtheacceptabilityandotherwiseofsexwork.Thosemoral enforcementagentsnotonlyperformagenderedsecuritizationoftheborderbutalso asocialandracialpatrolofparticulargroups.Consequentlythemoralpanic surroundingtheWorldCupevidencedapeakinthesubjectionofsomeracialand socialgroupstodifferentialborder,immigrationandlabourregimes.Thecurtailment of(some)womensmobilityandworkrightsinthenameofsecuringtheirprotection (fromthemselvesaswellasfromtraffickers)reliedonanslipperynumbers,the

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securitizationoftheEuropeanunionandagendasofkeyplayersidentifiedinthis paper. TheWorldCupisover,andalthoughIOM(Hennigetal.2006)indicatedthatan increaseinhumantraffickingdidnotoccur(asitdidnotoccurforpreviousmajor sportingeventssuchas1998FIFAWorldCupinFrance,2004UEFAChampionshipin Portugal,or2004OlympicGamesinAthensHennigetal.2006),someorganizations havealreadybeenpointingouttoupcomingsportingevents,suchasthe2010 OlympicGamesandtheWorldCupinSouthAfricaasthepotentialriskfortrafficking (Delaney2007,Graham2007,TheFutureGroup2007,Heckler2008).Duringthe recentEuropeanfootballChampionshipinAustriaandSwitzerlandtheSBSreported (27May2008)thatfansareconfrontedwithshockingimagesofhumantraffickingin betweenmoretraditionaladvertsforbeer,foodandconsumergoods. Whatwehavenotseenafterthe2006WorldCuparecriticalassessmentsofthe effectsofthislatestmoralpanictowomentheysupposedtoprotect.Instead,there arerandomevaluationsthat,surprisinglyornot,claimthatpreventioncampaigns andincreasedlawenforcementeffortsduringtheWorldCupmayhavereducedthe riskoftraffickingandthatcharacteristicsofthefanbaseatthe2006WorldCuphad adirectimpactonthedemandforsexualservicesasmanyofthefanswerefamilies withchildren(Hennigetal.2006:2;similarinTavella2007,Delaney2007).Campaigns were,thus,praisedasasuccess.Whatisevenworse,someauthorsassessedthat internationalcommunityslateresponseandsensationalismofinaccuratefactsdid nothaveasignificantimpactonthesituation(Tavella2007:217). Whatneedstobeacknowledgedisthatprotectivemeasuresaroundsextrafficking preventwomentoexercisetheiragencyandfurthernarrowwomensoptions. Targetingsexworkinsteadofsextraffickingisoneofsuchmeasures.Atthesame time,whileacknowledgingriskstheincreasingnumberofmigrantwomenface, particularlyiftheirjourneysareundocumented,itisessentialtopinpointthatmaking

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thesejourneysmoredifficultwillnotpreventwomentoendeavourtotheirmigration patterns.Instead,itisessentialtotacklestructural,global,nationalandindividual circumstancesthatincreasinglylimitsomewomenschoices.Thenewagendais needed(Segrave&Milivojevic2005)thatwillmoveawayfromthelawandorder framework,andthatwillacknowledgetraffickinginitsallcomplexities.Otherwise womenwithwrongpassportswhowanttofulfiltheirmigrationavenuesorsimplyto supporttheirfootballteamwillhavetorunawayfromtheirrescuers.

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References Agustin,L(2005)MigrantsintheMistresssHouse:OtherVoicesintheTrafficking Debate,SocialPolitics,vol12,no1:96117. AmnestyInternational(2006)RedcardtotraffickingduringWorldCup,Amnesty InternationalUSA,26April2006,viewed20June2007, http://www.amnestyusa.org/document.php?lang=e&id=ENGACT770082006 Apap,J,Culleen,P&Medved,F(2002)CounteractingHumanTrafficking:Protecting theVictimsofTrafficking,paperpresentedtotheEuropeanConferenceon PreventingandCombatingTraffickinginHumanBeingsGlobalChallengeforthe 21stCentury,Brussels,1820September2002,viewed20June2007, http://www.belgium.iom.int/StopConference/Conference%20Papers/01.%20Apap,% 20J.%20IOM%20final%20paper.pdf Bales,K(1999)DisposablePeopleNewSlaveryintheGlobalEconomy,Berkeley,Los Angeles,London:UniversityofCaliforniaPress. Bertone,A.M(2000)SexualTraffickinginWomen:InternationalPoliticalEconomy andthePoliticsofSex,GenderIssues,vol18,no1:422. Bindel,J(2006)FoulPlay,TheGuardian,30May2006,viewed20June2007, http://www.guardian.co.uk/g2/story/0,,1785532,00.html CAREforEurope(2006)HumanTrafficking,CARE,viewed20June2007, http://www.careforeurope.org/en/trafficking_en.htm

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Carrington,K&Hearn,J(2003)TraffickingandtheSexIndustry:FromImpunityto Protection,CurrentIssuesBrief,no28,Canberra:DepartmentofParliamentary Library:124. Chon,K&Ellerman,D(2006)SoccerWithaSideofSlavery,TheWashingtonPost,10 June2006,viewed20June2007,http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp dyn/content/article/2006/06/09/AR2006060901477.html CoalitionAgainstTraffickinginWomen(2006)BuyingSexIsNotASportSayNoTo GermanysProstitutionofWomenDuringtheWorldCupGamesin2006,CATW,25 January2006,viewed20June2007,http://catwepetition.ouvaton.org/php/index.php Clark,M(2003)TraffickinginPersons:anissueofhumansecurity,JournalofHuman Development,vol4,no2:247263. Cooper,H(2006)AheadofWorldCup,U.S.WarnsGermanyAboutSexTrafficking, TheNewYorkTimes,6June2006,viewed20June2007, http://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/06/world/europe/06slavery.html?ex=1307246400& en=a4a00ddb0cd98c6b&ei=5090&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss CouncilofEurope(2006)2006WorldCup:PACEasksFIFAtojointhefightagainst traffickinginwomen,CouncilofEuropeParliamentaryAssembly,Strasbourg,viewed 20June2007,http://assembly.coe.int/ASP/Press/StopPressView.asp?ID=1759 Crouse,J(2006)GermanysSexShacksTarnishtheWorldCup,ConcernedWomenfor America,WashingtonD.C,viewed20June2007, http://www.beverlylahayeinstitute.org/articledisplay.asp?id=10649&department=BLI &categoryid=commentary&subcategoryid=blitraf

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Delaney,J(2007)2010OlympicsCouldBoastSexTrafficking,TheEpochTimes,12 December,http://en.epochtimes.com/news/71212/62850.html,viewed16August 2008. DelegationofGermanytotheOSCE(2006)StatementbytheDelegationofGermany attheMeetingoftheOSCEPermanentCouncilregardingeffortstocombat traffickinginhumanbeingsduringtheFIFAWorldCupinGermany,OSCE,11May 2006,viewed20June2007, http://www.osce.org/documents/pc/2006/05/19042_en.pdf Doezema,J(2000)LooseWomenorLostWomen?Thereemergenceofthemythof whiteslaveryincontemporarydiscoursesoftraffickinginwomen,GenderIssues, vol18,no1:2350. Ekklesia(2006)HumanrightsandchurchgroupsprotestagainstWorldCupsexslavery, Ekklesia,2April2006,viewed20June2007, http://www.ekklesia.co.uk/content/news_syndication/article_06059sex.shtml FIFA(2006)FIFAhasnopowertotakelegalactionagainsthumantraffickingandforced prostitution,FIFAMediaService,13April2006,viewed02July2006, http://www.fifa.com/en/media/index/0,1369,116822,00.html Graham,T(2007)SouthernAfrica:HumanTraffickingConcernfor2010, AllAfrica.com,http://allafrica.com/stories/200711300860.html,viewed16August 2008. Haape,M(2006)ProstitutionduringWorldCupisawholenewballgame,Sunday Herald,26February2006.

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Heckler,C(2008)Africanstotargethumantraffickingbefore2010FIFAWorldCup, EcumenicalAdvocacyAlliance,http://iac.ealliance.ch/2008/08/humantrafficking worldcup/,viewed16August2008. Hennig,J,Craggs,S,Larsson,F&Laczko,F(2006)TraffickinginHumanBeingsand the2006WorldCupinGermany,SIDAandIOM,availableat http://www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/pid/1737 Hughes,D(2001)TheNatashaTrade:TransnationalSexTrafficking,National InstituteofJusticeJournal,no246:915. Iglesias,A(2006)Germany:WorldCupaMagnetforForcedProstitution?,IPSNews, 4January2006,viewed20June2007,http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=31663 IOM(1995)TraffickingandProstitution:TheGrowingExploitationofMigrantWomen fromCentralandEasternEurope,Geneva:IOM. IOM(2006)GermanysWorldCupBrothels:40,000WomenandChildrenatRiskof ExploitationthroughTrafficking,StatementofAshleyGarrett,IOM,Hearingbefore theHouseCommitteeonInternationalRelationsSubcommitteeonAfrica,Global HumanRightsandInternationalOperations,4May2006. Jalsevac,J(2006)U.S.ReportSoftPedallingonGermany,CanadaSexTraffickingsay AntiTraffickingExperts,LifeSiteNews,6June2006,viewed20June2007, http://www.lifesite.net/ldn/2006/jun/06060606.html Jeffreys,S(2002)WomentraffickingandtheAustralianconnection:dolegalisedsex industriesencouragethetraffickingofwomenandchildren?Aretheypartlytoblame fortheexplosioninthistradeoverthelastdecade?Whoseneedsarebeingservedby thelegitimationofsexwork?,ArenaMagazine,AprilMay,no58:4448.

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Kelly,L(2002)JourneysofJeopardy:AReviewofResearchonTraffickinginWomenand ChildreninEurope,Geneva:IOM. Kempadoo,K(1998)Introduction:GlobalizingSexWorkersRights,inKempadoo,K& Doezema,J(eds)GlobalSexWorkers:Rights,ResistanceandRedefinition,NewYork andLondon:Routledge. Kempadoo,K(2005)FromMoralPanictoGlobalJustice:ChangingPerspectiveson Trafficking,inKempadoo,K,Sanghera,J&Pattanaik,B(eds)Traffickingand ProstitutionReconsidered:NewPerspectivesonMigration,SexWork,andHuman Rights,Boulder,London:ParadigmPublishers. King,G.(2004)Woman,ChildforSaleTheNewSlaveTradeinthe21stCentury, ChamberlainBros,NewYork. Luxmore,J(2006)PolishnunsissueantiprostitutionleafletsforWorldCup,Catholic NewsService,10May2006,viewed20June2007, http://www.catholicnews.com/data/stories/cns/0602705.htm Miko,F(2003)TraffickinginWomenandChildren:TheUSandInternational Response,inTroubnikoff,A(ed)TraffickinginWomenandChildrenCurrentIssues andDevelopments,NewYork:NovaSciencePublishers. Morgan,J(2006)MethodistFearsOverWorldCupBrothels,TheWhitehavenNews, 25May2006,viewed20June2007,http://www.whitehaven news.co.uk/unknown/viewarticle.aspx?c=397&id=370395

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Neuwirth,J(2006)TheWorldCupandthejohns,InternationalHeraldTribune,11April 2006,viewed20June2007, http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/04/10/opinion/edneuwirth.php NikolicRistanovic,V,Copic,S,Milivojevic,S,SimeunovicPatic,B&Mihic,B(2004) TraffickinginPeopleinSerbia,Belgrade:OSCE. Paterson,T(2005)GermanybacksbiggerbrothelstofightWorldCupsexexplosion, IndependentOnline,9December2005,viewed20June2007, http://news.independent.co.uk/europe/article331954.ece Raymond,J,DCunha,J,Dzuhayatin,SR,Hynes,P,Rodriguez,Z&Santos,A(2002)A ComparativeStudyofWomenTraffickedinMigrationProcess,CoalitionAgainst TraffickinginWomen,viewed20June2007, http://action.web.ca/home/catw/attach/CATW%20Comparative%20Study%202002.p df Roby,J(2005)Womenandchildrenintheglobalsextrade:Towardmoreeffective policy,InternationalSocialWork,vol.48,no.2,pp.136147. SalvationArmy(2006)EnjoytheGame.CelebratetheWin.DontbeaLoserSalvation ArmyLaunchesHumanTraffickingAwarenessCampaignforFansTravellingtoWorld Cup,SalvationArmyMetablogging,viewed20June2007, http://tsa.ismckenzie.com/2006/05/world_cup_human_trafficking.html Segrave,M&Milivojevi,S(2005)SexTrafficking:ANewAgenda,Social Alternatives,vol24,no2:1116 SIDA(2006)MTVandSidainantitraffickingcampaign,SIDA,Stockholm,viewed20 June2007,http://www.sida.se/sida/jsp/sida.jsp?d=137&a=23732&language=en_US

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Sparre,K(2006)Swedishombudsman:BoycottWorldCupinprotestagainst prostitution,Playthegame,7April2006,viewed20June2007, http://www.playthegame.org/News/Up_To_Date/Swedish_Ombudsman_Boycott_W orld_Cup_because_of_%20prostitution.aspx Tavella,A(2007)SexTraffickingandtheWorldCupinGermany:Concerns,Actions andImplicationsforFutureInternationalSportingEvents,NorthwesternJournalof InternationalHumanRights,vol.6,no.11:196217. TheFutureGroup(2007)Faster,Higher,Stronger:PreventingHumanTraffickingatthe 2010Olympics,Calgary:TheFutureGroup. Tzortzis,A(2006)WorldCupgoal:stemprostitution,ChristianScienceMonitor,5May 2006,viewed20June2007,http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0505/p06s02 woeu.html USDepartmentofState(2002)TraffickinginPersonsReport,USDepartmentofState, WashingtonD.C.,viewed20June2007,http://www.state.gov/g/tip/rls/tiprpt/2002/ USDepartmentofState(2006)TraffickinginPersonsReport,USDepartmentofState, WashingtonD.C.,viewed20June2007,http://www.state.gov/g/tip/rls/tiprpt/2006/ USDepartmentofState(2008)TraffickinginPersonsReport,USDepartmentofState, WashingtonD.C.,viewed16August2008,http://www.state.gov/g/tip/rls/tiprpt/2008/ USHouseofRepresentativesSubcommitteeonAfrica,GlobalHumanRightsand InternationalOperations(2006)ModernDaySlavery:Spotlightonthe2006Trafficking inPersonsReport,ForcedLabor,andSexTraffickingattheWorldCup,USHouseof

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Representatives,WashingtonD.C.,viewed20June2007, http://www.internationalrelations.house.gov/archives/109/28104.PDF USHouseofRepresentativesSubcommitteeonAfrica,GlobalHumanRightsand InternationalOperations(2006a)GermanysWorldCupBrothels:40.000Womenand ChildrenatRiskofExploitationThroughTrafficking,USHouseofRepresentatives, WashingtonD.C.,viewed20June2007, http://www.internationalrelations.house.gov/archives/109/27330.PDF vandenAnker,C(2004)ContemporarySlavery,GlobalJusticeandGlobalisation,in vandenAnker,C(ed)ThePoliticalEconomyofNewSlavery,PalgraveMacmillan, Houndmills,Basingstoke,Hampshire,NewYork.

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Organisedabuseandthepoliticsofdisbelief
MichaelSalter FacultyofLaw FacultyofMedicine UniversityofNewSouthWales m.salter@unsw.edu.au Organisedabusereferstoanyincidentofchildsexualabuseinwhichmultipleadults actinacoordinatedorpremeditatedwaytosexuallyabusemultiplechildren.1 Althoughitisarelativelyinfrequentformofsexualabuse,organisedabusehasbeen amongstthemostincendiaryissuesindebatesonchildsexualabuseoverthelast thirtyyears(seeBrown,Scheflinetal.1998;Kitzinger2004).Thispaperwillexplore howorganisedabusecametoplayacentralroleinconflictsoverthesignificationof childsexualabuse.Asnarrativesofsexualviolencehavegainedincreasingly legitimacyinthepubliceye,itseemsthatorganisedabusehascometorepresenta newfrontierofdisbelief. Sincethe1980s,disclosuresoforganisedabusehavebeendisparagedbyarangeof activists,journalistsandresearcherswhohavefocused,inparticular,oncasesin whichsexuallyabusivegroupswereallegedtohavebehavedinritualisticor ceremonialways(e.g.EberleandEberle1986;LoftusandKetcham1994;Wakefield andUnderwager1994;Guilliatt1996;NathanandSnedeker1996;OfsheandWatters 1996).Whilsttheseauthorsclaimedtobewritingintheinterestsofscienceandsocial justice,whathasemergedfromtheirwritingareafamiliarsetofargumentsaboutthe credibilityofwomenandchildrenstestimonyofsexualviolence;inshort,that

Thereisnocommon,recognisedtypologyforcasesofchildsexualabusethatinvolvemultiple perpetrators(KellyandRegan2000).Arangeoftermsareusedintheliteraturetodescribesexual abusebygroupsornetworksofoffenders,includingpaedophilerings,childsexrings,multivictim, multiperpetratorabuse,ornetworkabuse(e.g.BurgessandLendeqvistClark1984;Fallerand Plummer1996;Cairns2000).Organisedabusehasbeenselectedforthepurposesofthispaperasa neutralandinclusiveterm(seeBibby1996).

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womenandchildrenarepronetoarangeofmemoryandcognitiveerrorsthatlead themtomakefalseallegationsofrape. Thispaperarguesthatthisbodyofliteraturehassystematicallymisconstrued allegationsoforganisedabuse,andusedorganisedabuseasalensthroughwhichthe debateonchildabusecouldbereenvisionedalongverytraditionallines,attributing victimstatustoaccusedmenandconstructingliarsoutofwomenandchildren complainingofsexualabuse.Theambiguities,theuncertainties,andthecomplexities ofcasesoforganisedabusehavemadeitanimportantdiscursivesiteforanumberof actorswithideologicalobjectionstothechangeswroughtbyfeminismandchild protection.Inparticular,byframingallegationsoforganisedabuseasbizarreand beyondbelief,theysoughttoreassertanolderpoliticsofdisbeliefthatconteststhe notionthatwomenandchildrenarereliablewitnesses. Thebacklashagainstchildprotection Formuchofthe20thcentury,womenandchildrensdisclosuresofsexualviolence haveoftenbeencontestedbydrawingonentrenchedculturalbeliefsaboutwomen andchildren;namely,thattheylackafirmsenseofidentityandmemory,andare thuspronetoconfabulationandwilfulfalsehood(Campbell2003).Acrossarangeof professionsanddisciplines,indicatorsofdistressinsexuallyassaultedwomenand childrenhavebeensystematicallyreinterpretedinsuchawayastocamouflagethe prevalenceofsexualviolence,minimiseitsharms,anddirectblameawayfrom offenders(Olafson,Corwinetal.1993).Fromthe1960s,theeffortsofthewomens movement,incoalitionwitharangeofprofessionalsandresearchers,catalyseda reconfigurationofsexualviolenceasafrontierofdisbelief.Feminismbrokerednew formsofcareandsupportforabusedwomenandchildren,includingrapecrisis servicesanddomesticviolenceshelters(DriverandDroison1989;Farr1991).A growingnumberofmedicalandpsychologicalprofessionalsbegantoconsiderthe familyhome,andintimaterelationships,aspotentialsitesofseriousandlife

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threateningharm(Kempe,Silvermanetal.1962;Kempe1978).Bytheearly1980s, significantgainshadbeenmadeinrelationtothepublicawarenessofincest,sexual abuse,sexualassaultanddomesticviolence(Herman1981;Russell1984;Finkelhor andYllo1985).Disclosuresofsexualviolenceweregivenincreasingrecognitionas authenticrepresentationsoflivedexperience,andthisopenedupanewrangeof testimonialpositionsforwomenandchildren.InAustralia,andaroundtheworld, childprotectionservicesbeganreceiving,andactingon,anunprecedentednumberof childabusenotifications,andhealthandwelfareservicesbeganscalinguptotreat sexuallyabusedclients(BreckenridgeandCarmody1992).Crucially,themedia provedarelativelyconducivevehicleforarangeofnewnarrativesaboutsexual violenceandsexualabuse. Dramaticsocialchangeoftenpromptsaresponsefromthosethreatenedbythe emergenceofnewmeanings,understandingsandpractices.Intheearly1980s,a nascentpoliticalmovementdevelopedintheUnitedStates,constitutedofpeople whoobjectedtotheriseinstatesponsoredinterventionsinfamilylifeandparent childrelationships.Thismovementwaslargelyapiecemealandineffectualeffort untilthefirstprosecutionsfororganisedabuseprovidedthemwithakeyopportunity tocentraliseandpoliticallymobilise(Faller2004).In1984,thecommunitygroup VictimsofChildAbuseLaws(orVOCAL)wasformedintheaftermathofacollapsed investigationintoallegationsoforganisedabuseinJordan,Minnesota.VOCALwas formedbytwoparentsacquittedinthecase,andDrRalphUnderwager,aLutheran ministerandpsychologistwhoactedasanexpertwitnessintheirdefence.Incourt, Underwagerhadclaimedthatthechildrensdisclosuresoforganisedabusewerethe productofbrainwashingbysocialworkers,who,hetestified,usedCommunist thoughtreformtechniquestoforcethechildwitnessestoinventallegationsagainst theirparents(Summit1994b:14).Thesedarkintimationsofaconspiracyoffemale professionalsstrongarmingchildrenintodestroyingtheirfamilieswouldbeafeature

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ofUnderwagersactivismoverthenextfewdecades.2Ostensibly,VOCALwasformed toadvocatefortherightsofparentswithcomplaintsagainstthechildprotection system,butitattractedarangeofotherpeople,includingantifeminists,fathers rightsactivists,convictedsexualoffendersandpropaedophileadvocates(Hechler 1988).Withinayearofitsestablishment,VOCALclaimedthreethousandmembers inonehundredchaptersacrossfortystates(Meinert1985),providinganexpansive platformforthepromulgationofapositiononchildsexualabusethatharkedbackto viewsmoreprevalentintheearlytomidtwentiethcentury:childsexualabuseis infrequentandnotnecessarilyharmful,childrencannottellthedifferencebetween factandfantasy,andsocialworkersandotherswhoinvestigatechildabuseare obsessiveandhysterical. Mediacoverageofsexualabuseintheearly1980swasfocused,primarily,onthe mannerinwhichchildsexualabusehadbeenhistoricallydeniedandsilenced(Beckett 1996).OrganisedabusefeaturedpowerfullyinVOCALsefforttogivesaliencetoa messageaboutchildabusethatwasotherwiserunningcountertodominantmedia themes.Inasmallnumberofchildprotectioninvestigationsinthe1980s,children reportedritualisticformsofsexualabuse,involvingsexualassaultandtortureby groupsofpeoplewithinreligiousorcultlikesatanicceremonies(Scott2001).A numberofcommunityconcernsaboutchildsexualabusecoalescedaroundthese cases,particularlythereliabilityofchildrenstestimony,thevalidityofchild protectioninvestigationprocesses,andthevulnerabilityofadultstofalseallegations ofabuse.TheseconcernsprovedtobeaneffectiveframeforVOCALincontestingthe authorityofchildprotectionservices.VOCALhighlightedchildrensallegationsof ritualabuseasevidencethatchildrenhadanaturalpropensityforconfabulationand fantasy(Marron1987)andthatsocialworkersandpsychologistswerecaughtupina

Underwagerbelievedthatthathysteriaaboutchildsexualabusewasbeingfuelledbyradical feminismandwomensjealousyoftheintimacybetweenmenandboys(Geraci1993).Inoneinstance, heaccusedfeministsinAmericaofwagingacampaignoflibelagainsthim,followingwidespread criticismoverhisclaimthat[p]aedopihlesneedtobecomemorepositiveandmaketheclaimthat paedophiliaisanacceptableexpressionofGod'swillforloveandunityamonghumanbeings (Lightfoot1993).

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moralpanicaboutchildabuse(WakefieldandUnderwager1994).Theseviewswere promotedbyRalphUnderwagerinaprolificcampaignindefenceofpeopleaccused ofsexualabuseandorganisedabuse.Bythelate1980s,Underwagerhadtestifiedfor thedefenceinmorethen200sexualabusecasesintheUS,Canada,Australia,New ZealandandBritain(Grant1994),and28oftheminvolvedallegationsoforganised andritualabuse(Marron1987).TheviewsespousedbyUnderwagerandVOCAL receivedwidespreadcoverageinthemainstreampress,althoughtheywere temperedbyreportsofsubstantiatedinvestigationsandprosecutionsofcasesof organisedandritualabuse(e.g.Hollingsworth1986;Marron1989). OneofthelongestrunningandmostexpensiveAmericanchildmolestationcasesof the1980s,theMcMartinpreschoolcase,provedtobethetippingpointforthe credibilityofritualabuseallegations.Thelegalproceedingsinthecasewereso protractedandtheallegationssoextremethatthefailuretosecureconvictionsinthe casebecame,inthepubliceye,emblematicofallegationsofritualabuseasawhole. TheMcMartincasebeganin1983withasmallnumberofcomplaintsofsexualabuse atalocalpreschoolinCalifornia.Theinvestigationquicklysnowballed,andover360 formerandcurrentstudents,rangingfromtoddlerstoteenagers,disclosedsexual andritualabusebytheoperatorsandteachersofthepreschooloverfifteenyears (Gorney1988).Somechildrenspokeofasetofstrangeandbafflingexperiencesin whichtheyweretaken,underground,fromthepreschoolthroughasetoftunnelstoa waitingcar,anddriventootherlocationsinthearea.There,theyspokeofbeing subjectedtosexuallyexploitativeactsbygroupsofpeople,includingritualistic practices.Theinvestigationresultedinnumerouschargesagainsttheownersand teachersofthepreschoolandsevenyearsoflegalproceedings,includingaprolonged preliminaryhearing,andtwocriminaltrials,bothofwhichresultedinhungjuries. Therewasahighrateofattritionamongstthechildwitnesses,whounderwent extensiveandhostilecrossexaminationforuptothreeweeks(Schindehette1990). Astheproceedingsdrewout,journalistsbegantodriftawayfromtheseemingly interminabledaytodayordealofthecourtprocess.Thetoneofnewsreportingon

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McMartinbecameincreasinglygeneralandthematic,asjournalistsusedthecaseto illustratebroaderconcernsaboutchildrenstestimonyandthelaw. Whenamistrialwasdeclaredinthesecondtrial,amediafurorensued.Oneopinion pieceintheWallStreetJournalcalledforthechildwitnessesintheMcMartincaseto bechargedwithperjuryandjailed(Cockburn1990).Commentatorsarguedthatthe McMartincasewasevidencethatsocietywashystericalaboutsexualabuse(Nathan 1990)andthatchildprotectionworkerswereengagedinaconspiracytoforce childrenintofabricatingabuseclaimsaspartofachildabuseindustry(Eberleand Eberle1993).Intheaftermathofthecase,mediacoverageoforganisedabuse specifically,andchildsexualabusemoregenerally,begantofeaturetermssuchas moralpanicandwitchhuntwithincreasingfrequency.Thisinflammatoryrhetoric wouldbeadoptedbyacademiccommentatorsonorganisedandritualabuse throughoutthe1990s.Forinstance,Sebald(1995;1997)describedchildren complainingoforganisedabuseaswitchchildren,andhelinkedthemtothe defamingchildrenofthewitchtrialsandtheInquisition.Thesechildrenboughtto thestakeuncountedthousandsofinnocentpeople,however,heobserves ominously,theywereneverpunishedfortheirlethalrole.(Sebald1997:44)The metaphorofthewitchhuntwouldfeatureprominentlyinthewritingsof researchersandacademicsonritualabuse(e.g.Loftus1995;Henningsen1996;Victor 1998),castingmenasthevictimisedinnocents,andwomenandchildrenastheirlying persecutors.Ultimately,ritualabuseandtheMcMartincasebecamethecausecelebre ofthereneweddiscourseofdisbeliefregardingchildrenstestimonyofchildsexual assaultthathadbeenbuildingthroughoutthe1980s.Thefindingsofan archaeologicaldigattheMcMartinpreschoolsite,whichuncoveredrecently backfilledtunnelsandritualarticlesinaccordancewiththechildrensdisclosures, cametoolatetocounterthemomentumofthebacklash(Summit1994a). Intheearly1990s,thesedebatesweresomethingofapassingcuriosityinAustralia. UnliketheUnitedStates,therewasnoorganisedcountermovementinAustralia

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againstchildprotectionservices.Whilstsomejournalistsquestionedthebasisof chargesinorganisedabusecases,theydidnotframeorganisedabuseasevidenceof amoralpanicaboutchildsexualabuse.Somejournalistsgavesympathetic coveragetochildrenandadultsdisclosingorganisedandritualabuse(Preston1990a; Preston1990b;Juan1991;Editorial1993),whilstcasesemergedtogiveweightto theirclaims.Inthelate1980sandearly1990s,substantiatedcasesoforganisedand ritualabusearoseinVictoria,NewSouthWalesandWesternAustralia(Hole1989; Humphries1991;Milburn1992;Wilson1992;Ogg1996).Inresponsetotheneedsof clientswithahistoryofextremeabuse,psychotherapistsformedtheAustralian AssociationofMultiplePersonalityandDissociation.Aselfhelpnetworkofadult survivorsoforganisedandritualabuse,calledRitualAbuseSurvivorsandtheir Supporters,alsoformedduringthisperiod.Sincetheearly1990s,sexualassaultand domesticviolenceworkershavebeendevelopingtrainingandinformationpackages onorganisedandritualabuse(NSWSexualAssaultCommittee1994),whilstlobbying stategovernmentsforaresponsetotheissue(SydneyRapeCrisisCentre1995; StandingCommitteeonSocialIssues1996;ACTCommunityLawReformCommittee 1997;StandingCommitteeonCommunityServicesandSocialEquity2002).In1993, theUnitedNationsSpecialRapporteurontheRightsoftheChild,reportingonhis missiontoAustralia,notedtheemergenceofreportsoforganisedandritualabuse, andrecommendedthattheAustraliangovernmentremainonguard(Muntarbhorn 1993:14). TheriseoffalsememorydiscourseinAustralia Bythemid1990s,apublicbacklashagainstallegationsoforganisedandritualabuse wasunderwayintheAustralianmedia.Thisbacklashdrewextensivelyonfalse memoryliteraturearisingfromaninfluentialAmericanlobbygroup,theFalse MemorySyndromeFoundation.TheFoundationwassponsoredbyRalph Underwager,anditwasformedtorepresenttheinterestsofparentsaccusedof sexualabusebytheiradultchildren.WhilstVOCALsmessageofpanicandillnesshad

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beenprimarilymetaphorical,theFoundationtookthisonestepfurther,inventinga psychiatricdiagnosiscalledFalseMemorySyndrome.TheFoundationproffered thissyndromeasanalternativeexplanationfortheclaimthatsomeadultswere recallingincidentsofchildsexualabuseafteraperiodofprolongedamnesia.Despite extensiveevidenceoftraumaticforgetting,theFoundationclaimedthatitwas impossibletoforgetsexualabuse,andthatthereforesuchclaimsweretheproductof aFalseMemorySyndrome(Calof1993).Theycharacterisedthesyndromeasan epidemic,inwhichmemoriesofsexualabuseactasviralobjectsthatcouldbe transmittedtosuggestiblewomenandchildrenbydirectcontactwithsocialworkers orpsychotherapists,orelsethroughexposuretobooks,televisionprograms,or moviesaboutchildsexualabuse.Muchofthelogicunderlyingthisframeworkwas similartothemoralpanicpositionpreviouslyadvocatedbyVOCAL.The Foundationsrhetoricofinfectionandtransmission,however,enrichedtheir courtroomandmediastrategieswithauthoritativesoundingmedicalterminology thatappealedtojournalistsandacademics.Casesoforganisedandritualabusehada centralroleinthisnarrativeofinfection,confabulationandpathology.Survivorsof organisedabuse,andtheprofessionalswhocaredforthem,werefrequently stigmatisedinthisliteratureasthediseasedcarriersofadangeroussociogenicillness (e.g.LoftusandKetcham1994;WakefieldandUnderwager1994;Pendergrast1995; OfsheandWatters1996). VOCAL,theFoundationandaffiliateddefenseexpertsdrewonattitudestowomen andchildrenthathavealonghistoryinmedicolegaldiscourse(seeHerman1992; Scutt1997;Campbell2003),however,organisedabuseservedasafocalpoint throughwhichtheseattitudescouldbereassertedwithaparticularintensity. Underwager,claimedthat,whenaskedquestionsaboutsexualabuse,childrenwould inevitablyinventanaccountoforganisedandritualisticabusebecausethefantasy worldofchildrenisfilledwithmayhem,murder,cannibalism,bloodandgore(Struck 1986).InUnderwagersaccount,allforensicinterviewswithchildrenprovokedtheir sadisticsexualfantasylife,creatingpsychoticandsexualisedchildrenwhowere

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ruinedforlife(Duncan1987;Smith1992).In1988,asanexpertdefensewitnessin theMrBubblescommittalhearinginSydney,Underwagerarguedthatthechild witnessesinthecasehadbeenturnedintomonstersbytheinvestigationprocess (HoyleandGlover1989;Munro1990).Thus,thehistoricalarchetypeoftheknowing child,foreverruinedbytheirassociationwithsex,tookonstrangeanddemonic proportions.Asimilarargumentwasadvancedbyaprominentmemberofthe Foundation,Prof.RichardOfshe,whosuggestedthat,whenwomenarein environmentsoffreeassociation,theywillnaturallyfantasisescenariosofbrutalrape andritualsadism(OfsheandWatters1993;OfsheandWatters1996).Like Underwagerandchildren,Ofshereferredtopsychotherapyasmakingmonstersout ofwomen.Nolongerwasawomanorchildanemptyvesselwhocouldeasily imagine,orbeconvincedtobelieve,thattheywereabused.Inpublicdiscourse,there weredarkinferencesthattherewassomethingmalevolentwithinwomenand childrendrivingcasesoforganisedabusespecificallyandallegationsofsexualabuse moregenerally. IntheAustraliancontext,falsememorydiscoursehadaresonancethatVOCALs messagesaboutmoralpanichadlacked.Ina1993SydneyMorningHeraldarticle entitledParentsthelatestvictimsofwidespreadsexabuse,philosopherDenis DuttonclaimedthatFalseMemorySyndromerepresentsathreattoeveryloving, normalparentwhosechildmightsomeday,encounteringaroughpatch,fallintothe handsofatherapistwhoacceptsthemythsofmemoryrepressionandhypnotic enhancement.Hecharacterisedatypicalwomanintherapyasgullibleandeasilyled, andcomparedhermemoriesofsexualabusetoaccountsofalienabduction(Dutton 1993).Bythemid1990s,arangeofAustralianjournalistswereusingfalsememory syndrometodescribefalseallegationsofsexualabuse,underheadlinessuchas: ThisManLostEverythingWhenHisDaughterAccusedHimOfSexualAbuse (Wyndham1994)

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InjusticeInTheRealmOfUnreliableRecessesOfTheMind(McGuinness 1994a) AbuseAllAroundWhenAFalseMemoryLingers(Molitorisz1995) RecoveredMemoryCreatesHonestLiar(Hughes1995) AbuseCases:DoubtsGrowOn'Recovered'Memories(Guilliatt1995)

Casesoforganisedandritualisticabusefeaturedfrequentlyinthesearticlesasprima facieexamplesoffalseallegationsofsexualabuse.Bythemid1990s,stereotypesof womenandchildrenassuggestibleandpotentiallymaliciousfantasistswerefirmly backontheagendaoftheAustralianmedia.Thesestereotypes,however,werenow rebadgedasrighteousoutrageovercasesoforganisedabuse,andrepackagedinthe pseudoscientificrhetoricofsuggestibilityandfalsememoriesfirstbrokeredby lobbygroupsofpeopleaccusedofsexualabuse.Underthedisparaginglabelsatanic abuseorsatanicritualabuse,anumberofAustraliancommentatorsinvokedcases oforganisedandritualabusetojustifycharacterizingwomenandchildrensmemory asfallible,andtheirtestimonyaslackingcredibility. From1994to1996,FairfaxjournalistRichardGuilliattpublishedaseriesofarticleson allegationsofritualabuse,culminatinginhisbook,SpeakoftheDevil:Repressed memoryandtheritualabusewitchhunt(Guilliatt1996b).Inthiswork,Guilliattinvited hisreaderstoconsiderritualabuseasaforeignviralobject,introducedinto AustraliafromtheUnitedStates,thathassinceoverruntheAustralianchild protectionsector.HedescribedtheMrBubblesinvestigationasawelterofbizarre claimsandcommunitypanicoriginatingatachildabuseconferenceinSydneyin 1986.Guilliattdevelopedatheorythat,duringthisconference,Australianchild protectionworkerswereundulyinfluencedbyfourAmericanclinicianswhohad workedwiththechildwitnessesintheMcMartincase.Althoughheprovidesno evidencethatritualabusewasdiscussedattheconference,orthattheattendeesin questionmetoneanother,GuilliattsurmisedthatAustralianchildprotectionworkers aresosusceptibletoawitchhuntmentalitythattheirmereproximityto

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professionalsinvolvedintheMcMartincaseledthemtwoyearslatertocoerce childrenintofabricatingscurrilousritualabuseallegations. PaddyMcGuinnessexpoundedonamoreconspiratorialvariantofthisargument, linkingsatanicritualabusewithaninternationalmovementofhealthcareand legalprofessionalswithpolitical,ideologicalorfinancialmotivesforcoercingclients intomakingfalseallegationsofsexualabuse(McGuinness1994a).Inanumberof articles,McGuinnesslikenedallegationsofritualabusetoarashofharassment, gender,raceandotherdiscrimination,childhoodsexualabuseandsimilarly fashionablecomplaintssonumerousthat,hesuggests,mostofthemcannotbe consideredcredible.Hedescribestheseallegationsasaformofterrorismenactedby womenagainstmen,andheencouragesthoseaccusedtofightbackandlaunch legalproceedingsagainstthementalhealthprofessionalssupportingcomplainants (McGuinness1994b;McGuinness1995b;McGuinness1995a).Otherjournalists comparedallegationsofritualabusetostoriesofalienabduction(Wynhausen1994) andsuggestedthatcasesofritualabuseprovedthatfalsememorysyndromeand falseallegationswereagrowingprobleminAustralia(Waterstreet1996).This hyperbolictreatmentofritualabusewasrepeatedinAustralianacademiccircles, primarilybypsychiatristsassociatedwiththeAustralianFalseMemoryAssociation (e.g.Gelb1993). Asmediacontroversyescalated,thenascentpolicyresponsetoorganisedandritual abuseceased.Duringthisperiod,theWoodRoyalCommissiontookevidencefrom representativesoftheAustralianFalseMemoryAssociation,andtheirreport suggestedthattheyfoundtheargumentoftheAssociationfarmorecompellingthen thenumeroussubmissionsmadetotheCommissionrelatingtoorganisedandritual abuse.TheCommissionsuggestedthatthecasesoforganisedandritualabuse boughttotheirattentioncouldbetheproductofsuggestionbytherapistsactingout areligiousfervorandparanoiaaboutsexualabuse(RoyalCommissionintothe NewSouthWalesPoliceService1997:104).Itisnotablethat,duringthisperiod,both

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theNationalCrimeAuthorityandtheWoodRoyalCommissionchosetofocustheir investigationsoforganisedabuseontheextrafamilialabuseofboys,oftentargeting homosexualmenasperpetrators(seeMiller1997;RoyalCommissionintotheNew SouthWalesPoliceService1997).Incontrast,disclosuresofritualabuseprimarily implicatesexuallyabusivefathers,andotherrelatives,whoprovidechildrenforsexual abusetoothersoutsidethehome(CleaverandFreeman1996;Scott2001).More recently,disclosuresoforganisedandritualabuseinIndigenouscommunities(e.g. ABCNews2006;Overington2006)havebeenaffordedthecredibilitythatisdenied tosimilardisclosuresofabuseinAngloAustraliancommunities. Elsewhere,Ihavesuggestedthatthispatternofdenialisanexpressionofthe reluctanceofpolicymakersandlawenforcementtoacknowledgethescaleofsexual violenceagainstwomenandchildreninfirstworldnations(Salter2008).Organised andritualabusebringsexoticformsofviolenceintothenormativespacesofthe everydayintohomes,churchesandschoolschallengingsocialidealisationsof familylife,anddisruptingracialiseddistinctionsbetweencivilisationand barbarity.InAustralia,organisedabuseisdisplacedontodevelopingnations,black communities,orsexualminorities,butitsoccurrenceisrarelyacknowledgedinurban, AngloAustraliancommunitiesandhomes.Disclosuresoforganisedabusehave, instead,beensubjecttoquarantinebydiscourse;encircledandexpelledbythe rhetoricoffalsememoriesandmoralpanic.Centraltothesediscursivemaneuvers havebeenthereassertionandintensificationofthetraditionalpoliticsofdisbelief regardingthesuggestibilityofwomenandchildrenandtheirsupposedpropensityto accuseinnocentmenofrapeandviolence.

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Thesocialdynamicsofmemory,credibilityanddisbelief Theconflictoverthecredibilityoftestimonyofsexualabusehassometimesbeen calledthememorywars,sincepsychologicalresearchfindingsonmemoryand recallhavefeaturedprominentlythroughout(Campbell2003).Manyoftheeffortsto contesttheriseoffalsememorydiscoursehavereliedonscientificevidenceof traumaticamnesiaandtheaccuracyofmemoryrecall(e.g.Brown,Scheflinetal. 1998).Whilstthisliteratureconstitutesasignificantevidencebaseforthecredibility ofsexualabusetestimony,ithasoftenfailedtoidentifyandaddressthereactionary genderpoliticsattheheartofthefalsememoryandmoralpanichypotheses.In spiteoftheirpseudoscientificrhetoric,theseargumentsarenotbasedupon empiricalevidence,butratheruponappealstopejorativestereotypesandcommon senseknowledgeaboutwomenandchildren.Furthermore,rememberingisnot simplyamatterofcognitivestructuresandindividualcapacity.Rememberingisalsoa socialact,boundupinthepractices,andskills,associatedwithconstructinga narrative,speakingorwritingthatnarrative,andtheiterativerelationshipbetween narratorandaudience(Plummer1995).Thecredibilityofanarrativeofsexualabuse rests,innosmallway,onthenarratorsmasteryofkeycommunicationand attachmentskills,andthesocialresourcestheycandrawonforcareandsupport. Abusedandneglectedchildrenfrequentlyhavelimitedopportunitiestogainsuch skillsandrelationships,and,asadults,thesedeficitscontributeto,andarecompound by,factorssuchasmentalillness,disabilityandpoverty. Scepticalcommentatorshavehighlightedtheincrediblemannerinwhichadults andchildrendisclosehistoriesoforganisedandritualabusetogreateffect.Assertions andretractions,gapsorcontradictions,exaggerationsandconspiratorialbeliefshave allbeenusedasevidencethatindividualswhodiscloseorganisedandritualabuseare unreliablewitnesses.Oppositionalliteraturehaspaidscantattentiontotherealityof thelivesofadultsorchildrenwithahistoryoforganisedabuse,ortheobstaclesthey faceindevelopingaclearautobiographicalnarrative.Peoplewithahistoryof

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violenceandtraumacanexperiencediscontinuitiesinmemoryandidentitythat adverselyimpactontheclarityoftheirautobiographicalmemory(VanderKolkand Fisher1995).Whilsttheseissuescanbeaddressedinpsychotherapy,manyadults withhistoriesoforganisedabusearechronicallydisabledandimpoverished,and unabletoaccessaffordableandeffectivementalhealthcare.Theirattemptsto articulatetheirhistoriesmaythereforebehalting,fearful,paranoidorcontradictory. Theincredibilityofsuchnarrativesdoesnotspeaktothefallacyofmemoryper se,nordoesitindicatethatthenarratorisnotapersonofseriousintent.Instead, thesefragmentarydisclosuresareindicativeofthescarceresourcesthatmanyadults withhistoriesofviolenceandabusehaveavailabletomakesenseoftheirlives. Itiscommonforadultswithhistoriesoforganisedabuse,cogentofthedistortionsof traumaticamnesiaandthedegradationofmemoryovertime,toprevaricateoverthe accuracyoftheirmemories(e.g.Corwin2002:1415).Inmyexperienceasa researcher,adultswithhistoriesoforganisedabuseoftenundertakerigorousreality testingandfactcheckingovermanyyearsinordertocometoanunderstandingof theirrecollectionsofabuse.Itisalsotruethatsomeadultswithhistoriesoforganised abusehavedevelopedconspiratorialexplanationsfortheirabuse.Online,conspiracy theoriesaboundwhichattributetremendouspolitical,andsometimessupernatural, powertosexuallyabusivegroups.Oppositionalliteraturehasmadegreatsportof theseconspiracytheories,however,asHacking(1995)pointsout,thecountercryof witchhuntisaninadequatealternativetotheseconspiratorialbeliefs,since [c]onspiracyandwitchhuntaremirrorimages,asfarasexplanationsgo.(p114) Thepropositionthatpsychotherapists,socialworkers,radicalfeministsandChristian fundamentalistshavejoinedforcesandengagedincollusiononaninternationalscale tocoercechildrenandwomenintofabricatingclaimsofritualabuseagainstinnocent menisnomorereasonablethenconspiracytheoriesaboutSatanistsandpaedophiles. Therearealsoconcerningpoliticaldimensionstothesecriesofwitchhuntand moralpanicsincetheyeffacetheagencyandlivedexperienceofadultsandchildren

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whodiscloseorganisedandritualabuse.Thetypicalsurvivorofoppositional literatureisdescribedasananxiousolderwomanwithvaguecomplaintsor emotionalproblems,whofabricateswildstoriesofabuseatthebiddingofa therapist,orsimplyasanexpressionofherpostmodernmalaise(Loftusand Ketcham1994;WakefieldandUnderwager1994;OfsheandWatters1996).The imageofawomanwithoutawilloridentityofherown,atthewhimofsocialforces andprofessionalmalpractice,iscentraltooppositionalliteratureonritualabuse,and amainstayofscepticalliteratureonsexualabuseingeneral.Itisacharacterisationin starkcontrasttothestrugglesforselfdetermination,wellbeingandjusticethat dominateautobiographicalnarrativesoforganisedandritualabuse.Inherlifehistory researchwithadultsurvivorsofritualabuse,Scott(1998b)notedthatsheinterviewed adisproportionatenumberofyoungwomenwhohadescapedtheirabusivefamilies asteenagers,soughthelpandsupport,anddisclosedtheirabusewhileitwasstill ongoing. Examplesaboundinwhichchildrenandadultswithhistoriesoforganisedandritual abuseareactiveagentsintheirownlives,ratherthenthepassivevictimsof recoveredmemorytherapydescribedbyoppositionalliterature.In1982,aGerman national,PhoenixVanDyke,fledtoAustraliatoescapeongoingritualabusebyher familyandanabusivegroupbasedinherhometown.Shebecameanoutspoken activistwhofoundedthesupportnetworkRitualAbuseSurvivorsandtheir SupportersfollowingaconferenceforincestsurvivorsinSydneyin1992.VanDyke distributedamonthlymagazineBeyondSurvivalonritualabuseformuchofthe 1990s,andshelobbiedsexualassaultservicesandpoliticiansforaresponsetothe needsofritualabusesurvivors.InhisscepticalcoverageofritualabusefortheSydney MorningHerald,RichardGuillliattdismissedVanDykeasa36yearoldseparatist lesbianwhohadbeenlockedinamentalinstitutionasanadolescent(Guilliatt 1996a).GuillliattsincredulitywasnotsharedbytheAustralianRefugeeReview Tribunal,which,in1998,foundVanDykeacrediblewitness.Intheirdecision,the Tribunalstated:Itisaccepted[that]suchgroupsexistinGermanyandthe

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authoritieshavebeenlargelyineffectiveinstoppingtheirillegalactivities..."The TribunalfoundthatVanDykewasatriskofbeingharmedand/orkilledifshereturned tohercountryofbirth"astheGermangovernmentiseitherunwillingorunableto protectvictimsofritualabuse."(TheAustralianRefugeeReviewTribunalquotedin BeckerandColeman1999)AlthoughtheTribunalacceptedthatVanDykewasa survivoroforganisedandritualabuse,andwasthereforevulnerabletorevictimisation inGermany,itfoundthatshedidnotfallwithintheacceptedcategoriesof persecution,andthereforetherewasnolegalbasistograntVanDykeaprotection visa.Afewmonthslater,thethenMinisterforImmigration,PhillipRuddock, overturnedtheTribunalsdecision,andgrantedVanDykeaprotectionvisa(Van Dyke,personalcommunication,2008).Itisinterestingtonotethedifferentialin mediacoveragegiventotheintimatedetailsofVanDykeslifein1996,wheneven hersexualitywasconsideredarelevantvariableinmediaassessmentsofher credibility,incomparisontothefailureofanymediaoutlettoreportonthedecision tograntherrefugeestatustwoyearslater.ItseemsthatVanDykeonlygarnered presscoveragewhenshecouldbecharacterisedasacrazedfeministextremist.When theMinisterforImmigrationdecidedshewasabonafiderefugeeandsurvivorof torture,shebecameinvisiblewithinthepoliticsofdisbelief. Thisdifferentialcanbeexplained,atleastinpart,bywhatMcLeodandGoddard (2005)havedescribedastheradicaldenialofscepticalcommentatorsonritual abuse.Overthelastfifteenyears,thepropositionthatritualabusedoesnotexisthas becomesodeeplyembeddedwithinthepoliticsofdisbeliefregardingwomenand childrenstestimonyofsexualassaultthattheentireedificeisdestabilisedwhen substantiatedcasesofritualabusecometothefore.Accordingly,sceptical commentatorshavechosentoignoretheemergenceofsubstantiatedcasesofritual abuse.Kelly(1998)notedthewidespreadfailureofthemediatorespondtothe evidenceofritualabuseunearthedintheinvestigationofMarcDutrouxscrimesin Belgium:

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OneofthefascinatingsilencessurroundingtheDutrouxcasewasthe refusalamongstjournalistsandcommentatorstonoticehowmanyofthe factsechoelementsofaccountsbychildrenandadultsofritualabuse.These accountshavebeendefinedasincredibleandimpossiblecountless academicandjournalisticscepticshaveinsistedadnauseamthattheywould onlybelieveifmaterialorforensicevidencewasforthcoming,and,according tothem,noneeverhasbeen.Herewehadthatevidence,butnoonemadethe connection,noonechosetorememberwhatthey(ortheirpublication)had saidpreviously,noonetookthebravestandofrevisingtheiropinioninpublic. Wherescepticalcommentatorsareconfrontedwithinvestigationsandprosecutions oforganisedandritualabuse,theimperviousnessoftheirpositiontochangeisstark. In2005,sevenpeoplewereindictedintheAmericanstateofLouisianafollowingan investigationintoorganisedandritualabuseatalocalchurch.Twomenhavesince beensentencedtolifeinprison,withfivemoreawaitingtrial.Theconfessionsof someoftheaccused,oneofwhomkeptadetaileddiaryoftheabuse,corroborates thestatementsofchildwitnessesthattheyweresexuallyabusedbygroupsofpeople whilstbeingsubjecttosatanicritualsinvolvingthekillingofanimalsandtheforced ingestionofblood(Ellzey2007).Attrial,anFBIagenttestifiedthatthedefendantled theinvestigatingteamtoapitchblackroominthechurchwhere,heclaimed,he hadengagedwiththeotherdefendantsinsexuallyabusivedevilworship.Aswitch onthewallturnedonablacklightwhichilluminatedinvertedBiblicalscriptures drawnonthewallsiniridescentink(Ellzey2007).Inamediainterview,Prof.Richard Ofshe,foundingmemberoftheFalseMemorySyndromeFoundation,claimedthat theprobityoftheconfessionsofthedefendant,andthestatementsofchild witnesses,wereinquestionbecausetheyincludeddetailsofritualabuse.Suchabuse, accordingtoOfshe,hasneverandwillneveroccur,andanyreferencetoritualabuse shouldcallintoquestiontheprobityofallchargesinasexualabusetrial(Lemoine 2008).

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Beyondthepoliticsofdisbelief Thesubjectoforganisedabuse,asawhole,hasbeendominatedbythecontroversies overritualabuse.Ritualisticabuseisassociatedwiththeextremesofchild maltreatment,341however,itisnotaubiquitousfeatureofcasesoforganisedabuse (Gallagher,Hughesetal.1996).Lobbygroupsandactivistsforpeopleaccusedof sexualabusehavefoundgreatrhetoricalutilityinemphasisingallegationsof ritualisticabuse,attimesclaimingthataparticularsexualabuseinvestigationisa ritualabusecasewhennosuchallegationwasmade(Cheit2001)orwhereno evidenceofritualisticabusewasadducedattrial(Summit1994b).Whenconflated withritualabuse,sexualabusechargesarethenattributedtofantasyonbehalfofthe childwitnessoradultcomplainant,andmalpracticeonbehalfofinvestigating professionals.Whereritualisticabusehasbeenafeatureofsexualabuseallegations, scepticalcommentatorshaveclaimedthatsuchallegationscanbetracedbacktothe influenceofasmallgroupofzealots,usuallycharacterisedasChristian fundamentalistsand/orradicalfeminists(JenkinsandMaierKatkin1992;La Fontaine1998;Pratt2005).Inthisliterature,organisedabuseandsadisticabuseare frequentlyconflatedwithritualabuse,andthereaderisencouragedtoconclude thatclaimsmakersinthefieldofritualabuseareanarrowgroupofideologically motivatedextremists. Infact,adiverserangeofprofessionalshavedocumentedtheirencounterswith adultsandchildrenwithhistoriesoforganisedandritualisticabuse,including: academicsandresearchers(Cuomo1994;Pepinksy2002;Raschke2008) childprotectionworkers(Doran1994;Goddard1994)

Ritualisticabuseandthemisuseofritualpracticeisalsoemergingasafactorinthetraffickingof minorsandwomenfromAfricaintoEuropeforthepurposesofsexualexploitation(International OrganizationofMigration2001;CommitteeofHumanRights2002),whilstformsoftorture commensuratewithnarrativesofritualabuse(suchaselectroshockandconfinementincoffins)have beendocumentedinillegalbrothelsinAsia(Kristof2008).

341

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domesticviolenceworkers(RowdenJohnson2003;Cooper2004;Cooper, Anafetal.2006) generalpractitioners(JonkerBakkerandJonker1991;JonkerandJonker Bakker1997) investigativejournalists(Boyd1991;Tate1991;WoodandChulov1999) nurses(SarsonandMacDonald2008) paediatricians(HobbsandWynne1994;Buck2008) policeofficers(Anon.1994;Mallard2008) psychiatrists(Ehrensaft1992;Goodwin1994;Rockwell1994) psychoanalysts(Casement1994;Perlman1995;Stack2002) psychotherapists(Gould1987;Summit1988;Hudson1991) schoolteachers(Haydne1992) sexualassaultworkers(Scott1998a;SchmuttermaierandVeno1999; Campbell2002) andsocialworkers(DawsonandJohnston1989;Wood1990;Lunn1991).

Nonoffendingparents(StoneandStone1992),fosterparents(Kelsall1994;Cairns 2000;Scott2001)grandparents(COTA2003),andreligiousministers(Cotton2000) havereportedtheirexperiencesofcaringforchildrensubjecttoritualabuse.Ihave documentedmyexperiencesasacarerforanadultsurvivorofritualabuse(Salter 2004).Asclaimsmakersinthefieldoforganiseandritualabuse,wearenotthe ideologicallyhomogenousrumourmongersormoralpanickerssupposedbythe oppositionalliterature.Wehavelittleincommonintermsofourprofession background,education,training,andreligiousorpoliticalorientation,andwe articulateverydifferent(andfrequentlyconflicting)opinionsaboutthenatureof ritualisticabuse.Thebreadthofthisliteratureindicatesthatcasesoforganisedand ritualabusearecomingtolightinarangeofcontexts,andfirstrespondersareusually peoplewithnopriorknowledgeoforganisedabuse,andlimitedcapacitytoidentify andtreatvictims.

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InAustralia,researchprovidesapictureofthediversecircumstancesinwhichworkers areencounteringsurvivorsoforganisedabuse,andtheburdenofthisabuseonhealth andwelfareservices.Muchofthisresearchhasbeenfocusedonworkerscontactwith clientswithahistoryofritualabuse.In1992,asurveyof92attendeesataconference onritualabuseinMelbournefoundthat65hadworkedwithatotalof424clientswith ahistoryofritualabuse(AAMPD1992).In1994,eightwomenshealthservicesinthe ACTreported,inoneweek,beingcontactedby43newclientsreportingahistoryof ritualabuse(CourtneyandWilliams1995),whilstasurveyof79workersat communityhealthcentresandwomensservicesinNSWreported123casesofritual abusefortheyear(NSWSexualAssaultCommittee1994).In1995,theSydneyRape Crisisservicereportedreceiving584callsfromwomenwhoidentifiedthemselvesas survivorsofritualabuseinthe12monthspriortoJune1995(SydneyRapeCrisis Centre1995).SteppingOut,asupportedaccommodationserviceforadultsurvivors ofchildsexualassaultinSydney,hasalsoreportedahighrateofcontactwithwomen withahistoryofritualabuse(VanDyke1995).In1999,atenyearcasereviewofa CentreAgainstSexualAssaultinMelbourneidentified153casesofritualabusefrom 19851996(SchmuttermaierandVeno1999).In2000,SistersInside,aBrisbane basedcommunitygroupforwomeninjail,publishedthefindingsofasurveyof100of theirmembers,whichfoundthat16%reportingahistoryoforganisedandritual abuse(Kilroy2000).In2004,acasereviewofadomesticviolenceserviceinAdelaide foundthat15%ofclientswereseekingprotectionfromorganisedgroupsof offenders,includingbikiegangsandritualisticcults.Ininterviews,thesewomen spokeofspousesand/orfamilymemberswhohadtraffickedthem(and,sometimes, theirchildren)intolargernetworksofperpetratorswhosubjectedthemtotorture andsexualexploitation(Cooper,Anafetal.2006).Interviewswithworkersfoundthat theywereoftenoverwhelmedbythecomplexitiesofthesecases,includingthehealth andsecurityneedsofadultsvictimisedinorganisedcontexts(Cooper2004). InAustralia,casesoforganisedandritualabusehavebeenemergingsincethelate 1980s,however,investigationsoftheseclaimshavebeencharacterisedbyallegations

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ofpoliceincompetenceandconflictsofinterest.In1992,aseniormemberof Victoriansexualcrimesunit,RoyCarroll,statedthattherewasalackofmaterial corroborationforaccountsoforganisedandritualabuse,andthereforesuchaccounts wereunlikelytobetrue(Carroll1992).Paradoxically,inthethreeyearspriortohis 1992presentation,Carrollsunithadbeeninvolvedintheinvestigationofanalleged caseoforganisedandritualabuseatapreschoolintheMorningtonPeninsula. Althoughnocriminalchargeswerelaid,theallegationsofabuseatthepreschool weresubstantiatedbyagovernmentinquiry,andthepreschoolwasclosedin1992 (Milburn1992).In2004,theVictorianOmbudsmanrecommendedthatfoursexual abusecasesbereopened,includingtheMorningtonPeninsulacase.Commentingon hisreviewoftheinvestigations,theOmbudsmanexpressed"seriousconcernsasto thetruthfulnessofevidenceprovidedunderoathtohisinvestigatorsbytwoofthe state'smostseniorsexualcrimesinvestigators.(Hughes2004a)TheOmbudsman complainedthataseniormemberofthesexualcrimessquaddisplayed "unprofessionalconduct"whilstbeinginterviewed,tothepointthathisbehaviour andattitude"raisesdoubtsabouthiscontinuingsuitabilitytohiscurrentposition" (Hughes2004a).DespitetheOmbudsmansconcerns,neitherofficerwasremoved fromtheirpositionafterthePoliceAssociationthreatenedstatewideindustrial action(Hughes2004b).TheMorningtonPeninsulacaseremainsclosed,withasenior investigatorstatingthatthenewlyformedOfficeofPoliceIntegrity,overseenbythe Ombudsman,doesnothavetheresourcestoinvestigateallegationsofpolice protectionoforganisedabuse(Hughes2005). SimilarcriticismshavebeenmaderegardinginvestigationsoforganisedabuseinNew SouthWalesandWesternAustralia.Ina1992governmentreviewofaninvestigation intoanallegedcaseoforganisedabuseataSydneykindergarten,theNewSouth Walespolicewerecriticisedfortheirlackofspecialisedchildsexualassault investigators,ineffectiveintelligenceandsurveillance,ineffectiveattempttoobtain corroborationandtheabsenceofaprofessionalcovertoperation(Sands1999). Subsequently,theWoodRoyalCommissionfoundthattheinvestigationintothecase

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hadbeenseriouslydeficient.AttheCommission,itemergedthattheofficerin chargeoftheinvestigationwasanassociateofacorruptpoliceofficerandtwoknown childsexualoffenders.Furthermore,theofficerhadbeenpreviouslybeenaccusedby policeinformersoftakingmoneyfromchildsexualabusersinexchangefordropping chargesorignoringtheircrimes(Brown1996;Kennedy1999).DuringtheWestern AustraliaRoyalCommissionintoPoliceCorruption,theformerheadoftheWestern Australianpaedophileunit,AndrewPatterson,statedthathehadbeenorderedbyhis superiorstorepeatedlymisleadstateandfederalparliamentovertheextentof organisedabuseandchildpornographyinthestate(ShineandEgan2002).Patterson claimedthathewasinstructedtotestifytoa1995Commonwealthinquirythat paedophileringsdidnotexistinWesternAustralia,althoughanumberofnetworks hadbeendocumentedbyhisunit.Healsoclaimedhewasinstructedbyhissuperiors in1997tomisleadstateparliamentandwithholdinformationonanycurrentchild pornographycharges."Therewerecoverupsindenyingthefactthatwehada problemwithpedophilianetworksandorganisedpedophilia,"hesaid."Therewas alsoacoverupintermsofhidingchildpornographyfigures."(Taylor2002)Hisunit wassubsequentlydisbandedin1998,andPattersonstatedthathebelievedthat seniorpolicewereuncomfortablewiththeunitsinvestigationsintocasesof organisedabuse,includingoneinvestigationinvolvingaseniormemberofthe judiciary.FollowingtheclosureoftheRoyalCommission,Pattersonstatedthathe believedthatpaedophileringsarestillactiveinWesternAustralia(Egan2004).

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Conclusion Duringaperiodinwhichwomenandchildrenstestimonyofincestandsexualabuse weregaininganincreasinglysympathetichearing,lobbygroupsofpeopleaccusedof childabuseconstruedandpositionedritualabuseasthenewfrontierofdisbelief. Thetermritualabusearosefromchildprotectionandpsychotherapypracticewith adultsandchildrendisclosingorganisedabuse,onlytobediscursivelyencircledby backlashgroupswiththerhetoricofrecoveredmemories,falseallegationsand moralpanic.Seekingtorecastthedebateonchildabuseaccordingtoanolder politicsofdisbelief,thesegroupsandactivistsattemptedtocharacterisesexualabuse testimony,asawhole,throughthelensofritualabuse: Itmustbeobvioustorationalpeoplethataccusationsbasedonmemoriesthat includesatanicritualaredelusionsofsomesort.Forthoseofuswhoareonly accusedof'runofthemillincest,'thisshouldturnouttobesomehelp.If 'memories'ofsatanicabusecanbeinducedintherapythensocanmemories' ofincestoranythingelse.(PamelaFreyd,cofounderoftheFalseMemory SyndromeFoundation,quotedinCalof1993) Itdoesnottakemuchefforttounderstandwhypeopleaccusedofchildsexualabuse mayengageinavigorousdefenceoftheirinnocence,norwhytheymightbejoined byprofessionaldefenceexpertsthatmakehundredsofthousandsofdollarsayear defendingthem.Whatdoesbearexplainingisthepurchasethattheirrhetoricfound inthemedia,academiaandthebroadercommunity.ItseemsthatmanyAustralian journalistsandacademicshelddeepseatedconcernsaboutthecredibilityofwomen andchildrenasreliablewitnessestotheirownlives.Afteraperiodofrelatively sympatheticmediacoverageonsexualviolence,organisedabusewasusedasaframe throughwhichconcernsaboutwomenandchildrenstestimonycouldbemade legitimateagain.Theimpactofthisrhetoricalstrategyonthelivesofadultsand childrenwithahistoryoforganisedabusehasyettobemeasured,however,the

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controversythathasbeenthehallmarkofthepoliticsofdisbeliefhaseffectively displacedreasonedconsiderationofthechallengesposedbyorganisedandritual abuse.Itseemsthatreportsoforganisedabusecanbeoverlooked,ignored,or displacedontominoritygroups,butitistootroublingasubjecttoapproachdirectly withoutaframeworkofdisbelief.Overthelastthirtyyears,thatframeworkhasbeen inreadysupply,stemmingbothfromthelongstandingmedicolegaltraditionof denial,andfromtheactivismoflobbygroupsofpeopleaccusedofsexualabuse.

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ExploringtheGroupIdentityFunctionofCriminalLaw
MollyTownesOBrien ANUCollegeofLaw AustralianNationalUniversity obrienm@law.anu.edu.au

Scienceadvanced,knowledgegrew,naturewasmastered,but Reasondidnotconquerandtribalismdidnotgoaway(Isaacs 1975). Introduction Fromtheavailabledataontheraceorethnicityoftheworldsprisoners,42itis possibletodiscernaglobaltendencyofeachpopulationtoimprisona disproportionatepercentageofsomeminoritygroups.43AfricanAmericansand HispanicsaredisproportionatelyrepresentedinAmericanprisons(Sampsonand Lauritsen1997;USBureauofJusticeStatistics2007).Aboriginalsare disproportionatelyrepresentedinAustralianprisons(SedlakandBroadhurst1996; SnowballandWeatherburn2006).InNewZealand,whereMaorimakeup15percent ofthepopulation,44percentofmenand42percentofwomeninprisonsidentify themselvesasMaori(Bull2004).Unequalimprisonmentofminoritygroupshasbeen documentedinSpain,Japan,Britain,France,Israel,Sweden,Canada,andGermany (Martens1997;Costelloe,Chiricosetal.2002;Korn2003;Zimmerman,Yunetal.

1.Manycountriesdonotkeepdataontheraceorethnicityofprisoners.Inthosecountriesthatdo keepdata,thedifferingdefinitionsofracialandethnicgroupsmakeitdifficulttodrawtransnational comparisons.Nevertheless,ineverycountrywheredataisavailable,itappearsthatsomeminority groupsaredisproportionatelyimprisoned.Fordataonworldprisonpopulationsgenerally,seethe WorldPrisonBrief,availableatwww.prisonstudies.org.Seealso,(Walmsley2003) 2.Withinanysociety,notallminoritygroupsexperiencehigherlevelsofincarceration.Rather,higher levelsofincarcerationarefoundtoapplytostigmatisedoroppressedminorities.Foranexcellent discussionofracialstigma,see(Lenhardt2004)

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2003;RuddellandUrbina2004).AsMichaelTonrypointsout, Whatismoststrikingabout[thedatademonstrating overrepresentationofminoritiesinprison]isthattheycomefrom somanycountries.Theyapplytomanygroupsandmany countries,suggestingthatbias,disparities,anddisparateimpact policydilemmasarenotuniquelythecharacteristicsandproblems ofanyparticularminoritygroupsorcountriesbutareendemicto heterogeneousdevelopedcountriesinwhichsomegroupsare substantiallylesssuccessfuleconomicallyandsociallythanthe majoritypopulation(Tonry1997). Further,incarcerationratesaroundtheglobearerising,makingthedisproportionate impactofcriminalpunishmentonminoritygroupsamatterofgrowingimportance (Walmsley2003). Datademonstratingthedisproportionateimprisonmentofoppressedminority populationsaboundsasdoesempiricalresearchthatseekstoexplainthedata.Much ofthisresearchfocusesontheissueofwhathasbeendescribedastheelevatedrates ofoffending(accordingtoofficialstatistics)amongoppressedracialminorities (PhillipsandBowling2003).Inotherwords,formanyresearchersthequestionis:Why dominoritygroupmemberscommitmorecrimes?Pursuingtheanswertothis questionhasledresearcherstoexplorethecriminogenicinfluenceofsocioeconomic deprivationandsocialdisorganisation(ShawandMcKay1929;Currie1998;Pratt 2005).Othershaveconsideredwhethercrimemayhavegeneticorbiologicalfactors (WilsonandHerrnstein1985;Regulus1995). Attheotherendofthespectrumareresearcherswhoquestionwhethertheofficial crimerateandimprisonmentstatisticsarereflectiveofactualratesofcriminal behaviour.Thesescholarshaveconsideredwhetherdiscriminatorylawenforcement,

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criminaljusticeprocessingorsentencingpatternsaccountforelevatedlevelsof minorityimprisonment(Stuntz1998;Rudovsky2001;Zimmerman,Yunetal.2003; Waddington,Stensonetal.2004).Similarly,researchershavealsoconsidered whetherthelawitselfcontributestothedisproportionateimprisonmentofminority groupsthroughtheestablishmentofbehaviouralnormsthatdonotreflectthevalues oftheminorityculture(Sellin1938;Hawkins1995a). Thedebate,whichhassometimesbeencharacterisedaspolemicaland sterile(PhillipsandBowling2003),hasnotignoredthepossibilitythatthecausesof disproportionateincarcerationarenotmutuallyexclusivethatis,thatavarietyof factorsmayallcontributetotheoverrepresentationofsomeminoritiesinprison (ChiricosandCrawford1995).Muchoftheresearch,however,hasfocused predominantlyononenationoronecriminaljusticesystem.44Studiestherefore presentfindingsthatmayappeartobelimitedtotheparticularracialgroupsorethnic minoritiesstudied.Eachstudy,takenalone,maycreateafalseperceptionthatthe problemofdisproportionateincarcerationisacharacteristicofoneminoritygroup, onehistoricalorpoliticalsituation,oronekindofcultureclash.Theproblemmay thereforebefalselyperceivedasoneofAboriginalcriminalityorracisminthe UnitedStates.Thus,apotentialriskoflookingatasinglenationorcriminaljustice systemisthattheresearchitselfmaycontributetoexistingstereotypes, misconceptionsandbiasesagainsttheoppressedminority(Hawkins1995b).Thisrisk isnot,ofcourse,asufficientreasonnottodotheresearch;asignificantbodyofwork addressestheissuesofracialisedpunishmentwithoutfallingintothetrapof stereotyping,(e.g.(Davis1998;Cunneen2001)Suchworkmaybeextremelyuseful notonlytoimproveunderstandingoftheproblemofoverincarcerationofcertain minoritygroups,butalsotoassistinformulatingstrategiesforreducingminority imprisonmentrateswithinonecultureorcountry.Itislimited,however,inscopeand implicationtothecultureorculturesstudied.

3.Therearesomenotableexceptions.See,e.g.,(Costelloe,Chiricosetal.2002;InternationalSociety fortheStudyofDissociation,Chuetal.2005;Pratt2005)

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Somescholarsadvocatetakingacomparativeorcrossnationalapproachto consideringtheproblemofoverrepresentationofcertainethnicminoritiesinprison, butdosoonlywithgreatcaution(SampsonandLauritsen1997;Tonry1997).There aregoodreasonstoproceedwithcautionintotherealmofmakingcrossnational generalisationsorundertakingstudiesofethnicminorityincarceration.Differencesin thehistoryofvariousminoritygroupsandtheirrelationshipswithmajoritycultures, differencesintheeconomicandpoliticalstructureofvarioussocieties,and differencesinthecriminaljusticesystemsofeachcountry,allundoubtedlyplayan importantroleinproducingoutcomesthatareidiosyncraticandnotsusceptibletoa singleexplanatorytheory.Further,empiricalresearchfacesenormousdifficultyin collectingandcomparingdatafromsourcesthatusedifferingdefinitionsofminority orethnicgroupstatus,andofcriminalbehaviour,etc.(Tonry1997). Itisneverthelessimportanttoexploretheimplicationofwhathasbeen demonstratedinnumeroussinglenationstudies:Ineverycountrywherethe questionhasbeenstudied,thecrimeandincarcerationratesformembersofsome minoritygroupsgreatlyexceedthoseforthemajoritypopulation(Tonry1997).If disproportionateincarceration(orpunishment)ofsomedisfavouredminoritiesis foundeverywhere,theobviousimplicationisthattheproblemisnotparticulartoone ethnicgroup.Norisitfundamentallyaproblemofoneraceoronehistoricalracial conflict.Itisnotaproblemthatfacesonlyimmigrantgroups.Neitherisitsolelya problemofcapitalismorpostcolonialism.Thedisproportionateimprisonmentof somedisfavouredminoritiesappearstobeaglobalphenomenon.Whiletheoriesof disparateincarcerationthatfocusonracism,immigration,capitalismandcolonialism mayhavestrongexplanatorypoweratthelevelofasinglelegalsystem,theycannot explaintheglobalphenomenon. Onemayarguethatanyattempttounderstanddisparatepunishmentataglobal levelmustfounderontherocksofparticularisedhistories,individualculturalandlegal

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differences,andvaryingeconomicandpoliticalcircumstances.Itwouldnotbe possibletogatherappropriatedataortestaglobaltheoryofdisproportionate incarceration.Suchaglobaltheorywouldbevulnerabletothesamecritiquethathas beenlevelledatconflicttheory:Itwouldexplaineverythingandpredictnothing. (Kubrin,Stuckyetal.2009). Ontheotherhand,itmaybethatcriminologyhasalreadygraspedtheglobalnature ofdisproportionatepunishment,buthasnotmadeitapointofemphasisbecauseof thedifficultiesofstudyingglobalphenomena.Thisessaydoesnotattempttocreate agrandtheoryforunderstandingdisparateimprisonmentinallofitsvarioushistorical andculturalmanifestations.Rathersuggeststhatashiftinemphasisorfocusfrom theparticulartotheglobal,fromtheculturalorracialtothehuman,isappropriate andmayyieldnewinsights.Itturnstosomeofthetraditionalandbasicbuilding blocksofcriminologyanthropologyandpsychologytodrawattentiontothefact that,althoughcertainethnic,racialandmigrantgroupsareatthereceivingendofthe globalphenomenonofdisparatepunishment,theissuemaybeendemictohuman society.Addressingtheissuemayrequirestrategiesthatareglobalorhumanin theirperspective. Humanuniversalsandgroupidentification Anthropologiststellusthatsomethingsareuniversaltoallhumans.Forexample,all humansocietieshavelanguage,dance,music,jokes.Inallhumansocieties,people sucktheirwounds.Weshowsurprise,fearandhappinessthroughfacialexpressions. Morefundamentallyforthisdiscussion,humanbeingsarenotsolitarydwellers.We liveingroups,developgroupidentity,andmaintaingroupunity(Brown1991at57). InGeorgeVoldsdescriptionofhumannature,peoplearefundamentallygroup involvedbeingswhoselivesarebothapartofandaproductoftheirgroup associations.(Vold,1986:271).

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Althoughhumangroupsmaybestructuredinawidevarietyofways,animportant consequenceofgroupstructuringisthedelineationofingroupfromoutgroups (Worchel1998).AccordingtoIsaacs,[t]hisfragmentationofhumansocietyisa pervasivefactinhumanaffairsandalwayshasbeen(Isaacs1989).Sumner,who contributedtheconceptofethnocentrismtosocialscience,conceivedofitfirstinthe contextofaprimitivesociety(Sumner1906/1979). Theconceptionoftheprimitivesocietywhichweoughttoformis thatofsmallgroupsscatteredoveraterritory...Agroupofgroups mayhavesomerelationtoeachother(kin,neighbourhood, alliance,connubiumandcommercium)whichdrawsthem togetheranddifferentiatesthemfromothers.Thusa differentiationarisesbetweenourselves,thewegroup,orin group,andeverybodyelse,ortheothersgroups,outgroups.The insidersinawegroupareinarelationofpeaceorder,law, government,andindustry,toeachother... Eachgroupnourishesitsownprideandvanity,boastsitself superior,exaltsitsowndivinities,andlookswithcontempton outsiders.Eachgroupthinksitsownfolkwaysaretherightones, andifitobservesthatothershaveotherfolkways,theseexciteits scorn.Opprobriousepithetsarederivedfromthesedifferences. Pigeater,coweater,uncircumcised,jabberers,areepithetsof contemptandabomination.(Sumner1906/1979). Since1906,Sumnersdescriptionofprimitivesocietyhasattractedthecriticismof anthropologists,whopointoutthatgroupalliancesandethnicidentitiesareunstable insomesocieties,andsociologists,whonotethatindividualsmaybelongtomore thanonegroupandmayadmiresomeoutgroups(Levine2002).Theboundary, influenceandmeaningofSumnersethnocentrismiscontestedinthesocial sciences.Nevertheless,thephenomenonofselfcategorisationandestablishmentof

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ingroupandoutgroupidentitieshasbeendemonstratedindozensofpsychological studiesinavarietyofcultures(Brown1986;Taylor,Peplauetal.2006).Ingroupself categorisationcanbethoughtofasprosocial,providingforgroupcohesionand cooperationandpoliticalagency(Turner,Hoggetal.1987;Bedolla2005).Itisalso presentatthecoreofintergroupconflict,stigmatizationofminoritygroupmembers, andsocialalienation(LevineandCampbell1972;Bedolla2005). Asalientaspectofgroupidentificationisthat,onceweidentifyasagroupmember, weimmediatelyformaningrouppreference.Wederivepartofourselfesteemfrom groupmembershipandtendtoascribepositivecharacteristicstoourowngroupand negativecharacteristicstoothers(Tajfel1982).Asweidentifywithagrouporganised aroundanyvalue,activityorstatus,wenotonlyautomaticallyattributepositive qualitiestoourowngroupandnegativequalitiestotheoutgroup,butalsoactin waysthatfavourourowngroup(WorchelandSimpson1993).Surprisingly, experimentsinsocialpsychologydemonstratethatevenwhenpeopleareassigned randomlytoagroupinotherwords,thesubjecthasnobasisonwhichto differentiatebetweenherowngroupandanothergroupingrouppreferenceisstill shown(Brown1986)p.544545.AccordingtoRogerBrown,individualsshowa consistentpreferenceformaximalingroupadvantageovertheoutgroup(Brown 1986).Ingroupmemberswill,forexample,foregoreceivingarewardiftheirgroup willtherebygaingreatercomparativeadvantageovertheoutgroup(1986).45 Moreover,subjectswhodemonstratedingrouppreferencewerenotawareoftheir biasandbelievedthattheyhadbehavedfairly.Mostsubjectstrytointroducesome leveloffairnessbyrewardingbothingroupandoutgroupmembersbutnonetheless favourtheirowngroup(Taylor,Peplauetal.2006).Inspiteofsystematicbiastoward greaterrewardsfortheirowngroup,subjectswereunawarethattheyhad,for example,assignedmorepointstomembersoftheirowngroup(Brown1986;Taylor, Peplauetal.2006).
4.Groupprocessesarealsosusceptibletoahostofcognitiveerrors,includingovergeneralisation,over confidence,grouppolarisation,miscalculationofrisk,andothers.(Beale1997)

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Similarly,cognitiveprocesseslinkedtostereotypinganddiscriminationmaybe unconscious.Whilesomeracismordiscriminationisintentional,recentsocialscience revealsthatunconsciousbiasismuchmoreprevalentthanintentionaldiscrimination (Lenhardt2004).Althoughpeoplenoticedifferencesandnaturallyseparatepeople andthingsbycategory,somedifferencesformpartoftheperceptualforeground whileothersarepartoftheperceptualbackgroundwhichdonotnecessarilybecome partofconsciousthought(AinlayandCrosby1986).Splitseconddecisionsareoften madeonthebasisofperceptualbackgroundcategorisations.Thus,weare susceptibletowhathasbeentermedimplicitbiasthetendencytounconsciously associateourowngroupwithpleasanttraitsandothergroupswithunpleasantones, especiallyinsplitseconddecisionmakingprocesses(Sunstein2006).The phenomenonofimplicitbiashasbeenshowntobeextremelywidespreadin psychologicaltests(Sunstein2006). Ofcourse,mostingroupsarenotcreatedatrandombysocialscientistresearchers. Thephenomenonofgroupidentitycreationtakesplaceinsociety,inthecontextof historyandculture.Realworldingroupsandoutgroupsmayderivefromawide varietyorcombinationoffactors:birthplace,name,language,physical characteristics,historyandorigins,religion,andnationality(Isaacs1975).More importantly,realworldmanifestationsofgroupidentityhaverealworldeffects, contributingtonationalism,patriotism,groupcohesiveness,homogeneity,group solidarity,andsocialcooperationwithintheingroup;andstereotyping,prejudice, dehumanization,stigmatisationanddiscriminationagainsttheoutgroup(Levineand Campbell1972). Aspsychosocialprocessesofgroupidentificationandethnocentrismcombinewith historicalcircumstance,economicsandpolitics,dynamicsocialgroupsandinter grouprelationshipstakeform.Kotkin(1993)hasusedthetermglobaltribetorefer togroupsliketheBritish,Japanese,Chinese,Indians,andJewswhohavedispersed

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aroundtheglobe,butmaintainasenseofgroupidentity.Thesemetaphoricaltribes haveasenseofcommonoriginandvalues,eventhoughtheyaregeneticallydiverse andliveinmanydifferentclimates,contextsandnations(Kotkin1993).Similarly,the metaphoroftribalismhasbeenusedtoconnotetheprocessofgroupformationor deindividualisation(MaffesoliandFoulkes1988).Tribalism,racism, ethnocentrism,nationalism,patriotismallrefertovarioustypesofgroupidentity formation.Groupidentityformationandingrouppreferenceisnotatraitofany particularethnic,racialeconomicorpoliticalgroup.Rather,themotivesaredeeply rooted;theyaremotivesthatareprimitiveanduniversal(Brown1986). Althoughthemotivationforforminggroupidentityisdeeplyrooted,theboundaries ofthegroupmaybefluid(Bedolla2005).Moreover,anindividualislikelytobea memberofnumerousgroupssimultaneously(e.g.,gender,family,clan,clubs, neighbourhood,nation)andintheinteractionbetweentheindividualandsocial contexts,asenseofgroupidentitymaychangeovertime(Pospisil1971;Bedolla 2005).Groupidentityisthusneitherfixednorunitary,butflexibleandlayered. Theroleofgroupidentityinthecriminallaw Byidentifyingthedisproportionateincarcerationofsomeminoritygroupsasa phenomenon,weimplicitlyacceptandcallattentiontoaminoritygroupidentity. Whatmaybelessobvious,butnolessimportant,isthatwealsoimplyamajorityor dominantgroupidentity.Althoughcriminologistshavelongbeenawareoftherole thatgroupconflictmayplayintheoperationofthecriminallaw,comparativelylittle workhasbeendonetoexaminetherolethatcriminallawmayhaveindefiningor reinforcinggroupidentity.In1958GeorgeVoldpresentedhisgroupconflicttheoryof crime,whichconceivedofthewholesocialprocessoflawmaking,lawbreakingand lawenforcementasadirectreflectionofdeepseatedandfundamentalconflicts betweeninterestgroupsandtheirmoregeneralstrugglesforcontrolofpolicepower andthestate(Kubrin,Stuckyetal.2009),quotingVold,1958:339).Insucceeding

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years,conflicttheoristshavearguedthatcrimeisarealitythatexistsprimarilyasitis createdbythoseinsocietywhoseinterestsarebestservedbyitspresence(Kubrin, Stuckyetal.2009):228)Ifoneconsiderscriminallawfromagroupidentity perspective,however,crimeorcriminallawisnotonlytheproductofdominant interests,butalsoaforcethatfostersgroupidentityformationitself.Asdiscussed below,criminallawplaysaroleindefiningandreinforcingtheidentitiesofboththe ingroupandtheoutgroup(s). A.Criminallawisingroupselfdefining. Criminallawcanbeseenasatoolfordeindividualization.IntheUnitedStates,itis commonlysaid,Thisisanationoflaws,notofmen.46Alllawrepresentsaneffort nottobemenwhoaresubjectonlytotheirindividualpassions,buttobecome somethinggreater,agroupthatisregulatedbyidealsandaspirations.Thecriminal lawis,amongotherthings,anexpression,albeitacompromisedandincomplete expression,ofthesharedmeanings,moralityandaspirationsofthetribe(Garland 1990). Thereisanother,moreconcretesenseinwhichcriminallawisgroupselfdefining. Everygrouphaslaworrules(whetherwrittenorunwritten)formembershipinthe groupandrulesthatdescribetherightsandobligationsofgroupmembers.The criminallaw,inparticular,placesbehaviouralprerequisitesoninclusioninthegroup: Ifyouaretobeamemberofthistribe,youmustnotdoX(e.g.murder,rape,steal,etc.) Ifyouviolatethisrule,youwillnolongerbeamemberofthistribe.Inotherwords, criminallawinsettingtheboundariesofacceptablebehaviourwithinthegroupdraws ademarcationlinearoundthegroup.Violationsofthoseboundariesresultin symbolicoractualexclusionfromthetribewhetherbyexpulsion,incarceration, ostracismorexecution(Brown1991).
5.JohnAdamswrotethephrasetotheenditmaybeagovernmentoflawsandnotofmeninthe 1780ConstitutionoftheCommonwealthofMassachusettstoexplainthereasonforseparationof powersintothreebranchesofgovernment.

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Banishment,deportation,imprisonment,andexecutionallrequireliteralexclusionof therulebreakerfromthegroup.Otherpunishmentsmayremoveonlysomeaspect orprivilegeofgroupmembership,e.g.,alicencetodrive,therighttovote,orthe righttochildcustody(Ahrens2000).Brandingandshamingpunishments symbolicallystriptheoffenderoftheirhumanity.Thedehumanizationofthosewho violateourgroupscriminallawiswellillustratedinthemetaphorsofslimeandfilth appliedtoconvictsandprisonersincasesthatspanmorethanonehundredyears fromavarietyofsources(Weyrauch1999).Eventheattachmentofthelabel criminaltothepersonwhohascommittedtheprohibitedactconstitutessymbolic exclusionfromthetribe.Thecriminalisanoutcast.Thecriminalisapublicenemy. Thecriminalissubhuman.Usingthelabelcriminal(orthief,junkieetc.)to describethewrongdoersymbolicallydeprivestheindividualofhisorherhumanity andgroupmembership(Becker1963). Thisisimportantbecauseitnotonlyidentifieshimorherasapersonworthyof punishmentandorostracism,butalsoidentifieshimorherassomeonewhoisnot worthyoftheconcernorcareoftheingroupmembers.Noticethattheconditionsof imprisonmentcold,remorselessdeprivationgenerallydonotworrythegeneral publicwhenthepersonbeingtreatedinthiswayhasbeenlabelledacriminal(Pratt 2002).Groupmembersarefreedfromguiltorremorseaboutthetreatmentofthe convictedpersonbythethoughtthatthecriminaldeservespunishmentandisnot human,notmytribe,notlikeme. Itiseasiertopunishmembersoftheoutgroup.Arecentcrossnationalanalysisof imprisonmentratesin140nationsconcludedthatsocialheterogeneity(basedon race,ethnicity,religionandlanguage)waspositivelyassociatedwithimprisonment rates(RuddellandUrbina2004).Similarly,lesserdiversitywasassociatedwiththe abolitionofcapitalpunishment(RuddellandUrbina2004).Anotherstudyofthirteen progressivedemocraciesconcludedthatexpansionsinminoritypresenceandthe

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resultingthreatstomajoritygroupdominancecombinetoproduceincreasingly punitiveoutcomes(InternationalSocietyfortheStudyofDissociation,Chuetal. 2005).Similarly,arecentcomparativestudyofcommunityattitudestoward punishmentintheCzechRepublicandFloridafoundthatantipathytowardminority othersisastrongpredictorofpunitiveattitude(Costelloe,Chiricosetal.2002)210. ThestudyconsideredattitudestowardAfricanAmericansinFloridaandGypsiesand refugeesintheCzechRepublic.Inspiteofthevastculturalandhistoricaldifferences betweentheminoritygroupsinthesecommunities,membersofbothmajoritytribes exhibitedamorepunitiveattitudetowardtheminorityother(Costelloe,Chiricoset al.2002). Punishmentitselfworkstoestablishandmaintaingroupidentityandtoreinforce groupvalues.Denunciationofthecriminalact(andthecriminal)reinforcesgroup identityandgroupvalues.AccordingtoGarfinkel,themoralindignationofthetribeis expressedthroughadegradationceremony(Garfinkel1965).Theattributesofa successfuldegradationceremony,requirethedenouncertomakethedignityofthe suprapersonalvaluesofthetribesalientandaccessibletoview,andhisdenunciation mustbedeliveredintheirname(Garfinkel1965).Punishmentseparatesthegroup fromthepunishedpersonandhelpstomaintainpositivegroupidentity.Amongthe beneficialsideeffectsofcriminalpunishmentistherestorationofsocialcohesion whichmaybethreatenedordisturbedbycertainsortsofoffending(Lacey 1988):183).Althoughsocialcohesionmaybeconstruedasasocialgood,Garland pointsoutthatpunishmentproducesadistinctiveformofsolidarity:theemotional solidarityofaggression(Garland1990).Thisparticularsolidarityhasbeentermeda formoftribalgrouphostility(Weisberg1985). Further,criminalprosecutioncreatesasenseofgroupwellbeingbyplacingthe blameforharmfulorpainfuleventsonanindividual.Thisallowstheingrouptobea victimratherthanaperpetratorofevil(Thebadthingthathappenedisnotourfault. Itisthefaultofthecriminal.).Placingtheblameontheindividualexoneratesthein

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groupfromresponsibilityforcriminogenicsocialconditions.AsGarfinkelnotes,in thecriminalprocessthecharacteristicsofthecrimeandthecriminalaremadeto standoutasindividual,uniqueandneverrecurring(Garfinkel1965).Inthiswaythe featuresofthemaddogmurdererreversethefeaturesofthepeacefulcitizen (Garfinkel1965)andtheingroupmembersarepermittedtomaintainapositive groupidentity.Byplacingtheblameforharmfulorpainfuleventsonanindividual,by identifyinganddenouncingaperpetratorandvictim,thegroupisdistancedfrom theharm,absolvedofanypotentialblame,andmadetofeelsafeagain. B.Criminallawreinforcesminoritygroupidentity. Becausethecriminallawrepresentsthestatedideologyandmoralsofthemajority group,thelawitselfmayevokeoppositionalideologywithintheminority. Whenagroupperceives(correctlyornot)thatitistheobject ofrepression,itrespondsbyopposingthemoralcategories andsocialmeaningsoftherepressivegroup.Groups,defined byclassorotherstatuscategories,engageinstrugglesto vinciateideologicalsystemsandsotovindicatethemselves (SampsellJones2003). Minoritygroupsaretheirowningroup.Fortheminority,majorityistheoutgroup, whoserulesmaynotbeconsideredlegitimateorrequiringofobedience.Whenthe minoritygroupperceivesthelawasatoolofoppression,mistrustnotonlymakes individualslesslikelytoassistlawenforcement,butalsomorelikelytodisobeylegal commands(Luna2005).Ratherthanproducethedesireddeterrenteffectforthe minoritygroup,thelawbackfires.Butlerargues,forexample,thatthehigh incarcerationrateofAfricanAmericanshasledsomeAfricanAmericans,particularly thehiphopcommunitytointerrogatethesocialmeaningofpunishment(2004: 997).

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Tosaythathiphopdestigmatizesincarcerationunderstates thepoint:Prison,accordingtotheartists,actuallystigmatizes thegovernment.Inaculturethatcelebratesrebelliousness, prisonistheplaceforunrulyniggaswhootherwisewould upsetthepoliticaloreconomicstatusquo.Inthissense, inmatesareheroicfigures(Butler1978). Intergroupconflict,competition,antagonismorlackofunderstandingcanmakeit easierforeithergrouptodisrespectthenormsandlibertyofmembersoftheother group. C.CriminalLawdrawsitsprotectiveboundariesaroundthegroup. Criminallawenforcementprotectsmembersofthetribe.Traditionally,criminallaw enforcementhasoperatedprimarilywithintheboardersandnormsofonejurisdiction andtribe.47Inthissense,ithasbeenassertedthatlawisanintragroup phenomenon(Pospisil1971)at343.Whenonejurisdictionhasmultipleresident groups,theprotectionofcriminallawenforcementisnotalwaysguaranteedto minorityresidentgroups.Asillustratedintherecentreportdealingwithsexualabuse ofAboriginalchildrenintheNorthernTerritoryofAustralia,crimesmaygo unreported;reportedcrimesmaygounprosecuted;problemsofcommunication, culture,andmutualsuspicionmaymakeitdifficultforcitizenstoreportandforpolice andprosecutorstodotheirjobs(Australia2007). Further,whentheminoritygroupisviewedaslessthanhuman,theprotectionofthe minoritygroupmembersisnotapriorityforthemajority.Anthropologistshave repeatedlyobservedadoublestandardintraditionalmoralitywithonesetof ethicsforingroupmembers,alowersetornorestraintsforoutgroupmembers
6.Withtheadventoftransnationalandinternationalcriminallawenforcement,thetraditionappears tobeonthewane.

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(LevineandCampbell1972).Crimesagainstoutgroupmembersdonotcarrythe samemoralweightascrimescommittedagainstingroupmembers.Failureto recognisethehumanityoftheminoritytribemayalsocontributetothewillingnessof themajoritytribetoignorecrimesagainstoutgroupmembers.Thepointis illustratedinaneditorialbyanAmericanjournalist: Therewasatimeinthiscountry[theUS]whenweaccepteda separatestandardofjusticeforwhitesandblacks,andatime whenwerarelybotheredtoprosecuteanimmigrantsolongas hiscrimewascommittedagainstoneofhisownkind. WhatevertheydidinChinatownorLittleItalyonaSaturday nightwhatevertheydidtotheirwivesanddaughters,in particularwastheirbusiness.Asasociety,wegradually turnedagainstthatapproach,accepting,inthenameof fundamentalfairnessandourcommonhumanity,thenotion thatablackAmerican,oraGreek,oranIrishoraChinese immigrantwhofallsvictimtoacrimeisentitledtothesame safeguardsasanativebornwhite.(MainichiDailyNews) Noticethat,forthiswriter,theconcessionthattheminoritygroupmembersdeserved theprotectionofthecriminallawrequiredanaffirmationoftheircommon humanity.Extendingtheprotectionofthelawtothemrequiredbringingthese immigrantswithintheboundariesofthegroup. Inpractice,extendingtheprotectionofthedominanttribescriminallawtominority groupshasraisedtroublingissues.Theextensionofpoliceprotectiontominority neighbourhoodsmayrequirethepolicetoincreasepatrolsand,consequently, increasetheprobabilityofabrasiveencounterswiththepolice(Hahn19711972). Someoftheconflictshavebeennotorious.Forexample,inChicagoduringtheearly 1990spolicemadeapracticeofpickingupAfricanAmericanyouth,whomthey

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suspectedofcriminalactivity,anddroppingthemoffinwhiteneighbourhoodswhere theywerelikelytobebeatenupbylocalresidents(SampsellJones2003). Understandingthecommonhumanityofminoritygroupmembersisnosmalltaskin thecontextofahumansocietythatorganisesitselfingroups.Buildingagroup identitythatappliestoallofthemembersofalegalsocietymaybeautopiandream. Thepublicmedia,politicaldiscourseandsocialdiscourseofthedominantgroupoften conflatesminoritystatuswithcriminality.InAustralia,forexample,arecentanalysis ofmediaandpoliticalsourcesopinedthatthesocialimaginingsofthecriminalin contemporaryAustraliaincreasinglyinvolvestheinvocationoftheArabOtherasa primaryfolkdevil(Brown2006).Nevertheless,buildingaconceptofcommon humanitymightbeseentobethecoretaskoftheinternationalistlegalagenda.

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Conclusion Anumberofstudieshavelookedforandfailedtofindempiricalevidenceto demonstratethatdisproportionateincarcerationratesarecausedbybiaseddecision makingonthepartofpolice,prosecutors,andjudges(Tonry1997;Waddington, Stensonetal.2004).Ontheotherhand,researchhasdocumentedthatincreased minoritypresenceorminoritythreattogroupdominanceisstronglycorrelatedwith imprisonmentrates(RuddellandUrbina2004).Basedoncurrentsociologicaldata,it isnotpossibletoquantifyhowdiscriminatoryprocessingaffectsminority imprisonment.Ontheotherhand,giventheapparentdisproportionate imprisonmentofminoritygroupsaroundtheworld,itseemsfairtosaythatthe criminaljusticesystemoperatesinaway(orperhapsinacontext)thatfavoursthein groupovertheoutgroup.Further,psychologicalstudiesshowthatthebiased decisionmakingisunconsciousandanydecisionmayberationalisedorjustifiedpost hoc(Sunstein2006). Institutionalstructuresthatconsistentlyimpactdisproportionatelyonoutgroup membersshouldbeexaminedtodiscoverwhereorhowtheyprovideopportunities forbiaseddecisionmaking.Inthecriminaljusticeprocess,itappearsnotonlythat therearethatopportunitiesforingroupfavouritismexistatvirtuallyeverylevel,48 butthatpartofthetraditionalroleandfunctionofthelawitselfistodefineand reinforceingroupidentity.Theinteractionbetweengroupidentityandcriminallaw isbothreciprocalanddynamic.

Theseopportunitiesexistatthecreationofcriminallawssubstantivenorms,wherethemoralityof thedominantgroupisencodedintolegalproscription;atthecreationofenforcementproceduresand policies,wherethedominantgroupsperceptionsaboutcrimeandcriminalitywillcontrolthe allocationofresources,themethodsoftrainingpolice,prosecutorsandjudges;andtherulesthat governpoliceinteractionwiththepublic;andattheenforcementofsubstantivecriminalnorms,which necessarilygiveadecisionmakingdiscretiontopolice(tostop,search,investigate,arrest), prosecutors(tocharge),judges(inbailandsentencing)andcorrectionalinstitutionofficials(prison accommodationsandparole).

48

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Writersonethnocentrismaredividedonthequestionofwhetheringrouppreference producesprimarilypositiveornegativeeffects.Ingroupfavouritismandoutgroup antagonismmayhavehelpedourancestorsprotectlimitedresourcesandincrease thesurvivalrateofonesownfamily(Taylor,Peplauetal.2006).Inamulticulturalor polyethniccommunity,however,itbecomesapparentthatthereisaneedtofinda detribalisedwayofformulatingcriminaljusticenormsandenforcementpolicies.The problemofdevelopingmulticulturalormultitribalnormsisbothdifficultand important.AsMcNamarapointsout,theconceptisoftengreetedasacallforthe minoritygrouptoreceivespecialtreatment(McNamara2004).Theideaofusing differentnormstoapplytodifferentculturalgroupswithinonesocietyrunsafoulof theconceptoftheruleoflawandprinciplesofequalitybeforethelaw(Ibidat21). Withregardtotheemotional,moralissuesinvolvedincriminallaw,isitpossibleto findnormsthatcanbenondiscriminatorilyappliedatasupertriballevel?Perhaps partofthesolutionmightbetodecriminalisethosebehavioursforwhichthereisno supertribaldisapprobation.Lunafavoursthedepoliticizationofsubstantive criminallaw(Luna2005).Hewouldshifttheauthorityfromlawmakerstonon politicalexpertsincriminaljusticetoinsulatethecriminaljusticesystemfromthe kindofingroupdecisionmakingIdescribeabove(Ibid). Consideringthelawinlightofgroupbehaviouralscienceopensthedoortofurther thinkingabouttheimpactofpsychologyongroupdecisionmakingprocesses.Can criminallegalprocessesbeinsulatedfromimplicitbias?Inthecontextofcivillaw, Sunsteinfavoursproceduresthatintroducemoredeliberationinlegaldecision makingandtoinsulatetheprocessfromimplicitbiasorflawedgroupdecision making(Sunstein1999;Sunstein2006).Inthecontextofcriminallawlegislation,that mightmeandelayingtheenactmentofnewcriminallegislationuntilaminority impactreportcanbedebatedanddrafted.Inthecontextofcriminalprocedures,it maybepossibletodeviseotherwaystoinsulatedecisionmakingfromingroupbias. Atleastonestudyofintergrouprelationshasfoundthatthedevelopmentofa

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commongroupidentitydiffusestheeffectsofstigmatizationandimproves intergroupattitudes.(Dovidio2001) Thefirststeptowardbeingabletodealwithanyproblemistorecognizeand understandit.Ifwereenvisionthecriminallawinthecontextofahumanspecies thatexistedformorethanahundredthousandyearsinsemiisolated,small,roving bands;thathaslivedtogetherinconcentratedandsemipermanentgroupsforonly tensofthousandsofyears(Wilson1988);andthatnowfindsitselfcrowdedintoan increasinglysmallplanet,thediminishingvalueofingrouployaltyandoutgroup antagonismbecomesapparent.Astheworldbecomesasmallerneighbourhood, thosesocietiesthatdevelopwaystodiffuseintergroupconflictandforgeinclusive groupidentitiesaremorelikelytoachievegreaterjustice.

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Brown,D.E.1991HumanUniversals,Philadelphia:TempleUniversityPress. Brown,R.1986SocialPsychology,SecondEdition,NewYork:Macmillan,Inc. Bull,S.2004'TheLandofMurder,Cannibalism,andAllKindsofAtrociousCrimes? MaoriandCrimeinNewZealand,18531919',BritishJournalofCriminology44:496 519. Butler,P.2004'MuchRespect:TowardaHipHopTheoryofPunishment',Stanford LawReview(Symposium:PunishmentandItsPurposes:9831015. Chiricos,T.G.andCrawford,C.1995'RaceandImprisonment:AContextual AssessmentoftheEvidence',inD.F.Hawkins(ed)Ethnicity,RaceandCrime: PerspectivesAcrossTimeandPlace,Albany:StateUniversityofNewYorkPress. Costelloe,M.T.,Chiricos,T.,Burianek,J.,Gertz,M.andMaierKatkin,D.2002'The SocialCorrelatesofPunitivenessTowardCriminals:AComparisonoftheCzech RepublicandFlorida',JusticeSystemJournal23:191218. Cunneen,C.2001Conflict,PoliticsandCrime:Aboriginalcommunitiesandthepolice CrowsNest,N.S.W.:Allen&Unwin. Currie,E.1998CrimeandPunishmentinAmerica,NewYork:HenryHoltand Company,Inc. Davis,A.Y.1998'RaceandCriminalization:BlackAmericansandthePunishment Industry',inJ.James(ed)TheAngelaY.DavisReader BlackwellPublishing.

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Waddington,P.A.J.,Stenson,K.andDon,D.2004'InProportion:Race,andPolice StopandSearch',BritishJournalofCriminology44:889914. Walmsley,R.2003'GlobalIncarcerationandPrisonTrends',ForumonCrimeand Society3(1and2):6578. Weisberg,R.2003'NormsandCriminalLaw,andtheNormsofCriminalLaw Scholarship',JournalofCriminalLawandCriminology93:467591. Weyrauch,W.O.1999'UnconsciousMeaningsofCrimeandPunishment',Buffalo CriminalLawReview2:945959. Wilson,J.Q.andHerrnstein,R.J.1985CrimeandHumanNature,NewYork:Simon andSchuster. Wilson,P.J.1988TheDomesticationoftheHumanSpecies,NewHavenandLondon: YaleUniversityPress. Worchel,S.1998Socialidentity:internationalperspectives,London;ThousandOaks, Calif.:Sage. Worchel,S.andSimpson,J.A.1993Conflictbetweenpeopleandgroups:causes, processes,andresolutions,Chicago:NelsonHallPub.

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LosingtheWaronDrugs:ProhibitionandProliferation
MargaretPereira SchoolofBehavioural,CognitiveandSocialSciences UniversityofNewEngland mpereir2@une.edu.au Introduction Contemporarypatternsofdrugusehaveevolvedfromchangingpolices,whichhave beenshapedbypolitical,economic,demographicandsocialchanges.Beforethe EuropeancolonisationofAsia,opiumproductionwaslimitedandthedrugwasused almostsolelyformedicinalpurposes(McCoy,1972:59).Thischangedduringthe eighteenthcenturywhenlargescaleopiumsmugglingbycolonialpowerscreated addictedpopulationsandfinancedthebuildingofthecolonies(McCoy,1972;Nakoe, 1993).Prohibition,drivenbymoralcrusadesinthelatenineteenthcentury,triggered restrictionsondruguseandtrafficking(McCoy,2000).Massiveexpansionsindrug marketsanddrugabusefollowedprohibition,promptingcallsfortoughermeasures tocontaintheproblem;ironically,thesestrategieshaveexacerbatedthesituation. Despiteampleevidenceofthefailureofpunitivedruglawenforcementstrategies, therearefeweffortsbeingmadeinAustraliaorinternationally,towardsnonpunitive drugpolicyreform. Creatingdrugmarkets DrugsmugglinginAsiabeganinthe1500swhenthePortuguesebeganimporting opiumintoChinafromIndia.ThislucrativetradewastakenoverbytheBritishEast IndiaCompanyin1773,makingBritaintheworldslargestopiummerchantand consequentlythemostpowerfulcolonialpower(McCoy,1972:5960).Eventhough Chinaprohibitedopiumsmokingin1729andthenbannedopiumimportsin1800,

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BritishopiumimportationcontinuedandopiumsmokinginChinaincreased(Wright, 1924).Thisresultedintwoopiumwarsin1839and1856,whichforcedChinato legalizetheimportationofopium.Bythistime,therewasanestimated15million Chineseopiumaddicts(McCoy,1972:63;Wright,1924). Moralsandburgeoningdrugmarkets Campaigningforopiumprohibitionbeganinthe1870s,followingmoralcrusadesby theantiopiummovement,theChristianTemperancemovementandtheProtestant churchesofEnglandandAmerica.SuccesswasachievedaftertheBritishParliament passedamotiontostopIndiasopiumtradein1906(McCoy,2000).Althoughthere werenomandatoryinternationalcontrolsthatcouldinterferewithcolonialopium trade,allcolonialgovernmentsagreedtoreducetheiropiumsalesoveranumberof years,reducingproductionconsiderablyby1934(McCoy,2000:Nakoe,1993). Eventhoughthenewrestrictionsinitiallyproducedadeclineinthelegalopiumtrade, theylateropenedupmarketopportunitiesforanillicittradeinEuropeandAsia (McCoy,2000:2002).Thispromptedtighterprohibitionsandasubsequent expansionofillicitdrugmarkets,whichprosperedasdrugsmugglerscapitalizedon higherdrugpricescausedbytheprohibitions.Themarketproliferationtriggereda massdemandforopiumandlater,aworlddemandforheroin.Furtherattemptsat prohibitionandsuppressioncontinuedtofailasdrugproduction,marketsanduse multiplied(McCoy,2000:202). Colonisationandthegrowthofdrugmarkets Throughoutthenineteenthcentury,colonialexpansioninSoutheastAsiacreateda highdemandforlabour.Intheearlytwentiethcentury,impoverished,opium addictedChinesepeasantpopulations,escapingwarandfamineinChina,flockedto SoutheastAsiaforwork(McCoy,1972:63).Inordertomaintainopiumsuppliesfor

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thenewimmigrants,colonialgovernmentsimportedcheapopiumfromIndiaand ChinaandsetuplicensedopiumdensthroughoutSoutheastAsia;thisresultedin hugeexpansionsinopiumconsumermarkets(McCoy,1972:Nakoe,1993).State regulatedopiumsalessoonprovided4050percentofcolonialrevenues,financing colonialinfrastructureandconstructionacrossSoutheastAsia(McCoy,1972:63). Opiumtoheroin Whenpricesoflicensedgovernmentopiumbegantoclimbrapidly,migratingChinese hilltribesbeganillicitlocalproductioninthemountainsoftheGoldenTriangle.The numberofopiumaddictsswelledandtheirincreasingdemandfacilitatedmassive expansionsinopiumproductionthroughouttheregionandintoBurma(Lintner, 2000:McCoy,1972).Afterindependenceinthe1940s,illicitproductioninBurma soaredandboomingopiummarketsmovedintoThailand(Lintner,1994).Bythelate 1950stheregionwasproducingaround50percentoftheworldsillicitopium(McCoy, 1972:Lyttleton,2004). Thrivingdrugmarketssupplyingaddictedpopulations,pavedthewayfordrug syndicatestostartupprofitableheroinrefinerylaboratoriesintheGoldenTriangle. Fromthe1960s70s,heroinbecameacommercialglobalcommodityandtheGolden Triangleamajorsupplier(McCoy,1972;2000;Lintner,1994;2000). TheWaronDrugs By1961,theUnitedNationsandtheUSinitiatedprogramstoeradicateillegalpoppy cultivationandprosecutedrugtraffickers(McCoy,2000:203).Bythelate1960s, PresidentNixonhadlaunchedtheWaronDrugs,whichwasanattempttoaddress theproblemofAmericansoldiersbecomingaddictedtoheroininVietnamthen returninghometotheirUSsuburbswithdrughabits(Lintner,2000:12).TheUS subsequentlystrengtheneditsDrugEnforcementAdministration(DEA)and

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collaboratedwiththeUnitedNationstoincreaseglobalnarcoticscontrol(Lintner, 2000:13). Proliferation TheWaronDrugswasinitiallysuccessfulandopiumcultivationandheroinexports werereducedsubstantially.However,successwasshortlivedasvictoriesironically facilitatedmarketexpansion.Withglobaldrugdemandstillintactandashortageof drugsuppliesthereweremassiveincreasesintheworldpriceofheroin.Traffickersin SoutheastAsiahadnotroublefillingtheunmetglobaldemandthroughoutmostof the1970s,inAmerica,EuropeandAustralia(McCoy,2000:Lintner,2000).As surveillanceandseizureincreased,marketsshiftedandopiumproductionincreased. Bytheendofthe1980s,worldopiumsupplyhadexplodedwithanincreaseof400 percentsincetheearly1970s.Bythe1990sSoutheastAsiawasoneoftheworlds largestsuppliersofheroin(McCoy,2000). Afghanistan SimilartothesituationinSoutheastAsia,prohibitionanderadicationprogramsin Afghanistanhavenotreducedsupplybuthavemerelyexpandedillicitmarkets (McCoy,2000:14).AftertheAfghanSovietwarendedin1992,Afghanistanhad threemillionwarrefugeesandgrosspoverty.Opiumwasanidealcashcropto addressAfghanistanssocialandeconomicproblems.Withnoforeignaidandthe outbreakofcivilwar,opiumcropsprovidedoneofthefewsourcesoffinance(McCoy, 2000:21214).ItisnotsurprisingthatdespiteUN/USopiumeradicationprogramsin Afghanistan,opiumproductionhassoared.In2005,theUNestimatedthatthe countrywasprovidingaround89percentofworldillicitproduction(UnitedNations, 2006).

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FromHerointoAmphetamineTypeStimulants Since2001,globaldrugtrendshaveshownadramaticdeclineintheavailabilityand useofheroinandsubstantialgrowthintheuseofamphetaminetypestimulants (ATS)(UnitedNations,2006).Duringthistime,Australiahasexperiencedashiftin patternsofdrugusefromherointoATS,suggestingthatashortageinthesupplyof heroinhasstimulatedtheconsumptionofATS(Drabsch,2006;NationalDrugand AlcoholResearchCentre,2006;McKetin,McLarenandKelly,2005;Maher,2007).This viewisreinforcedbystudies,whichfindthattheshortageofheroinhasledto increaseduseofATSbecauseheroinusersarechangingtoATSduetoalackofthe availabilityofgoodheroin(Maher,2007).Eventhoughthereissomedisputeasto whetherthereisadirectcausalrelationshipbetweenheroinshortageandincreasesin ATSusage(Snowballetal,2008),therehasnevertheless,beensubstantialincreases intheproductionanduseofATS,withmorepotentformsemergingdespitelarge seizuresofthedrugatAustralianborderpoints.ATScanbeproducedlocallyincrude laboratoriesbutismostlyimportedfromSoutheastAsia,China,HongKong,Japan, SouthKoreaandTaiwan(Drabsch,2006),indicatingthattherehasbeenwide geographicalexpansionsininternationaldrugmarketsandproduction. InAustralia,therearecurrentlymorethan70,000habitualATSusers,comparedwith around40,000habitualheroinusers(Drabsch,2006).ThetrendtowardsATShas presentedanumberofchallenges,especiallyforhealthprofessionals.Prolongeduse ofATShasbeenassociatedwithpsychosis,violentbehaviour,hostilityand aggression,promptingmedicaldrugspecialiststocommentthatATSmakesheroin looklikethegoodolddays(McKentin,McLarenandKelly,2005;Drabsch,2006; Wodak,2007).

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Criminalisationofdrugusers Increasesinprisonpopulations Anestimated2millionpeople,oraquarterofthetotalglobalprisonpopulationis incarceratedfordrugoffences(Rulles,Kushlik,andJay2006).InAustraliabetween 1996and2006,thenationalprisonpopulationincreasedbyasubstantial42%(ABS, 2006).IncarcerationratesforwomeninAustralianprisonsincreasedbyastaggering 90%comparedwith39%formaleprisonersduringthesameperiod(AIC,2006). Womenprisonershavehigherlevelsofsubstanceabuseanditisestimatedthatupto 70%ofwomensoffencesinAustraliaaredirectlyrelatedtotheirdruguse(Kevin, 1995).IntheUKoverthepastdecade,thenumberofincarcerateddrugoffendershas increasedfivefoldforwomenandthreefoldformenanditisestimatedthat between50%80%ofallprisonersarenowservingtimefordrugrelatedoffences (Rulles,KushlikandJay,2006). IntheUS,thewarondrugshasresultedinhugesurgesinprisonpopulations.Those whoaremostdisadvantagedbythewarareblackpeopleandpoorerpopulationswho aremorevulnerabletobeingcriminalisedbygettoughdrugpolicies(Boboand Thompson,2006;Tonry,1994).TheblackincarcerationrateintheUnitedStatesis8 timeshigherthanfornonHispanicwhitesandhasrisenby900percentsincethe 1950s(BoboandThompson,2006:4513). TheWaronDrugsjustifyinghumanrightsabuses ChinacelebratesUNworldantidrugsdaywithmassexecutionsofdrugoffenders,in 2002therewere64executedandasimilarnumbertheyearbefore(Rulles,Kushlik, andJay2006).ThailandsWaronDrugs,initiatedin2003,justifiedgrossandhorrific violationsofhumanrights.Afteronlythreemonthsofthewaralmost2,500alleged drugdealershadbeenmurdered(HumanRightsWatch,2004).TheThaigovernment

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promotedtheuseofviolence,intimidationandrandomextrajudicialexecutions againstdrugsuspects.Thepolice,whowereplacedunderpressureandofferedcash incentivestoshowresults,stoppedatnothingtofollowordersandmeetexpectations (HumanRightsWatch,2004). Findingsolutions Harmreduction Thereisanawarenessoffaileddrugprohibitionpoliciesnationallyand internationally,withingovernmentandNGOs(seeRulles,KushlikandJay,2006). Despitethis,effortstoreduceharmforthedruguserandthecommunity,continueto workwithinaprohibitionistframework,withfeweffortsbeingmadetoexplore alternatives(seeRulles,KushlikandJay,2006).Harmreductionpoliciessuchas treatmentprograms,prisonalternatives,heroinandmethadoneprescription programs,andneedlesyringeprogramshavereducedhealthproblemsandhave helpedsomedruguserstorebuildtheirlives.Someprogramshaveevenhelpedto lowerthecrimeratesofdrugusers(seeVumbaca,1999).However,thesereforms focusonharmminimizationfortheindividualdruguserwithoutaddressingthe greaterharmcausedbylawenforcementpolicies.Attemptingtominimiseharm withinalegalframeworkthatitselfmaximisesharmwillonlyhaveamarginalimpact; forthebiggerfundamentalproblemsofcrimecreation,healthissues,thefinancial costoflawenforcement,andtheconsequentcriminalisationofdrugusers,remain intact. Longtermeffectivechange Toachieveeffectivelongtermchange,thereneedstobeongoingdiscussionand debateaboutdrugpolicyandreformatlocalandgloballevels.Keystakeholders, academics,governmentandNGOsneedtocollaborativelydeterminehowresponsible

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policycanbecombinedwithharmreductiontoreducedamagetoindividualsand communitiesinAustraliaandinternationally.Meanwhile,rhetoricalantidrugs campaignsandcriesforharsherpenaltiestendtobeunderpinnedbyneoliberal, moralisticideologyofprotectingcommunitiesandindividuals.Forexample,while governmentsaroundtheglobecallforharsherpenaltiesfordrugoffenders,theUNs 2008sloganforitstenyeardrugstrategyisAdrugfreeworldwecandoit!(Rulles, KushlikandJay,2006).Thismisleadingandunachievableclaimislittlemorethana righteousandcounterproductivecrusade,whichdoesnothingtoprotectindividualor communityrights,orsafety.Rather,itjustifiesthepunishmentandhumanrights abusesofthoseidentifiedasbeingahindrancetotheachievementofautopiandrug freesociety.Effectivechangecanonlyoccurwhenthereisharmreductioncombined withmajorpolicyreform,notbasedonrhetoric,moralsorideology,butonrealistic strategiestoreduceharmandpreventthecriminalisationofdrugusers. In1924,theAmericanpoliticalcommentatorQuincyWrightreferredtothedebateon theprohibitionofopiumasmankindsfightagainsthisowndesirefornarcotics (Wright,1924).Thereislittledoubtthatmostpeopleenjoyusingvarioustypesof drugs,notleastofallalcohol,eventhoughwedonotknowallthereasonswhy.What wedoknowisthataslongasthereisademandforillicitdrugstherewillalwaysbe supplyandregularuserswillneedtobreakthelawtomaintaintheiruse.Wealso knowthataslongasthereisdrugprohibition,prisonpopulationswillcontinueto multiply.AlsoknownisthatdruglawenforcementpoliciessuchastheWaronDrugs arenoteliminatingdrugproduction,endingillicitdrugmarkets,orpreventingdrug use.Noneofthisisespeciallyneworsurprising.Whatissurprisingisthat,despiteso muchevidencetothecontrary,thereremainsapersistentassumptioninlawandorder discoursethatthecriminaljusticesystemholdsthesolutiontoillicitdruguse.

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Bulletin,ContemporaryIssuesinCriminalJustice,no.114,BureauofCrime StatisticsandResearch:Sydney. Tonry,M.,1994,RacialDisproportionsinUSPrisonsBritishJournalofCriminology, vol.34pp.97115 UnitedNations,2006,WorldDrugReport,Volume1:Analysis,UnitedNationsOffice onDrugsandCrime. Vumbaca,G.,1998,FindingaBetterWay:AReviewofPolicies,ProgramandPractices CurrentlyBeingImplementedinOverseasJurisdictionstoDealwithHIV/AIDS,Hepatitis andDrugUseIssuesBothWithinthePrisonSystemandtheWiderCommunity,Churchill FellowshipReport,NSWGovernment: Wodak,A.andAdam,T.,2007,Amphetamine/StimulantUse:Presentations, Complications,Interventions.PaperpresentedatConcordDependency Seminar, January30,2007. Wright,Q.,(1924),TheOpiumQuestionTheAmericanJournalofInternational Law, vol.18,no.2,pp.28195. Sydney.

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Traffickinginpersonsaslabourexploitation
MarieSegrave SchoolofSocialSciences UniversityofWesternSydney m.segrave@uws.edu.au Introduction InAustraliainterestintraffickinginpersonshascomeinwavesfollowingthe concentratedattentionover2002/2003whichculminatedintheFederal Governmentsannouncementofafouryearcomprehensivepolicepackageaimed, noless,ateradicatingtraffickinginpersons(MinisterforJustice&Customs,2003; Segrave,2004).Mirroringdevelopmentsinternationally(seeBerman,2003),the Australianresponsetotraffickinghasmadereferencetothisissueasacontemporary transnationalorganizedcrime(seeMinisterforJustice&Customs,2000).However, thedetailofthepolicycommitmentandtheantitraffickingframework implementedinAustraliarevealsthetraditionalnatureoftheresponsethatis foundeduponacommonsenselogicoflawandorder,whereitisthedomesticlegal regimeandthepursuitofprosecutionsthatremainstheprimaryfocus(seeHogg& Brown,1998).Whiletherearereferencesmadetotraffickinginpersonsasapractice thatmaymanifestinarangeofindustries,attentionhasbeenandcontinuestobe focusedonthetraffickingofwomenintothesexindustry(AttorneyGenerals Department,2004). Sincethepolicyannouncementinlate2003ithasprimarilybeentheannouncement ofarrests,prosecutionsandappeals,particularlythemostrecentappealand decisionsregardingtheWeiTangcasetotheHighCourtofAustralia,thathave capturedtheattentionofthemedia(seeforexample,OBrien&Wynhausen,2008; Gallagher,2008;Kissane,2008;Violante,2008;OBrien,2008).Inthereportson

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Australiaseffortstoaddresstrafficking,theintroductionoftheexpandedtrafficking inpersonsCommonwealthlegislationandthecriminaljusticearrestandinvestigation dataarereferredtoasevidenceofourefforttoaddressthisissue,withreferences alsotoAustraliasbenevolentcommitmenttosupportvictimsoftraffickingduring theinvestigationperiod(TIP,2008:6163). Academicengagementwiththisissuehasbeensteadilyincreasingsincethefirst publishedexaminationofAustralianeffortsbyKerryCarrington&LindaHearnin 2003(seeSegrave,2004;Segrave&Milivojevic,2005;Burn&Simmons,2005;Burnet al,2005;Burnetal2006;Gallagher,2005;Munro,2006;Piper,2005;Putt,2007; David,2008)howeverresearchremainslimitedandthediscussionanddebatehas beennarrow,especiallywithregardtoitscritiqueoftheexistingresponse.Thispaper arguesthatitiscriticaltoengageandexaminealternativeunderstandingsofand responsestohumantrafficking,astheexistingresponseinAustraliapresentsa numberofconcernsnotleastofwhichisthenarrowdefinitionofexploitationandthe limitedprovisionofcompensation,supportandassistancetovictimsoftrafficking. Specifically,thispaperwillidentifykeyconcernswiththecurrentresponsetopeople traffickinginAustralia,drawinginpartonresearchtheauthorconductedin2005and 2006thatexaminedtheimplementationoftheAustralianresponsetopeople traffickinginAustraliaandThailand.Thepaperconcludeswithaproposalforan alternativeframeworkforunderstandingandrespondingtohumantraffickinga proposalthatiscapturedwithinthetitleofthepaper. Australiasresponsetopeopletrafficking ForthepurposesofthisdiscussiononlyabriefoverviewofAustraliasresponseto humantraffickingwillbeprovided(seeforfurtherinformation,AttorneyGenerals Department,2003).AsnotedaboveAustraliaintroducedanationalactionplanin 2003,theCommonwealthActionPlantoEradicateTraffickinginPersons,tobe implementedoverfouryearperiodbyanumberofgovernmentdepartmentsand

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agencies(includingtheAustralianFederalPolice,theCommonwealthAttorney GeneralsDepartment,the(then)DepartmentofImmigrationandMulticulturaland IndigenousAffairs,the(then)OfficeofWomensPolicyandtheAustralian GovernmentOverseasAidProgram[AusAID]).In2007anannouncementwasmade foranadditionalA$20million(approximately)overthreeyearsagaintargeted primarilytowardscriminaljusticeavenues,includingfundingforimmigration compliance,investigationandprosecutioninadditiontoincreasedfundingfornew researchtobeundertakenbytheAustralianInstituteofCriminology(Attorney GeneralsDepartment,2007).ThecorecomponentsoftheAustralianresponse remainedthesameandwerereinforcedasappropriateandnecessarytoolstobuild onthesuccessoftheexistinginitiatives(AttorneyGeneralsDepartment,2007). TheCommonwealthActionPlantoEradicateTraffickinginPersonswasintroduced asawholeofgovernmentpolicyresponsedesignedtofocusonthefullcycleof trafficking(MinisterforJustice&Customs,2003).Primarily,theimplementationhas focusedheavilyonenhancingimmigrationandcriminaljusticeefforts,includingthe provisionofanewvisasystemforvictimsandasupportsystem.Thefocusofthese effortshasbeentomaximisesuccessfulprosecutions,whichremainsakeyindicator ofthesuccessofthepolicynationallyandinternationally(seeTIP,2004;Attorney GeneralsDepartment,2007). SubsequentlyinAustraliaaresponsetotraffickinghasbeendevelopedthatisclearly foundeduponalawandorderlogic(seeHogg&Brown,1998)apointIhaveargued elsewhere(seeSegrave,2004;Segrave&Milivojevic,2005;Segrave,inpress)where traffickinginpersonsistreatedasacriminaljusticeissueinvolvingindependent offencesthatrequiresawholeofgovernmentresponsegearedtowardsinvestigation andprosecution,whilevictimsreceivewelfaredrivensupportthatispredicatedon involvementinthecriminaljusticeprocess.Withinthisframework,victimsupport effectivelyoperatestosupportkeyinformantsandwitnessesandisavailableonlyto thoseinvolvedincriminalinvestigations(seeBurn&Simmons,2005;McSherry,

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2007).Thus,whilethenationalandinternationalrhetoricsituatestraffickingin personswithinthetransnationalcrimeassemblage,itisnotthemovementofpeople acrossandwithinbordersforthepurposesofexploitationthatwedealwithin Australia,ratherthefocusandrealityofthepolicyresponseandtheeverydayworkof Australianofficialsimplementingthisresponseprimarilyrevolvesaroundpolicing exploitationwithinthenation. Outcomestodate FromtheperspectiveofpolicymakerswithinAustraliaandtheinternational community,thedominantapproachafterfiveyearsofimplementationistoconsider whathasbeenachievedtodateandtoprioritiseaframeworkthatproduces evidencebasedprocessandoutcomesdrivendata.Giventhecurrentframeworkof thepolicyresponse,itisunsurprisingthattheprimaryevidenceusedtoascertain Australiaseffectivenessinrespondingtothisissueispredicatedoninvestigationand prosecutorialdata(seeforexamplePutt,2006). Briefly,inAustraliatheAFPhasinvestigated125casesofhumantraffickingbetween 2004and2007,withthemajorityofthesecasesinvolvingwomentraffickedintothe sexindustry.ThesewomenhaveprimarilybeencitizensofSouthEastAsian countries,particularlyThailand,butalsofromIndonesia,Malaysia,SouthKoreaand China,andtoalesserextent,HongKongandthePhilippines(Putt,2006;AFP,2007). Themostrecentdataavailableidentifiesthat29defendantshavebeenchargedwith offencesrelatedtotraffickingunderAustraliasantitraffickinglaws(Divisions270 and271oftheCriminalCodeAct1995(Cth)),ofwhicharound14haveledto prosecutionsandonlyahandfulhaveresultedinsuccessfulconvictions.Initsannual reporttheAFPidentifythreesignificantsentencingdecisionsinthe20062007 reportingperiod,twoofwhichinvolvedsextraffickingcases(involvingslaveryand

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sexualservitudeoffences)andoneofwhichreferstoalabourexploitationcasein NSW(AFP,2007:33). IncontextualisingandexplainingtheresultstodatetheAFPprovidedthefollowing explanationoftheirefforts: Themajorityofvictimsidentifiedweresexindustryworkersintheircountry oforiginandwereawaretheywouldbeworkinginthesexindustryin Australia,priortotheirbeingtrafficked.However,untiltheyarrivedin Australia,manywerenotawarethattheywouldbeexploited.Thegroups detectedinsextraffickinghavebeensmallratherthanlargeorganisedcrime groups.Australiansusingfamilyorbusinesscontactsoverseastofacilitate movementandvisaviolationscontinued. Humantraffickingcontinuedtoinvolveothercrimetypes,including immigrationfraud,identityfraud,documentfraudandmoneylaundering. Offendersactiveinthisareahaveshownadaptabilitytolawenforcement activityandmigrationgovernance.Successfulprosecutionsrelyonvictimand witnessfirsthandaccountsofexploitation.(AFP,2007:25) Therearemanyissuesraisedwithinthisstatement.Forthepurposesofthis discussion,however,Iwanttoexplainhowthisissuggestiveofandreflectsthe challengesfacingauthoritiesinAustraliaandbeyondintryingtorespondtopeople trafficking.Issuesthatwereechoedbystateauthoritiesinvolvedintheseprocesses whowereinterviewedinThailandandAustralia(seeSegrave,2007).Theirmajor concernsrelateto:findingvictimsoftrafficking(i.e.theyarerarelydetectedin transit);identifyingrealvictims(i.e.thosewhofitwithinthelegaldefinition);moving frominvestigationtoprosecuting(particularlyintermsofsecuringevidenceoften includingobtainingvictimcooperationtoappearasawitness)andconvicting offenders(i.e.anumberofcaseshaveresultedinhungjuriesinbothMelbourneand Sydney,thecasesarecomplex,lengthyandexpensive).Currentlymuchofthefocus

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indiscussionswithresearchandpolicymakersaroundimprovingtheresponseto traffickingrevolveprimarilyonhowtoaddresstheseissuesandhowtoimprovethe criminaljusticeprocess. However,thisdatarequiresmuchcloseranalysisandgreaterconsideration.Thereis aneedtoidentifyhowlittlethisinformationtellsusabouttraffickingpatterns, practicesandexperiencesandhowlittleittellsusabouttheimpactandimplications oftheseefforts.Thereareanumberofconcernsarisingfromtheframework,its implementationandthereportingtodate.Onecriticalissueisthatthecurrent responsetotraffickingandtheofficialinformationproducedaboutthisresponse functionstomaintainagenderedmythicalnarrativearoundtraffickingwherebyit appealstoanideaofthetransnationalorganisedcriminalsexualexploitationofthird worldwomen(i.e.innocent,idealvictims).Thisnarrativeisnotreflectedinthe complicatedcircumstancesofexploitationthatoccurinrealitywithinAustraliaand elsewhere.Onlyafewcasesmakeitthroughtheselectivefilteringprocessfrom identificationtoinvestigationtoprosecution.Consequently,thecriminaljustice knowledgeanddatathatisproducedispartialandincomplete,weknownothingof casesthataredeemednottobestrongenoughtoprosecute,ofvictimswhoare willingtocooperatebutwhohavelittleinformationforauthoritiestoworkwithor casesthathavesignificantevidencebutvictimswhoareunwillingorunableto participateasinformersoraswitnesses.Criticallywealsoknowlittleaboutthosewho aresimplydeportedwhenpickedupbyimmigrationauthoritiesandidentifiedas illegalnoncitizensand/ornoncitizenswhohavebreachedvisaconditionsthatis, thosewhoarenotidentifiedaspotentialvictimsand/orwhointentionallyor otherwiseremainoutsidethepurviewoftheAustraliangovernmentsantitrafficking machine.Thecriminaljusticedata,includingthenumberofvictims,becomesthe truthofthetraffickingproblemthatisdifficulttoproveordisprove,wefocuson numbersnumbersofvictims,numbersofprosecutions,numbersofoffenders.This tellsusverylittleabouttraffickinginpersonsittellsusmoreabouttheeffortsof authorities,abouttheirpriorities,theirunderstandingoftheissueandthe

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interpretationofthelawandthedirectionoftheirresources.Yetitisusedbynations todemonstratetheircommitmenttothemoraloutragethatistraffickinginperson, particularly,ofcoursethetraffickingofwomenintothesexindustry(seealsoKelly, 2005).Thusitisclearthatitisessentialthatweengagecriticallywiththenarrow operationofnationalandinternationalresponsestothisissuethatadoptandrely uponacriminaljusticeapproach.Throughdoingsowecanrecognisesthattrafficking inpersonsisonepartofamuchbroaderpatternofexploitationofnoncitizenswithin destinationcountriesthatrequiresamorecomplexandconsideredresponse.In ordertoadvancethisargumentitisnecessaryfirsttolocatetraffickinginpersons withinamorecomplexframework,beyondtheboundaryofcriminalisationand victimisation. Alternativeperspectives Reflectingitslocationwithintheconventionsofthepopularlawandorderpolicy rhetoric,theresponsetotraffickinginpersonsbeginsatthepointofexploitation, thatis,whenandwheretheoffenceorthevictimcomestotheattentionof authoritiesmostoftenwithinAustralia,throughImmigrationofficials(seeSegrave, 2007;Segrave,inpress).Theoffencesthatareconcentrateduponarefocusednoton themovementofpeople(i.e.deceptionorkidnappingtoenableindividualstobe transportedacrossnationalborders)butprimarilyonissueswithinthecountryof destinationissuesrelatingtotheconditionswithinwhichindividualshaveworked, discrepanciesbetweentheagreementsmadebeforetheybegantheirworkandtheir workingconditionswhentheyarriveinAustralia(includinginsomeinstancesthetype ofworkbutmoreoftendeceptionrelatedtotheconditionsofwork)(Australian FederalPolice[AFP],2007;Segrave,2007).Italsoincludesissuesrelatedtodebt bondagebasedonfeesrelatedtotravel,tojobplacement,andaccommodationthat areescalatedtosignificantamountsofmoneythatarerequiredtoberepaidthrough workingoffthedebt(TIP,2008).

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Clearlythereisthedominantnarrativeoftraffickingasisinconsistentwiththe complexityoftheissuesandcircumstancesofthesituationsimmigrationcompliance authoritiesassessinpractice.Issuesrelatingtoimplementationandthe determinationofcasesthatmaybepotentialcasesoftraffickingrequireseriousand carefulresearchandattention.However,theprimaryconcernhereisrelationtothe problemsassociatedwithimplementingaresponsethatisprimarilydrivenbyadesire tosuccessfullyprosecutecases.Whencriminaljusticeoutcomesarethefirstand foremostpriority,thereislimitedroomforrecognisingthattraffickinginpersonsis anissuethatarisesfromthespecificinteractionofgender,race,immigration, economicsandglobalisationandthat,asaconsequence,itisanissuethatisnot simplyidentifiedoraddressedvialawenforcement(Berman,2003:58). Insteadofbeginningwithexploitationthen,thebeginningpointisthebroader contextofcontemporaryglobalisationandtheaccompanyingsocial,politicaland economicchangesthathavearisenoverthepastfewdecades(seeSassen,1998). Withinthiscontextthechangingnatureofcontemporarymigrationflowsare intricatelyconnectedtotheincreasingdegreesofcoercionandexploitationthatare occurringinmigrationprocess(Berman,2003).Thegenderednatureofthese practicesofexploitationhaverecentlybecomethesubjectofseriousinvestigation,as researchersrecognisethatitiswomensbodiesandthemovementofwomens bodies,withorwithouttheirconsent,whichhasbecomeasignificantvehiclefor economicgrowthandasourceofdependableincomeandprofitforarangeofactors (Sassen,2000).Importantly,however,itisforbothmenandwomenastheyembark uponcrossborderjourneys,astheyseekoutopportunitiestomigrateandrespondto theneedforvariousformsoflowskilled,lowwageemploymenttobefulfilled,that othersseektoexploitthem.Indeedoverthepasttwocenturieswehavewitnessed theemergenceofanewindustryofundergroundentrepreneurshipsurrounding irregularandillegalmigrationtailoredtoworkaroundshiftingborderregimesthat operatesinternationally(seeAndreas,2000).

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Fromthisperspective,thetraffickingofwomen,includingthetraffickingofwomen intosexualservitude,canbeidentifiedasoneexampleoftheincreasingdegreesof coercionandexploitationthathaveaccompaniedthecontemporarypatternsof genderedmigrationflows(Berman2003,58;Ehrenreich&Hochschild2003;Sassen 2003).Thetendencytoisolatetraffickingfromotherissuesandtodealwithit independentlyischallengedfromthisperspective.Thereareclearinterconnections betweentraffickingandotherformsofexploitativelabourandotherformsof clandestinecrossbordermovement. Identifyingandunderstandingtraffickingwithinthisframeworkchallengesthe dominantdiscoursesthatseektoidentifycriminalisationandvictimisationasthe exclusivefactorsoftrafficking.Thuswhilepopularnarrativesoftrafficking,including theassertionsoftherealityoftraffickinginpolicyresponses,focusonextreme genderedandsexualisedformsofexploitation,theargumenthereisthatsuchcases representasmallsectionofamuchbroaderandmoreendemicpracticeof exploitationthatisoccurringwithinnationssuchasAustralia.Further,itsuggests thattraffickinginpersonsisinmanywaysaredundantterm,whatwearedealing withmostoftenisabuseandexploitationrelatedtomigrationandmigrantlabour, anditistheabuseandtheexploitationthatisrealandtangibleandknowable,yet whichremainslargelyignoredindiscussionaroundtrafficking.Whatisnecessary, then,istorecognisethelinkagesbetweentraffickinginpersonsinAustraliaandthe exploitationoftemporarymigrantlabourers,particularlylowskilledlabourers.Itis fromthisbasis,wherewerecognisetheconnectionsratherthanthedisconnections betweentheseformsofexploitationthatamorenuancedandeffectiveresponseto addressingandreducingexploitationmaybedeveloped.Thenextsection,then,will exploretheselinkagesandbuildacaseforanalternativeapproachtoexploitationand totraffickingwithinAustralia.

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MigrantlabourexploitationinAustralia TheexploitationoftemporarymigrantlabourersinAustralia,particularlythoseon 457visas(atemporarybusinessvisathatrequiresemployersponsorship)hasbeen describedinthelasttwelvemonthsasakintoslaveryandasanexampleof moderndayslavery(Moore&Knox,2007).Priortotheemergenceofthisissuein thepublicrealm,thisterminologyhasbeenconfinedtothedescriptionand identificationoftraffickinginpersons,particularlythetraffickingofwomeninto sexualservitude. Todatepeopletraffickingandtheexploitationoftemporarymigrantlabourershave beenthesubjectofseparateexaminationandaretreateddifferentlybyAustralian authorities.Asoutlinedabove,thispaperisfocusedonreconsideringthisdistinction andinsodoingenablingananalysisoftheexperienceofandresponsetononcitizens whomigratetoAustraliatoworkandexperiencearangeofformsofworkplace exploitation. Thereareanumberofavenuesforexploringtheinterconnectionsbetweenthesetwo issues,howeverforthepurposesofthisdiscussiontwowillbeaddressed:thetypesof exploitationcomingtotheattentionofauthoritiesandthe(policy/legal)responseto exploitationparticularlyintermsoftheprocessesforseekingassistanceandredress forexploitation. In2007theCommonwealthJointStandingCommitteeonMigrationreportedthat breachesof457visaconditionsthathaveariseninAustraliahaveincluded: underpaymentatminimumsalarylevel;unlawfuldeductionsfromminimumsalary suchasfortravelormedicalcosts,ordeductionsunapprovedbytheworker,suchas accommodationcosts;nonpaymentofovertimeorworkingexcessivehours; paymentbyworkersofrecruitmentcostsormigrationagentfees;racialabuseand

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threatsofphysicalharm;and,overchargingfortrainingandaccommodation(Joint StandingCommitteeonMigration,2007:112114). ThecasesoftraffickinginpersonsthathavebeenencounteredinAustraliamirrorthe samerangeofexperiencesofexploitation.Thiswascapturedwithinacomment madebyoneparticipantinterviewedinmy20052006researchintotheresponseto trafficking: TherearealotofwomenfromSouthEastAsiancountrieshere[inAustralia] lawfully,Imeanwhattheydo,prostitution,isinalotofstatesofAustraliaa lawfuloccupationandtheyreonaworkingholidayvisa,studentvisaetc,soitsa lawfulvisa,lawfuloccupationandtheyrehappytoworkintheindustry. Mostofthemonlyreallybecomeavictimwhenthingsgowrongforthemthere areveryfewpeoplewhogotoAustralianotknowingthattheyregoingtobe involvedinthesextradeanditsthelawofthemoney,Imeanitsonlywhen thatmoneyisnotforthcomingthattheyeitherdecidetomakeacomplaintor [they]goandtalktopeopletheyknowinAustraliawhothengoandreportitto theauthorities.(Australianlawenforcementofficer,Thailand) Primarilyitisabuseandexploitationinrelationtowagesandemploymentconditions thatdominateinbothinstances.Alsoinbothtraffickingandworkplaceexploitation weseeotherformsofabuseincludingviolence,emotionalandinsomecasessexual abuse.Theseissuescrossoverinbothrealmsandthedistinctionbetweenwhatwe labeltraffickingandexploitativelabourisblurred.Conditionsofforcedlabouras underthecurrenttraffickinglegislation(CriminalCodeAmendment(Traffickingin Persons)Act2005)canexistinbothcontextsyetresearchers,themedia,policy makers,thepoliceandotherauthoritiestendtoengagewiththeseissuesasseparate anddistinct.

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However,despitethisdistinctionintermsofhowweconceptualiseandrespondto thetwoissues,therearealsosomecriticalinterconnectionsthatresearchersin particularhavefailedtoexamineandcritique.Inrelationtobothissuesthefocusis primarilyontheoffenderinthecaseoftraffickingthecriminaljusticesystemstepsin topursueaninvestigationandideallyaprosecution.Inrelationtoworkplace exploitationtheemployerissubjecttofinesand,potentially,prosecution.Inboth casesthevictimissolelythevehicleforcriminalisationthatis,withoutavictimto identifywhathasoccurredandtoarticulatetheirexperiencetoauthorities,the practicesremainhiddenandunknown.Thatis,thefocusisprimarilyonareactive modelofrespondingtocasesofexploitationbasedfirstoninformationand intelligencebeingprovidedtoauthoritiesandsecondonvictimsthenproviding evidence(throughtestimonyandotherformsofcorroborationoftheirexperience).It appearsthatthereisapotentialheretorethinkhowweunderstandandtherefore respondtobothissuesbyrecognisingtheseconnections. Currentlyweconceptualisevictimsofthesecrimesverydifferentlyandasanation Australiaisfarmoreresponsivetotheprovisionofvictimsupportforwomenwhoare traffickedintothecountry.Inrelationtotraffickingthedominantunderstandingof victimhoodandtheneedsofvictimsoftraffickingisfocusedonagenderedtrauma basedframework,wherewelfareandemotionalsupportaretheprimaryand immediateissuestobeaddressed.Inplaceofthis,basedontheframeworkoutlined aboveandtheidentificationoftheactualformsofexploitationthatmanifestwithin thenation,Iwouldarguethereisaneedforamuchbroaderrecognitionofindividuals asactive,economictransnationalcitizens.Identifyingthattheseindividualswho experienceexploitationareinAustraliatoworkenablesaplatformfromwhichto appreciatethatvictimsmaybemoreinterestedinreceivingtheirunpaidwagesand compensationforthebreachingofagreedworkingcontractsandagreements,rather thanonlybeingrecognisedasindividualswhoneedwelfareandemotionalsupport andwhoareprovidedwiththis,inpart,toassistinmaximisingthepotentialfora successfulconvictiontobepursued.Similarly,individualswhohaveexperienced

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exploitationwhileinAustraliaonatemporaryworkingvisamayalsorequirethese formsofcompensationaswellastheopportunitytoaccessotherformsofwelfare andemotionalsupportshouldtheyrequireit.Currentlythereisnosystemofsupport operatingthatisasgenerousasthesupportgiventovictimsoftrafficking. Inaddition,weneedtoengagewiththewayinwhichbothissuesarefoundedupon themanagementoftheborderregime,wheretheoptionsforanyonewho experiencesexploitationandwhoisnotacitizenofAustralia,areultimately determinedbytheirmigrationstatus.Inrelationtobothformsofexploitation,the individualisplacedintheprecariouspositionofbeingreliantonanotherpartyto providethemwiththepossibilityofremaininginAustraliaiftheyreporttheir victimisation.Forvictimsoftraffickingoncetheyhavebeenidentifiedasapotential victimtheyareplacedonbridgingvisaFtoallowthemtoremaininAustraliawhile theauthoritiesdeterminewhetherthereisacasethatcanbepursued.Ifthereisno caseoriftheyareuncooperativeintheinvestigationtheywillbereturnedtotheir countryoforiginwithina28daytimeperiod(BlackburninJCACC,2004:23).For thosewhoareinAustraliawitha457temporaryvisa,theyhavetheoptionofleaving theemployerwhohasexploitedthembutiftheydosotheyhave28daystofind anotheremployerwillingtosponsorthemandtosubmitanapplicationforanew457 visaontheirbehalf.Duringthisperiodtheycannotwork,andtheycannotworkwhile the457visaispending.Iftheycannotfindasponsortheyhavetoreturntotheir countryoforigin(advicereceivedincommunicationwithDIACemployeeoperating ImmigrationDobIntelephonehotline,17thJuly2008).Suchprovisionsplaya significantroleinincreasingthevulnerabilityofindividualswhoareexperiencing exploitationorabuseinanyworkplace.Indeed,theuncertaintyofwhatmayhappen onceyoureportyourvictimisationcreatesadisincentiveforapproachingauthorities and/orforarticulatingyourexperiencewhenimmigrationraidsandchecksare conducted.

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Itisclearthatmoreresearchintohowtheseprocessesandoptionsareexperiencedby individualswhoareexploitedwithinAustraliaisrequiredtodevelopamorenuanced understandingoftheimpactofsuchlimitedoptions. Conclusion Acoreconcernwiththedevelopmentofthispaperandotherslinkedtois,itto recognisethatifweapproachtraffickinginpersonsandlabourexploitationfroman alternativeperspectivewecanbegintoasksomeverydifferentquestionsabouthow theseissuescometomanifestinAustraliaandabouttheappropriatenessofthe currenteffortstorespond.Insomelocationsarguingthattraffickinginpersonsand exploitativelabourshouldbebroughtunderonebannerhasbeenmetwithaconcern thatthisunderminesandeffectivelysilencesthegendered,exploitativenatureofsex trafficking.Thecentralargumenthereisthatwecanonlybringtobearamore comprehensiveanalysisofgenderedandsexualisedexploitationwhenwelook beyondthesexindustryandrecognisethatwomenexperiencetheseformsof exploitationinawiderangeofindustries.Sotoounderstandingtraffickingaslabour exploitationenablesamorecomprehensiveanalysisoftheintersectionofrace, genderandexploitationwithinarangeofindustries.Thisapproachalsopointstothe limitedknowledgemadeaccessiblebyrelyingsolelyoncriminaljusticedataand disruptsthelogicofrelyingprimarilyonacriminaljusticeresponsetoaddressthese issues. Furtheritpointstotheneedforattentiontoalsobefocusedontheincreased regulationandsecuritisationofnationalbordersandmigrationregimesandthe concomitantriseinfocusupontransnationalcrime.Indeed,itpromptsustoask questionsabouthownationssuchasAustraliaarerespondingtovariousformsof exploitationinwaysthatappeartobe(andindeed,claimtobe)victimfocusedthat mayultimatelybeidentifiedasexacerbatingthevulnerabilityofnoncitizenswithin thenation.Finallyitisclearthatweneedtochallengehowweconceiveofthe responsibilitiesandobligationsofdestinationcountriesinassistingnoncitizenswho becomevictimsofallformsoflabourexploitationandtoconsidertheroleofnations

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suchasAustraliaincontributingtoacontextwithinwhichtraffickingandexploitation inallitsformsmayproliferate.

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Kissane,K.(2008)JudgewarnsmanycouldbesnaredbyslaverylawsTheAge14 May2008,p5. McSherry,B.&Kneebone,S.(2008)Traffickinginwomenandforcedmigration: movingvictimsacrosstheborderofcrimeintothedomainofhumanrights.The InternationalJournalofHumanRights12(1)pp6787 MinisterforJustice&Customs(2003)AustralianGovernmentannouncesmajor packagetocombatpeopletrafficking.MediaRelease(13October2003).Canberra: AttorneyGeneralsDepartment. Moore,M.&Knox,M.(2007).ExploitationofskilledmigrantsexposedSydney MorningHerald,August28,2007. Munro,V.(2006)AComparativeStudyofResponsestotheTraffickinginWomenfor ProstitutionBritishJournalofCriminology.46(2)31833. OBrien,N.(2008)LandmarksexslaverydecisiontodayTheAustralian,28August 2008p.8 OBrien,N.&Wynhausen,E.(2008)DPPtotestlawsinsexslaverycaseThe Australian15May2008,p4. Piper,N.(2005)AProblembyaDifferentName?AReviewofResearchon TraffickinginSouthEastAsiaandOceaniaInternationalMigration.43(1/2)20333. Putt,J.(2007)HumantraffickingtoAustralia:aresearchchallengeTrendsandissues incrimeandcriminaljusticeN.338,June2007.Canberra:AustralianInstituteof Criminology.PDF:http://www.aic.gov.au/publications/tandi2/tandi338.html

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Sassen,S.(2003)GlobalCities&SurvivalCircuitsinB.Ehrenreich&A.Hochschild (eds.)GlobalWoman:Nannies,MaidsandSexWorkersintheNewEconomy.London: GrantaBooks. Sassen,S.(2002)WomensBurden:CounterGeographiesofGlobalization&the FeminizationofSurvivalNordicJournalofInternationalLaw.71(2)255274. Sassen,S.(1998)Globalisation&ItsDiscontents.NewYork:NewPress. Segrave,M.(inpress)Orderattheborder:therepatriationofvictimsoftrafficking. WomensStudiesInternationalForum. Segrave,M.(2007)RestoringOrder:Statecraft,theborder&sextrafficking. UnpublishedPhDmanuscript. Segrave,M.(2004)Surelysomethingisbetterthannothing?TheAustralian responsetothetraffickingofwomenintosexualservitudeinAustraliaCurrentIssues inCriminalJustice.16(1)8592. Segrave,M.&Milivojevic,S.(2005)Sextrafficking:anewagendaSocial Alternatives.2005:SecondQuarter,1116. UnitedStatesDepartmentofState[USODS](2004)TraffickinginPersonsReport 2004.Washington:USDepartmentofState. PDF:http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/34158.pdf(accessed7/7/2007). UnitedStatesDepartmentofState[USODS](2008)TraffickinginPersonsReport 2008.Washington:USDepartmentofState. PDF:http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/105501.pdf Violante,V.(2008)CourtreinstatessexslaveconvictionsCanberraTimes29August 2008p.3

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StunningDevelopments:SomeImplicationsofTasersinAustralia
EmmaRyan CriminologyDepartment MonashUniversity ejrya2@student.monash.edu Thispaperconsidersthedebatesurroundingtheintroductionofthestungunor TaserintoAustralianpolicingandcautionsagainsttheirintroductionasgeneralissue weapons.Thiscautionissetagainstconcernsabouttheregulationofpoliceuseof forcegenerallyandinlightofcriticalcommentaryonsublethalweaponry internationally,especiallyfromtheUnitedStateswhereTaserusebypoliceis widespread.ThepapertracestheintroductionofTasersasgeneralissueweaponsin Australiaandoutlinestheargumentsforandagainsttheirintroduction.Criticalissues addressedincludethenumberofdeathsattributedtoTaseruseintheUnitedStates, theproblemsassociatedwithidentifyingstungunsascontributorstodeath,the capacityofsuchweaponstoreducetheincidenceoflethalforceinpolicingandthe potentialimpactofTaseruseonoverpolicedpopulations. Policescholarsandotherobserversarecurrentlywatchingtherolloutofstungun(or Taser)technologyinAustraliawithsomeconcern(Meehan,2008;Singer,2008;Law InstituteofVictoria,2004).WhileTasersarebeingembracedbyAustralianpolice, internationalexperiencesindicatethatthismoveislikelytobeproblematic.Research andmediareportsfromoverseas(especiallytheUnitedStatesandCanada)showthat stungunshavebeenusedagainstchildren,elderlypeople,pregnantwomenand individualswhohavealreadybeenrestrainedand/orwhoposenodangerto themselvesorothers.ThereareexamplesfromtheUnitedStatesofTasersbeing usedbypolicetocontrolprotestorsandotherwiseobtaincompliancefrompeople posingnoimmediatethreattoanyone(PittsburghIndependentMediaCenter,2005; Killian,2007;Bobb,BargeandNaguib,2007).Theyareevidentlyusedincontexts whereresortingtofirearmswouldbeentirelyinappropriate,callingintoquestionthe

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assertionthatstungunssavelives.Thereareexamplesofpoliceaccidentallydrawing andfiringfirearmswhentheyintendedtodeployastungun,withfatalconsequences (seeBier,2003).Childishhorseplayhasalsoresultedinoneofficertaseringanother. AFloridaSheriffsdeputywassuspendedfromdutyfortwelvedaysafteronesuch incident(NBCNewsChannel,2008).Thereisevenadocumentedcaseofanofficer beingreprimandedafteraccidentallytaseringhimself(Authorunknown,2007). PerhapsofmostconcernisanAmnestyInternationalreportconcerningsome290 deathsfollowingTaseruseinNorthAmericaalone(AmnestyInternational,2007). Someincidentshaveresultedinlegalactionagainstpoliceandalsostungun manufacturer,TaserInternational,theworldsleadingsupplierofconductedenergy weaponstopolice,includingthoseAustralianforcesthathaveadoptedtheweapon. Taserisabrandnameofstungunshandheld,gunshapedelectronicweaponsthat shoottwoneedletippeddartsintotheskin,trailingafinewireelectricalcable connectedtothehandset.Thefiringrangevariesfrom7toaround11metres (dependingonthetypeofcartridgeused),deliveringanelectricshockdesignedto temporarilyparalysethemusclesoftherecipientandimmediatelyincapacitatethem. Theopencircuit(orarcing)voltageofaTaseris50,000volts,althoughTaserargues thatthepeakvoltagedeliveredtothebodyis1200volts,infivesecondburstsandthe averagevoltagedeliveredis400volts(Kroll,2008).Compressednitrogenisusedas thefiringmechanism.Stungunscanalsobeusedindrivestunmode,indirect contactwithskin,causingseverepainbutnotmuscleincapacitation.WhiletheTaser companyitselfcontinuestoclaimthattheirweaponhasneverbeenidentifiedasa causeofdeath,AmnestyInternational(andothercivillibertiesgroups)haveserious concernsaboutthevalidityofthisclaim,recordingover290deathsfollowingTaser deploymentinCanadaandtheUnitedStates(AmnestyInternational,2007).Scientific evidenceregardingthecapacityofastungunsvoltagetocausedeathiscloudy. Whilesomestudieshaveshownthatheartrhythmscanbeaffected,manyothers showtheopposite.Themajorityofthelatterareeitherpartiallyorfullyfundedbythe marketleader,TASERInternationalandhencetheuncertaintyandconjecturethat

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surroundstheissue.Therearemostcertainlyseriousdifficultiespresentedto CoronersrequiredtoidentifyTasersascauses,contributorsorcorrelatesincases wheredeathhasoccurred(Vilke,n.d.).Atpresent,itwouldseemthatthefactsare simplynotclearonthismatter:thisaloneisgoodreasontosupportacautionary approachtothegeneralissueofTaserstopoliceinAustralia. Stunguns,orTasers,areatthecuttingedgeofpolicingtechnologyandarecurrently beingintroducedasgeneralissueweaponsforpoliceinseveralAustralianstates.The policeviewonthematterisgenerallythatthistechnologyisinvaluableintermsof makingthejobeasier,andsaferforofficers:allowingthemtoavoidusingothertypes offorce,suchashandtohandcombat,batonuseandatthefarendofthespectrum, lethalforce.Ofconcerntomanyobserversistherangeofoptionswithintheforce continuumthatTaserscanreplaceandtheirabilitytoconsiderablyrampuppolice relianceonusingforce.Thiswouldperhapsbeunproblematicifweweresurethatuse offorcebypolicewasalwayslegitimate,wellreasonedandaccountable.Sadly,the recordshowsthatitisnot.OneoftheearliestandmostinfluentialAmericanpolice scholars,JeromeSkolnick,notedtheproblematicoutcomesofthecombinationof dangerandauthorityinpolicingasfollows: Thecombinationofdangerandauthorityfoundinthetaskofthe policeman(sic)unavoidablycombinetofrustrateprocedural regularityDangertypicallyyieldsselfdefensiveconduct,conduct thatmuststraintobeimpulsivebecausedangerarousesfearso easily.Authorityundersuchconditionsbecomesaresourceto reduceperceivedthreatsratherthanaseriesofreflective judgementsarrivedatcalmlyAsaresult,proceduralrequirements takeonafrillycharacter,oratleasttendtobereducedtoa secondarypositioninthefaceofcircumstancesseenasthreatening (Skolnick,1975,p.44).

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Suchobservationsarekey,astheymakeclearthereasonswhythecircumstancesof sublethalweapondeploymentrequirecarefulobservation.Ofparticularconcernare thecircumstancesconsideredasdangerousbypolice,alongwithwhomandwhatis beingendangered.Wherelifeisatstake,wehaveaclearrelianceonpolicetoprevent afataloutcome(forpolice,offendersandespeciallyforbystanders),butwhereitis merelyauthoritythatisendangered,thereisarelianceontheagentsof accountability(andotherobservers)tostrivetowardsclearlimitsonpoliceuseof force. Limitinguseofforcesuccessfullyisfarfromasimpletask,scholarshaveoftenargued thatwecantevenbesurehowexcessiveforceoughttobedefined(Klockars,1996; Goldsmith,2000).Despitethis,suchlimitsarecrucial,havingaclearlinktothe legitimacyofpolicingitself.Alienatedpopulationsarepronetotherejectionofpolice authority,whichmayresultinadownwardspiralinpolice/publicrelations, exacerbatingissuesoflawandorderratherthanamelioratingthem.Thisoutcome hasconcernedpolicemanagersfromtheearliesttimes.Inhisexaminationofpolicing inVictoriantimes,Wilson(2006)statespoliceauthoritiesdiscouragedovert brutality,primarilybecauseitunderminedpolicelegitimacybyshatteringthedesired imageoftheconstableasacitizeninuniform(p.57).Thepotentialofmodern softerweaponstoshatterthecherishedPeelitenotionofpolicingbyconsentis significant,andintheabsenceoffirmaccountabilityprocessesthereisadangerthat theirusewillcometobeseen(bybothpoliceandsomecitizens)asessential.The rapidspreadofTasersacrosstheUnitedStates,andnowAustralia,suggeststhatthis isalreadytakingplace. Alongwithcapsicumsprays,Tasersfallunderthegeneraltermnonlethalweapon (thetermusedmostcommonlybytheTasercompanywhenmarketingtheirproduct andalsoadoptedbyTheUnitedStatesDepartmentofDefense)althoughthere remainsconjectureaboutthevalidityofthisterm,mainlybecausethereisno certaintythatsuchweaponsare,infactnonlethal(Feakin,2006).Otherterms

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includelessthanlethal,disabling,incapacitating,worsethanlethalsoftkill, prelethal,paralysing,sublethalandcomplianceweapons(Feakin,2006;Wright, 2002).Theconfusionsurroundingcorrectterminologyreflectsthedoubtcastover thenotionthattheseweaponsdonotcausedeath.Muchofthesupportforthe introductionofTasersintoAustraliaisbasedonclaimsthattheywillreducethe instanceoflethalforce,andbeusedasanalternativetosuchforce.Therecordsofar, however,supportsthefactthattheywillactuallybeusedinaddition,asafunctionof whathasbeentermedmissioncreep(LewerandDavison,2006). TheimplicationsofintroducingstunguntechnologyintoAustralianpolicingarethe mainfocusofthisdiscussion.Thereareseveralissuesofconcernincludingthe assertionthatsuchweaponswillreducetheneedforpolicetoresorttofirearms,the growingarrayofweaponsavailabletopoliceinanygivensituation(theissueshere arebothpracticalandphilosophical),theadequacyofpolicetraininginusingthe weapon,thecontextwithinwhichtheyareusedandthesociodemographicsoftheir mostfrequenttargets.ItispotentiallyproblematicforpolicetoincludeTaser technologyintheirarsenalintheabsenceofstrictaccountabilityprocesses.History hasalreadyshown,especiallyinVictoria(themainfieldofthisauthorsobservations ofpolicing),thattheaccountabilityofpoliceforuseofweaponsislackinginseveral crucialaspects(seeFreckelton,2000).Thefactorscontributingtothisarewell established:evidenceaboutthecircumstancesinwhichweaponsaredeployedis generallysuppliedbypolice,useofforceisinvestigatedbypolicewhomaybe sympathetictowardsthepointofviewofthoseunderinvestigationanditisdifficult toattributeculpabilitytopolicewhenthoseinvolvedareoftenamongstthemost disempowered(andunhealthy)groupsinsociety.Finally,wheredeathorinjuryisthe resultofpoliceactions,therecordshowsthatjuriesarereluctanttobringdownguilty verdictsagainstpolicewhoareseenasonlytryingtodotheirjobsinthebestway theycan.Thereseemstoexistacertainmoraldivisionoflabourthatmakespeople reluctanttoblamepolicefortasksthatwearereluctanttoundertakeourselves

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(Alexandra,2000).Thisnotonlymakesaccountabilityforweaponsuseproblematic, butthenotionofnonlethalweaponsalsobecomesespeciallyappealing. IntroducingTasers TheadoptionofTaserstungunsintoAustralianstatepoliceforcesbeganwiththeir introductionintospecialistpolicingunitsinallstates(LawInstituteofVictoria,2004). WesternAustralianpoliceledthecharge,introducingthemtotheirTacticalResponse Unitin1999andmakingthemgeneralissueforoperationalpolicebyearly2007. Assaultsonpoliceinthatstatehavereportedlydroppedby40%andnofatalitieshave yetbeendirectlylinkedtotheweapon,althoughatleastonehasoccurredfollowing theuseofaTaser(Bennet,2007;Eliot,2007).TheNorthernTerritoryhasalso adoptedstunguntechnology;seventyfourTasershavebeenintroduced,withsixin AliceSpringsandoneineachbushstation(Barwick,2008).Queenslandissoonto followsuit,withTasershavingbeentrialledthere(inBrisbane,LoganandtheGold Coast).TheQLDMinisterforPolicerecentlyannouncedthatTaserswillbecome generalissueinJune2008,followingthetwelvemonthtrialperiod(Crimeand MisconductCommission,2008).Thismovehasbeencriticised,however,labelledan apparentimpulsedecisiontosatisfydemandsfortheweaponbytheQueensland PoliceUnion(Meehan,2008).PoliceinQueenslandhavealreadyadmittedto investigatingacomplaintthatahandcuffedsuspect(heldintheCleveland watchhouse)wasrepeatedlyTaseredafterswearingatpolice(Meehan,2008). PoliceinNewSouthWalesareonthevergeofintroducingtheweapons,withthe StateGovernmentrecentlyapprovingtheintroductionof229Tasersatacostof$1 million.Itisexpectedthatatleast2000willbeissuedacrossthestate(Linnell,2008). TheVictoriangovernmentestablishedaworkingpartyontheissueonApril,2007that lookssettorecommendtheirwidespreadintroduction(Singer,2008).Atthetime ofwriting,however,nosuchintroductionhasyetoccurred.FormerWestern AustralianChiefCommissionerofPolice,BobFalconerhasrecentlybeenquotedin Victorianpress(Anderson,2008),urgingtheVictorianCommissioner,Christine

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Nixon,tostopdraggingherfeetontheissueandbitetheproverbialbullet.Inhis view,sheshouldmakeadecisionnowandendthisprocrastinationoravoidance (Anderson,2008).Thiswasfollowedbyanappealfromthewifeofadeceased shootingvictimwhoargues,therewouldbemorepeoplealiveifthepolicewere usingthestunguns(Anderson,2008). CommissionerNixonscautiousapproachtotheintroductionofstungunsisnot withoutmerit.AlthoughFalconerbelievesthattheefficacyofTasershasbeenwell established,AmnestyInternationalandotherconcernedgroupsbegtodiffer.That Coroners(andthemarketingarmofTaserInternational)finditmoredifficultthan AmnestytoseealinkbetweenTaseruseandfataloutcomesisnottheonlyissue.The contextsinwhichpoliceresorttousingstungunsarealsoimportanttoconsider. Manyinstancesofstungunusehavenowbeenrecordedthatappear disproportionatetothethreatbeingfaced.TheuseofTasersintheUnitedStates showstheyarefrequentlydeployedagainstpeoplewhofleefrompoliceafterminor offencessuchasshopliftingandtrafficmisdemeanours.Theyhavealsobeenusedto breakupbrawls.Offurtherconcernistheirincreasinglywidespreadusebyprison officersandagainstthosewhoareotherwisealreadyheldinpolicecustodybut refusingtocomplywithpolice(Meehan,2008;Wray,2008).Clearly,Tasersarenot alwaysusedinplaceoflethalforce,butasacomplianceweapon,forcingpeopleto acquiescetopolicecommandsorrespecttheirauthority(PittsburghIndependent MediaCenter,2005;Meehan,2008;Bobb,BargeandNaguib,2007).Whilesuchuse mayhavemeritinsomecircumstances,thatpeacefulprotestorsandrestrained,non violentsuspectshavefallenvictimtostungunsraisesaseparatesetofconcerns regardingappropriatelimitsontheuseofforcebypolice. ItisnotwithoutironythattheUnitedStatesisleadingtheTaserchargegivenits historyofstrivingtoprotecttheindividualfromarbitrarydisplaysofstatepower.The highlydecentralisedstructureofpolicing,alegacyofahighlyliberalisedpolitical philosophy,hasnowresultedinTasersbeingwidespreadthroughoutthepolicing structureandusedagainstcitizensincircumstancesnotpossibleunderamore centralisedstructure.Forinstance,thereismuchdebateonUniversitycampuses

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aboutthecarriageofstungunsbycampuspolice,andoneparticularlydisturbing exampleofauniversitystudentbeingrepeatedlyTaseredafterrefusingtocomply withcommandstoleaveaUniversitylibrary(Bobb,BargeandNaguib,2007).This incidenthasbeensubjectedtoseriouscriticismregradingthedisproportionatenature oftheTaseruseandgivescredencetotheabovementionedconcernsofTaserand missioncreep. Canadianpolicehavealsohadalessthansmoothexperiencesincetheintroductionof theweaponsin2001.FollowingthehighlypubliciseddeathofaPolishcitizenat VancouverInternationalAirportinNovember,2007,aninquirywaslaunchedbythe CommissionforPublicComplaintsAgainsttheRoyalCanadianMountedPolicewhich recommended,amongstotherthings,thatTasersbereclassifiedfromintermediate toimpactweaponsontheforcecontinuum,thatfarbetterrecordkeepingpractices beintroducedandthatquarterlyandannualreportsbeproducedtoallowopen scrutinyofthecircumstancesoftheiruse(CommissionforPublicComplaintsAgainst RCMP,2008). Toomanyweapons? OtherpracticalconcernsregardingtheintroductionofTasersincludewheretheysit ontheforcecontinuum(ascomparedtocapsicumspray,forexample)andalsothe practicalitiesofcarryingthemroutinely(giventhatpolicearealreadycarrying firearms,sidearms,handcuffs,torchesandcapsicumspraycanisters).Therehave alreadybeenexamplesintheUSwhereofficershavemistakenlydrawnafirearmand firedwhentheymeanttodeploytheirTaser.ThecityofMaderaandanofficerhave filedasuitagainstTaserInternationalarguingthatthecompanyprovidedrelated trainingandrepresentationsinsuchamannersoastocauseanyreasonablepolice officertomistakenlydrawandfireahandguninsteadoftheTaserdevice.(Bier, 2003).Thevictiminthiscasediedfromhisinjuries,althoughthedeathwasruled accidentalandnochargeswerelaidagainsttheofficerherself.Inanothercase,a25

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yearoldCanadianmanissuingpoliceafterhewasshotwhentheofficermistakenly drewhisguninsteadofaTaserashehadintended(Authorunknown,2008).The officerhassinceresigned.ThefamilyofaCanadianman,RobertBagnell,whodiedin 2004afterbeingtaseredisalsopursuingthematterinthecourts,althougha CoronersInquestfoundthatTaserusehadnotcontributed(CanadianPress,2006). Bagnellwasdrugaffectedandsufferingapsychiatricconditionatthetimeofhis death. Thesecasessupportacarefulapproachtotheintroductionofstungunsandshowthe dangersinherentintherhetoricoflethalforcereductionsooftencitedbyTaser proponents.MediareportsabouttheintroductionofTasersinVictoriasuggestthat whileitisveryprobabletheywillfindtheirwayintogeneralissuepoliceweaponsit hasnotyetbeendecidedhowtheywillbecarried(Anderson,2008).Thismeasured approachislaudable,giventhedemonstratedpotentialforofficerstomake mistakes. Followingfromthisistheissueofhowofficersareexpectedtodecidewhichsub lethalweaponismostappropriateinagivencircumstance.Howcouldacapsicum sprayworthyincidentbedistinguishedfromonerequiringaTaser?Wouldthe introductionofTasersmakecapsicumsprayuselessfrequent?Theanswersareasyet unclearbutofficersarecertainlyinanunenviablepositionwhenrequiredtochoose betweenagrowingarrayofpossibleweaponalternatives,whenitseemsclearthat mostcaseswheretopendforceisnecessaryrequiresplitseconddecisionmaking.It maybethattherearesomecompellingoperationalandtacticalreasonswhysenior policeshouldanalysetheiroptionscarefullybeforeaddingtotheirofficersarsenals.

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Policetraining Arelatedissueconcernsthenatureandextentofpolicetrainingwithregardtosub lethalweapons.Thequalityoftrainingcanhavearealbearingonthebehaviourof policeunderpressure.ThiswasaptlydemonstratedduringtheVictoriaPolice shootingsera(from198894)whereoverlyconfrontationaltrainingmodules(the FirearmsOfficerSurvivalTrainingUnit,borrowedfromtheFBI)wereidentifiedasa significantcontributortothedisproportionatenumberoffatalshootingsattributedto VictoriaPoliceofficersatthattime(seeTaskForceVictor,1994).Thisbringstomind anoldandreveredadageamongstuseofforcescholars:toamanwithahammer, everythinglookslikeanail(Chevigny,1995).Noofficerwantstoseegoodtraining hoursgotowasteandthismentalityhasthepotentialtoincreasethenumberof incidentsinwhichTasersbecometheweaponofchoice,whichinturnmayincrease theriskofinjuryordeath. Asmentionedabove,inadequatetrainingisbeginningtobeidentifiedasthe precursorofproblemsforUSpolicemistakenlydrawingfirearmsinsteadofTasers, althoughtheapparentremedyistoinsistthatthestungunsbemadetolookandfeel lesslikegunsasopposedtoacarefulconsiderationofthenecessityofsuchweapons atall.ThefamilyintheBagnellcasementionedabovehavespecificallyidentified inadequatetrainingintheirlawsuitagainstTaserInternational,VancouverPolice DepartmentandtheirChiefalongwithfiveindividualofficers(CanadianPress,2006). TheBagnellfamilyhasaccusedTaserInternationaloffailingtoconductadequate safetytestingofitsproductsandofpromotingtheTaserasnonlethalwhenitknew, oroughttohaveknownotherwise(CanadianPress,2006).Itremainstobeseenhow thisfactorplaysoutwithintheAustraliancontext. PerhapsofmoresignificanceistheestimatedcostoftrainingpoliceregularlyinTaser use.EachTasercartridgecostsaroundfifteenUSdollars,soforapoliceforceof around10,000tofireoneduringtrainingevenjustonceayearwouldcost$150,000US (Brown,2008).Thatcomesontopofpurchasingandmaintainingtheweapons.So

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althoughTasersmightbetheeasypolicingoption,theyarecertainlynotgoingtobe cheap. ContextofUse Asalreadymentioned,thefactofmissioncreepandthenatureandcontextof incidentsduringwhichstungunsareusedisakeypointforscholarstoobserveas TasersrolloutinAustralia.Intheabsenceofaccessiblerecordkeepingpracticesby policeregardingTaserdeployment,itisprobablygoingtobethemediaandpublic witnessestoeventsthatwillkeepusinformedabouttheseissues.Reliablerecord keepinghasbeenakeyrecommendationinseveralanalysesofTaserdeployment, capsicumsprayuseandalsoofspecificincidents,thoughweareyettoseetheextent towhichsuchrecommendationsarebroughttofruition(seeCrimeandMisconduct Commission,2005;CommissionforPublicComplaintsAgainsttheRCMP,2008). TheCrimeandMisconductCommissioninQueenslandhasalreadyprovidedcluesto thepossibleoutcomesofTaserdeployment,findingthat33%ofOCsprayincidents haveinvolvedIndigenousAustralianswhomakeupjust3%oftheoverallpopulation (CrimeandMisconductCommission,2005).TherearealsoindicationsfromtheUS thatAfricanAmericansarethetargetsofTaseruseathigherratesthanotherracial groups(TheAssociatedPress,2008).Tasersaremarketedasasaferoptionthan capsicumsprayandseveralUSpolicingorganizationsreportasharpreductionin capsicumspraydeploymentaftertheintroductionofTasers.Itisreasonableto predictthatTasersinAustraliawillresultinthereplication(andamplification)of patternsofoverpolicingalreadywelldocumented(Cunneen,2001).Community representativesandhealthprofessionalsintheNorthernTerritoryarealready expressingconcernaboutthelikelihoodthatAboriginalAustralianswillpotentially haveseverelyadversehealthreactionstoTaseruseduetoalreadypoorhealth standards(Authorunknown,2008b).Thereareclearlygroundsforconcernabout Tasersasgeneralissueweaponsinacountrywithahistoryofunequaland

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confrontationalpolicingtactics(Cunneen,2001;McCulloch,2001).Thesepatterns andmethodsoughttobeacknowledgedandcorrectedratherthanignoredand repeated. AlsoofconcernisthepotentialforTaseruseduringincidentsinvolvingthementally ill.TherearecountlessexamplesintheUSmediaofpsychoticandseverelydrug affectedindividualssufferingadversereactionsafterbeingtasered.Manyofthose whohavediedfollowingsublethalweaponusehavebeendrugaffected,orhavea diagnosedmentalillness(Amnesty,2007).Suchindividualssometimesposeadanger tothemselves,butnotalwaystoothers,andsothejustificationofusingasublethal weapontocontainthesituationiffarfromclearcut.AMelbournemandiedafter beingsprayedwithcapsicumspray(reportedlytopreventhimfromstabbinghimself) atthetimeofwriting(Authorunknown,2008c).Theissueofdeescalationof situationsinvolvingmentallyillpeopleisobscuredincurrentdebatesabouta conditionknownasexciteddelirium,whichalthoughitdoesnotappearinthe DiagnosticandStatisticalManualofMentalDisorders,isroutinelytoutedasthe actualcauseofmanydeathsthatfollowstungunuse.Thisconundrumisthecurrent focusofthisauthorsresearchandwillformthebasisofongoingwork.Nonetheless, policingstrategiesthatgivedueregardtohumanrightsconsiderationswould presumablyseektocontrolcriticalincidentsinvolvingthementallyill(especially)in waysthatstrivetoavoidfataloutcomesratherthanwhatappearsatpresenttobe ratherriskytacticsinvolvingthedeploymentofelectricalcurrents. PotentialforAccountabilitythroughNewTechnology Despitetheproblemsofaccountabilitymentionedabove,therearewaysinwhich technologicaladvancementmayassistincontrollingTaserusebypolice.Arecent legalsettlementinUtah,USAinvolvedamanawarded$40,000USafterhispassive resistanceofaHighwayPatrolOfficerresultedinhimbeingtaseredtwice(Bergreen, 2008).ThevideofootagetakenfromthepatrolcarwaspostedonYouTubetwo

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monthsaftertheevent,andhashadinexcessof1.7millionhits.Aninvestigationwas launchedwithintwoweeksofthepostingandsettlementsubsequentlyreached (Nizza,2008).TheaforementionedCanadianInquirywasalsopromptedlargelyby thepostingofphonecamerafootageonYouTubebyawitness.Thisindicatesthe powerofa(nowenhanced)courtofpublicopiniontobringaboutpreviouslyunseen levelsofscrutinyofpolicebehaviour.Thisgivessomehoperegardingthepublic regulationofsublethalweaponsuse. AnotherpositiveisthatnewerTasermodelsarepotentiallyeasiertoregulate,asthey areequippedwithmicrochipswiththecapacitytologthedate,timeanddurationof usage.Suchdataisregularlyreliedupontoassesspolicerecallofeventswhencalled toaccountfortheiractions,thoughitisnotyetclearhowreliableormanipulatable thisdatamightbe.AfurtherinnovationistheTasercam,whichisacamera mountedontheTaserbattery.Itrecordsupto90minutesofaudioandvideoonce theTaseristurnedon,andfunctionsinlowlight(Dondoneau,2008).Sofar,lessthan tenUScitypoliceorganizationshaveadoptedthecameras,butaslitigationagainst policeincreasestheirusemayrise.Whilemighthelpensurethatpoliceremain accountablefortheiruseofstunguns,theyhavenotbeenadoptedbythemajorityof AustralianpoliceusingTasers(withtheexceptionofNSW).Budgetaryconstraints maywellberesponsibleforthisasthecostoftheenhancedmodelisgreater.While thismightexplainwhytheyhavenotbeenembraced,itisalsorevealssomething abouttheemphasisplacedonaccountabilityforuseofforceacrossjurisdictions. PoliceChiefBoisseCorreaofHonolulu(whereTaserswithcamerashaverecently beenadopted)hasbeenquotedassaying,Itscostly,butitsworthit(Dondoneau, 2008).Perhaps,onceapotentialforabuseormisusehasbeenestablished,the enhancedmodelsmaybecomethepreferredoption.IfTasersaretobebroadly embraced,thiswouldbeawelcomestep. TherearecleargroundsforconcernaboutsublethalweaponuseinAustralia.Inthis briefcommentIhavebeenabletopresentonlythetipoftheiceberganditislikelyto

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bethecasethattheensuingdecadewillbringmoredeathsincustody,asaresultof theoverpolicingofcertaingroupsandthebroadeningofthecapacityofpoliceto restraincitizensthroughuseofforce.Thoughmanypoliceandtheirunion representativesmightbeenthusiasticabouttheintroductionofTasers,other observersarewellfoundedintheircautionaryapproach.Itwouldbefarbetterfor policetowaitfordefinitivedataonthisissuethantorushinblindly,onlytoregret beingheldtoaccountlater.Tasersarecertainlyyettoearntheirstripesbeforebeing acceptednonlethalandsuggestionsthattheirintroductionissupportedbyan abilitytoreducedeathsandinjuriesatthehandsofpoliceshouldcertainlybe regardedwithcaution.Itseemsreasonabletopredictthatitwillbethemannerof theiruseratherthanthesimplefactthatwillraiseproblemsinthefuture.

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References AlexanderA2000DirtyHarryandDirtyHandsinCoady,T.,James,S.,Miller.And OKeefe,M.(eds)ViolenceandPoliceCulture,MelbourneUniversityPress:Carlton South AmnestyInternational2007AmnestyInternationalreleasesbriefonU.S. tasershttp://action.amnesty.org.au/news/comments/4439/accessed07March2008 Anderson,P2008TopcopurgesOKforstungunsTheHeraldSun,31/1/08 Authorunknown2007Wis.OfficeraccidentallyTasershimself http://www.mysuncoast.com/Global/story.asp?s=7352280accessed08March2008 Authorunknown2008ManSuesPDAfterOfficerGetsHisGunandTaserMixedUp http://www.shortnews.com/start.cfm?id=68802accessed11March2008 Authorunknown2008bTaserscouldkillAborigines:healthbody http://www.news.com.au/perthnow/story/0,21598,23193217948,00.htmlaccessed13 March2008 Authorunknown2008cMandiesafterpoliceusecapsicumspray http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/03/13/2188881.htm?site=melbourne accessed13March2008 BarwickA2008TaserstungunsonthestreetsofAlice http://www.abc.net.au/alicesprings/stories/s2159749.htmaccessed28February2008

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BennetA2007Investigationdentstaserdeathlink http://www.forster.yourguide.com.au/articles/1151819.html?src=topstoriesaccessed 28February2008 BergreenJ2008SpeederTaseredbytrooperonYouTubevideogets$40,000from statehttp://www.sltrib.com/news/ci_8529728accessed11March2008 BierJ2003MaderasuesTasermaker:City,officercontendpoortrainingforstun devicecontributedtogundeath.http://www.fresnobee.com/local/story/7208680p 8136998c.htmlaccessed06March2008 BobbMBargeM&NaguibC2007ABadNightatPowellLibrary:TheEventsof November14,2006PoliceAssessmentResourceCenterLosAngeles BrownT200810GuidelinesfortheuseofTASERSinaSimulatedTraining Environmenthttp://www.hitechcj.com/id205.htmlaccessed11March2008 CanadianPress2006DeadmansfamilysuespoliceandTasercompany http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20060623/bagnell_taser_060 623/20060623?hub=Canadaaccessed12March2008 ChevignyP1995EdgeoftheKnife:PoliceViolenceintheAmericasTheNewPress NewYork CommissionforPublicComplaintsAgainstRCMPFinalReportconcerningRCMPUse oftheConductedEnergyWeaponhttp://www.cpc cpp.gc.ca/DefaultSite/Investigations/index_e.aspx?ArticleID=1692accessed16July 2008 CrimeandMisconductCommission2005OCSpray:Oleoresincapsicum(OC)spray usebyQueenslandpoliceCrimeandMisconductCommissionBrisbane

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CrimeandMisconductCommission2008FactsaboutTasers http://www.cmc.qld.gov.au/data/portal/00000005/content/10539001201848677972.p dfaccessed03March2008 CunneenC2001Conflict,PoliticsandCrime:AboriginalCommunitiesandthePolice AllenandUnwinNewSouthWales DondoneauD2008HPDTaserstocomewithcameras http://the.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2008/Feb/28/ln/hawaii802280351.html accessed13March2008 EliotL2007PolicetoprobedeathincustodyTheWestAustralian15/6/07 FeakinT2006NonlethalWeapons:Thecaseforandagainstregardingchildrenin CharlesW.Greenbaum,PhilipVeerman,NaomiBaconShnoor(eds)Protectionof ChildrenDuringArmedPoliticalConflict:AMultidisciplinaryPerspectiveIntersentia Oxford FreckeltonI2000LegalRegulationofthePoliceCultureofViolence:Rhetoric, RemediesandRedressinCoadyTJamesSMillerSAndOKeefeM.(eds)Violence andPoliceCultureMelbourneUniversityPressCarltonSouth GoldsmithA2000AnImpotentConceit:Law,CultureandtheRegulationofPolice ViolenceinCoadyTJamesSMillerSAndOKeefeM.(eds)ViolenceandPolice CultureMelbourneUniversityPressCarltonSouth KillianJ2007NinearrestedinprotestofIraqdecisionhttp://www.news record.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070112/NEWSREC0101/70111024accessed 10March2008

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KlockarsC1996ATheoryofExcessiveForceandItsControlinGellerWandTochH PoliceViolenceUnderstandingandControllingPoliceAbuseofForceYaleUniversity PressNewHaven KrollM2008ScienceandMedicineofTASERElectronicControlDevicesMarkKroll andAssociatesCrystalBay LawInstituteofVictoria2004LawyerswarnagainstTasergunsMediaRelease http://www.liv.asn.au/media/releases/20041112_taser.htmlaccessedApril2006 LewerNandDavisonN2006Electricalstunweapons:alternativetolethalforceora compliancetool?http://www.bradford.ac.uk/acad/nlw/accessed07March2008 LinnellG2008NSWPolicewanttaserstungunstoprotectallofficers www.news.com.au/dailytelegraph/story/0,22049,239793185006009,00.html accessed16July2008 MeehanT2008Stunninghasteonequipment http://www.news.com.au/couriermail/story/0,23739,2336890727197,00.html accessed13March2008 McCullochJ2001BlueArmy:ParamilitaryPolicinginAustraliaMelbourneUniversity PressMelbourne Nizza2008$40,000forManTaseredonYouTube http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/03/11/40000formantaseredon youtube/?hpaccessed12March2008 NBCNewsChannel2008Deputytaseredduringhorseplay

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http://www.wcbd.com/midatlantic/cbd/search.apx.contentarticlesCBD200802 250023.htmlaccessed07March2008 PittsburghIndependentMediaCenter2005Pghpolicefiretasersatrecruiting protesthttp://pittsburgh.indymedia.org/news/2005/08/19784.phpaccessed09March 2008 SkolnickJ1975JusticeWithoutTrialLawEnforcementinDemocraticSociety2nded JohnWileyandSonsIncNewYork SingerJ2008Keepfirmgriponstunguns http://www.news.com.au/heraldsun/story/0,21985,230141525000107,00.html accessed03March2008 TaskForceVictor1994PoliceShootingsaQuestionofBalanceVictorian GovernmentPrinterMelbourne TheAssociatedPress2008Report:TroopersuseTasersmoreoftenonAfrican Americanshttp://www.thestate.com/statewire/story/356711.htmlaccessed27March 2008 VilkeGn.d.UseofForceContinuum:MedicalAspectsat http://www.cops.usdoj.gov/files/ric/Publications/vilke.pdfaccessed09March2008 WilsonD2006TheBeatPolicingaVictorianCityCircaBeaconsfield WrayM2008Claimcopusedtaseronmantoshuthimup http://www.news.com.au/couriermail/story/0,23739,232364303102,00.htmlaccessed 13March2008

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WrightS2002FutureSublethal,Incapacitating&ParalysingTechnologiesadraft paperpresentedtotheExpertSeminaronSecurityEquipmentandthePreventionof Torture

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Prisoners,WorkandReciprocalReintegration
RobWhite SchoolofSociologyandSocialWork UniversityofTasmania R.D.White@utas.edu.au GarryCoventry CriminologyProgram JamesCookUniversity garry.coventry@jcu.edu.au Introduction OnMarch20,2006theCategory5CycloneLarryravagedtheInnisfailand surroundingAthertonTablelandstownshipsinFarNorthQueensland.Propertyand agriculturalcropdestructionwaswidespread.Withinaday,thearmy,policeand emergencyserviceswereontheground.Notlongafter,prisonersfromCapricornia, DarlingDowns,LotusGlenandTownsvillecorrectionalcentreswerealsointhearea toassistwiththevitalcleanupefforts. Learningfromtheexperienceoftheseprisoners,thispaperdiscussesthepositive possibilitiesforrehabilitationandreintegrationintocommunitiesthatstemfrom prisonersengaginginworkthatismeaningfultothemandofimportanceto communities.Thefocusofthispaperisprisoners,workandsocialobligation,andthe waysinwhichtheseintertwine.Wewanttoarguethatgiventhesocioeconomic backgroundofmostprisoners,thereareassociatedsocialobligationsforsocietyto addressthisdisadvantage.Secondly,weassertthatthereareindividualandsocial benefitsfromdoingsomethinganddoingsomethingpositiveasaprisoner.Thirdly, wepointtothechallengeofworkingwithoffendersinwaysthatallowoffendersto

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work,andtherebytocontributetopersonalgrowthandcommunitybuilding.Overall, ourargumentscentreonreciprocalreintegrationstrategiesbetweencorrectionsand localcommunitiesbenefittingbothprisonersandcommunitywellbeing. Thepaperbeginsbybrieflyconsideringthesocioeconomiccircumstancesofthevast majorityofoffenders,andthevariousrolesoftheprisoninrelationtothesegroups. Thisisfollowedbyconsiderationofthenatureandpossibilitiesofprisonerwork.The paperconcludeswithabriefsurveyofnewdevelopmentsinrehabilitationandwhere ,andhow,prisonerlabourmightfitintoplanningforfreedom.Wemeanherethe releaseofprisonersfromtheshacklesofthedisciplinaryregimeoftheprison(see Foucault,1995).Fundamentally,wearguethatreintegrationofprisonersisa reciprocalprocess,involvingbothsociety(largelythroughlocalcommunities)and prisonersgivingtoothersinaconstructiveandactivefashion. SocioeconomicStatus,OffendingandImprisonment Thereisconsiderableevidenceofastronglinkbetweensocioeconomicstatusand streetcrime(seeforexample,Vinson,2004;Michalowski&Carlson,1999;Fajnzylber, Lederman&Loayza,2002).Offendingbehaviouronthepartofworkingclass offendersisshapedbyaseriesofinterrelatedfactors(White,2008).Theseinclude: structuralfactorssuchastheoverallstateoftheeconomy,levelsof unemploymentgenerally,welfareprovisionandsoon,andhowthe dynamicsofthelabourmarketarereflectedinthewarehousingcapacities oftheprison; situationalfactorsrelatingtothepersonalcharacteristicsofoffenders relativetotheiropportunitiesinthecompetitionforjobs,andhow marginalisationandtheattractionsofthecriminaleconomycontributeto offending;and

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factorsrelatingtosocialdisorganisation,asmanifestatfamilyand communitylevels,asforexamplewhentheintergenerationaleffectsofthe unemploymentcriminalitynexustranslatesintolessknowledgeabout ordinaryworkandconcentrationsofsimilarlydisadvantagedpeopleinthe samegeographicalarea. Thesefactorsconvergeintovariousclustersofneedandbehaviouralpatterns,which canincludeentrencheddependencyonthestate,ontheprisonandondrugs/alcohol misuse.Consider,forexample,therelationshipbetweeninvolvementindrugsand engagementincriminalandantisocialbehaviour.Weknowthatillicitdruguseis highamongstpolicedetainees.Table1providessomeindicationofwhichcomesfirst, bygender,whenitcomestootherkindsofoffendingand/ordruguse. Table1: SequenceofDrugUseamongOffenders Male Female 34%

Offending First Concurrent DrugUse First

54%

29%

31%

17%

35%

[Source:AIC,CrimeFactsNo.90,1February2005] Basically,Table1indicatesthatdrughabitsmaybelinkedtocrimesdesignedtogain moneyfordrugs;orengagementincrimemayleadtoincreasedsubstanceuse;or thatthosewhotakedrugsandthosewhoengageincrimehavecommon characteristics.

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Asecondandcrucialissue,especiallyforcriminaljusticeofficialssuchasthepolice,is thattheeffectsofdrugs,legal(e.g.,alcohol)andillegal(e.g.ice),mayreduce inhibitionsandsoincreaserisktakingbehaviour,especiallyviolence.Thiscaninvolve behaviourssuchasverbalabuse,creatingapublicdisturbance,stealingordamaging property,andphysicalabuse.Indeed,therecentlyformedNationalAllianceAgainst AlcoholRelatedViolenceestimatesthat1in5peopleareaffectedbyalcoholrelated violencealonein2008. Thenatureoftheclientelethemselvesillustratesthecomplexityofissues,andthe strongassociationbetweensocialdisadvantageandoffendingbehaviour.Data collectedaboutpolicedetainees,forexample,illustratethispoint.Tables2and3 indicatetheratherhugeproblemofcomorbidityamongthosepresentingtothe criminaljusticesystem.Forinstance,psychiatricwellbeingisintertwinedwithdrug use,andtheseinturnarelinkedtoissuesofaccommodationandincome. Table2: PoliceDetainees 19992006 Homeless NonHomeless IllicitDependent 53% 19% 31% 36% 12% 15% 63% 20%

AlcoholDependent Psychiatric

Income(welfare) Income(illegal)

84% 38%

[Source:AIC,CrimeFactsNo.168,15April2008]

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Table3: PsychologicalDistress&Alcohol/Drug DependencyamongPoliceDetainees PsychStress Low Moderate High VeryHigh 14% 18% 27% 41% 12% 19% 10% 17% 28% 45% Alcohol Drugs Both

29% 41%

[Source:AIC,CrimeFactsNo.102,19July2005] Inanutshell,theissuesarisingfromthedrugs/crimenexusincludethefactthatpoly druguseisprevalentamongthosemostdeeplyembeddedinthecriminaljustice system.Theextentandnatureofdruguseisprofoundlysociallypatterned,withthe mostpublicandharmfulusesassociatedwithlowsocioeconomicbackgroundand thosewithfewsocialresources.Again,itneedstobeemphasisedthatharmfuland problemdruguseisintrinsicallytiedintoissuesofcomorbiditythatis,the overlappingproblemsofhomelessness,abuse,familydifficulties,mentalillnessand deterioratingphysicalhealth.Thismeansthatanyprisonerprogrammustbeoriented towardprovisionofsocietalresourcesforoffenders,aswellaswhatprisonerscando tohelpthemselves.Weshallreturntotheseconsiderationsintheconcludingsection ofthepaper. Whilespecificissuesandclustersofneedareincreasinglybeingrespondedtovia variousformsofdiversion(notfromthesystem,buttoalternativeprogramswithin it)andtherapeuticjurisprudence(wherethelawitselffunctionsastherapistto addressunderlyingproblems),theprisoncontinuestobeaninstitutionthatisholding anincreasingnumberoftheseoffenders(AustralianBureauofStatistics,2008).This

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tendencytowarduseofincarcerationiswidespreadthroughouttheworld(Walmsley, 2007). ThePrisonandPrisonLabour Dependinguponthejurisdiction,theprisoniseitherusedasawarehouseora workhouse.Inthefirstinstance,theprisonsimplyactsasacontainerforsocietys presumedenemies.Thesereputedenemiesarevariousbutthevastmajorityof inmatesinourprisonsarevictimsof,superfluoustoorrepresentthreatstothe nation'seconomy(Irwin,2007).Thewarehousemodel,asevidencedbysupermax facilitiesintheUnitedStates,paylittletonoattentiontoworkasastatus enhancementapproachforprisonerrehabilitationandreintegration. Storiesabouttheprisonareusuallybadnews.Prisonisaboutincapacitationaplace toputbadorunproductivepeople.Prisonsarealsoplacestoputbadand unproductivepeopletowork.Asaworkhouse,thefunctionoftheprisonistodeal withpeoplewhohavenotbeenengagedinlegitimateworkpriortoimprisonment. Inthisinstance,prisonersaresometimesforcedtoundertakeworkinaregime designedtoinstildisciplineintimeandplaceterms(seeFoucault,1995).Inthissense, prisonlabouritselfisbasicallyarepressivemechanismofcontrolandpunishment. Thewarehousethatisaworkhousecanbeaplaceofpain.Thepunitivenatureof incarcerationispartandparcelofthemandateoftheprisontopunishandconstrain. Tous,thechaingangmentalityofsomeUSprisonschemesisaboutstrippinghuman dignityandusingdemeaningworkasameansofhumiliation.Work,inthiscontext,is integraltopunishment(ratherthantorehabilitationorreparation)andisintendedto inflictpainofsomesort(bothemotionalandphysical).Demeaningworkisalso symptomaticofalackofinnovationonthepartofcorrectiveservicesinforming partnershipswithexternalorganizationsthatmightprovidemoreinnovativeprison

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industries.Itisapunitive,viciousandlazyresponsetocomplexandentrenchedsocial problems. Whilelesspunitive,othertypesofprisonworkofteninvolveworkteamsundertaking negativework,suchasmenialwork,dirtyworkandworkthatnobodyelsewantsto do.Ironically,suchworkfrequentlymirrorstheworkexperiencesandemployment prospectsofprisonerswhentheyareontheoutside.Eventhesekindsofworkcanbe ofadvantagetoprisoners,however,withmanyjurisdictionsintheU.S.exchanging goodtimeworkcreditstoeaseoffsentencetime. SuchlargequestionsabouttheuseorvalueofprisonerworkareevidentinAustralia (White,1999).Whilemuchworkassignmentscouldbeconsideredtobeofanegative kind,thereareothertypesofwork,arguablyofamoreconstructivetype,including: In1985,forexample,prisonersfromRisdonPrisoninTasmaniasuppliedmealson wheelstopensioners,andconstructedoutdoorsettingsforchildren(Evans,2004:71). In2008,theDepartmentofCorrectiveServicesinWesternAustraliacelebratedthe 10thanniversaryofworkcampsinthatstate(WADepartmentofCorrectiveServices, 2008).Theexpresspurposeoftheworkcampsistofosterreparationand rehabilitation,providingprisonerswiththeopportunitytogetinvolvedinmeaningful workinacommunityenvironment,repayadebttosociety,developvocationaland personalskills,andforthoseprisonersnearingtheendoftheirsentence,increase constructionofwalkingtrails; constructionofchildren'splaygroundsandpublicbridges; vegetableharvesting; paintingandundertakingminorrepairstoanagedcarefacility; themaintenanceofcemeteriesandpublicparks; restorationofrailwaytracks;and removalofgraffiti

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theirchancesofmakingasuccessfultransitionfromprisontothecommunityon release(WADepartmentofCorrectiveServices,2008:13). Theroleandplaceofworkis,wewouldargue,acentralquestionwhenitcomesto considerationofissuessuchascommunityreintegrationandrehabilitation.Arethe abovementionedtypesofworkastepintherightdirection?Yes,webelieveso,in thattheyrepresentwaysinwhichcommunitiescanbeimprovedandofferthe potentialfortheenrichmentofprisonerslives.However,weneedtogofurtherin criticalthinkingaboutthereciprocityofinteractionswithprisonersandlocal communitiesinwaysthatenrichboth.Thisisanessentialelementofbeingprepared tobefreefromtheprison. PrisonerWork Thereareseveralargumentsthatsupporttheprovisionofpositiveformsofworkfor prisoners.Forexample,itcanreduceviolencebyaddressingboredomandidleness.It canprovideanopportunitytodevelopworkskills,workhabits,selfesteemand preparationforcommunityreintegration.Forthetaxpayer,itcanprovidebenefits suchasreducingthecostsofincarceration,beusedtohelptosupportprisoner familiesandcontributetostatetaxationrevenuesdependinguponthenatureofthe work.Thereareneverthelessimportantinstitutionalissuesassociatedwithprison labour,suchasworkerscompensationclaims;callsforincreasedwages,statutory rightsunderlabourlawsandenhancementofpublicsafetyworkingconditions;and lackofequipmentandoperationofequipment.And,ofcourse,thepotential exploitationofanunskilledpoolofprisonersisaperennialissueofconcerntobe watched(seeCoventryandWesterhuis,2009;White,1999forfurtherdetails). Weviewworkasanessentialpartofpreparationforfreedom.Almostallprisonersare releasedfromcustodyatsometime.Manydonotfarewellintheearlyphasesoftheir reentryintovariouscommunities.Mostareatsomestagerearrested,triedandsent

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backintocustody.Recidivismisveryhighamongstourprisonpopulation (ProductivityCommission,2007;Callan&Gardiner,2007). Inlightofthis,wearguethattherearebenefitsforprisonerstobedoingsomething constructiveandpositive,andforprisonerstobeexercisingactiveagency,beforethey arereleasedfromprison.Weseethisasimportanttothehumanconditiongenerally, thatincludesthingssuchasasenseofbelonging,asenseofmeaning,asenseof competence,asenseofusefulness,asenseofpsychologicalsecurity,asenseof financialsecurityandasenseofthefuture(seePolkandKobrin,1972,foranearlier discussionofsuchqualityoflifeprinciples). Inspecificcriminaljusticeterms,workcanbeviewedasservingthreeimportantsocial goals: Reintegration Preparationforreleasebyestablishingsocial/familybonds Lowerratesofrecidivism,especiallyforlowriskprisonersonplacement

Humanitarianism Workreleasemaysoftentheincarceration'experience' Allowsprisonerstogainsomeattachmenttosociety

ExpandingOpportunities Positiveworkcanprovideinmateswithanimportantsenseofnormality,self esteem,andprideinajobwelldone. InanexaminationoftherolethatprisonersplayedinrespondingtoCycloneLarry,it wasfoundthat,infact,cycloneworkworks(seeCoventryandWesterhuis,2009).The Opportunitiesforexcitementthethrillofdiscovery Opportunitiesforcreativitythethrillofinvention

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prisonerswhovolunteeredtoparticipateintheextendedcleanupphasefollowing thecycloneworkedhardattheirtasks.Whodidwhatisinteresting: 35prisoners(almost70%Indigenous)fromTownsvilleCorrectionalCentre attendedcampsatMalandaandInnisfail; asofearlyMay2006,1500personworkhourswereundertakenbythese prisoner; participationwasvoluntaryandwasrestrictedtothoseservingthetailend oftheirsentencesattheprisonfarmofTownsvilleCorrectionalCentre; someprisonersweredeemedtobeineligible(e.g.sexoffenders,violent offenders); workincludedpullingdownsheds,removingtreesofffencelines,cutting trees,stackingroofingtinandrepairingfences. Manyoftheprisonerswereinterviewedabouttheirexperiences(Coventryand Westerhuis,2009).Typicaloftheresponseswerethefollowing: We[prisoners]getlittlepraise,likethoseontheGoodMorningShows[sic] flyingthemupherebutweCHOSEtocomeoutandwork(Prisoner1) [thefarmers]treatuslikenormalhumanbeings(Prisoner3) 4050(approx)farmerspropertieswereattended;and prisonersworked6hourdays,67daysperweek;

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givingthemahand,feelinggood(Prisoner5)

didnttreatuslikeprisoners(Prisoner4)

Bygoingoutwearepayingback,notjustthetaxpayerswedontdoit shoddy(Prisoner5)

AtInnisfail,theyhadalotofpride,theybusttheirguts.Youdontneedtodo thatwhileyouareinjail(Prisoner4) [theworkprogram]helpsreintegrationintothecommunity,andmakesjail timeeasier(Prisoner5) Suchpositiveresponsesfromprisonersthemselvesreaffirmforustheimportanceof worktothereentryprocessuponprisonrelease.CoventryandWesterhuis(2009)tap intotheemotionalsideofthereintegrative/rehabilitativeprocess,consistentwith notionsaboutthequalityofliferequiredbyall,notjustprisonersreentering communities.Thisrelativelysmallgroup(almostallofwhomhavesincebeen released)wereproudoftheirwork,feltstronglythattheypositivelycontributedtoan areaincrisisafteranaturaldisasteranddevelopedasenseofbelongingwiththe AthertonTablelands.Fordairyfarmers,theirworkthwartedthelossofherdsto mastitisandtheensuingfinancialdevastationofsuchherdlosses.Forprisoners,the experiencesopenedthedoortotheoutsideworldandhowtheymightconnecttoit. WorkingintheCycloneLarrycleanupwasabouttheexertionoflabourpower,some skilldevelopmentandtheopportunitytoplayaconstructiveandmeaningfulrolein contributingtothecommunitynotriteoutcomes.

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RehabilitationandReentry Therehabilitationagendaisnowbeingrevisitedinavarietyofnewframeworksthat frequentlysharesimilarinterventionprinciples.Thisisevidentatatheoreticaland therapeuticlevelbythosewhostresspositiveratherthannegativeinterventions preparationforfreedom,goodlives,socialrecognition,restorativejustice.Itisalso demonstratedatapoliticallevelbythoseconcernedwiththesheernumberofpeople reenteringthemainstreamandtherealityofrecidivismsystemcontradictionsand thefinancialandsocialcostsofrepression.Howtostoppeoplefromreoffendingis becomingincreasinglyimportant. Dealingwithclientswithmanifestanddiverseclustersofneedsiscertainly challengingtoallconcerned.Manywithinthecriminaljusticeandalliedfieldswould befamiliarwiththeRiskNeedsResponsivityModelofintervention(Bonta& Andrews,2007).TheRNRModelconsistsofthreekeycomponents: Theneedprinciple:theassumptionisthatthemosteffectiveandethical approachtothetreatmentofoffendersistotargetdynamicriskfactors. Theriskprinciple:theassumptionthatthetreatmentofoffendersoughtto beorganisedaccordingtothelevelofrisktheyposetosocietythehigher thelevelofriskthegreaterthedosageorintensityoftreatmentshouldbe. Theresponsivityprinciple:theassumptionthatwematchthedeliveryof correctionalinterventionstocertaincharacteristicsofparticipations,suchas motivation,learningstyleandethnicidentity. However,theRNRModelisinsufficienttoreallytacklethecoreissuesof rehabilitation.Supplementaryworkhasthusattemptedtobuilduponitandtoadd furtherelementstowhatconstitutesgoodpracticeinrehabilitation.

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Fromwithinthesphereofcriminologyandcriminaljustice,therejuvenationof traditionalconceptssuchasrestoration,reparation,rehabilitationandrecognition hasmajorimplicationsforhowpractitionersandtheoristsrespondtoissuesrelating topunishment,treatmentandgeneralresponsestooffendingandoffenders. Forinstance,itisimportanttoacknowledgethedynamicinterplayofstructureand agencyofhowpersonalchoicesandpersonalvaluesaremadeandexperienced withintheconfinesofcertainexternalmaterialconstraints.Socialinterventionhasto addressthoseinternalandexternalfactorsthatimpingeuponpeoplessenseofself andtheirplaceintheworld.Byfocusingonselfempowermentandself determinationthroughcapacitydevelopment,modelsofinterventionbaseduponthe notionofpositivestrengthsoperateontheassumptionthatincreasesinthepositives willnaturallyresultindecreasesinthenegatives,forexample,desistancefrom offending.Thisnewoldthinkingaboutrehabilitationandreintegrationispremised uponahighdegreeofclientparticipation,clientchoicesandclientengagement.It alsohighlightstheessentialneedforcollaborationandforaconstellationofservices acrosstheboardfordiverseinterventions. Snapshotsofrecentthinkingvisvisrehabilitationandreintegrationwithincriminal justiceinclude: TheGoodLivesModel Allhumanbeingsarenaturallyinclinedtoseekcertaintypesofexperienceorhuman good,andtheyexperiencehighlevelsofwellbeingifthesegoodsareobtained. Offendersareessentiallyhumanbeingswithsimilarneedsandaspirationstonon offendingmembersofthecommunity.Criminalactionsarethoughttoarisewhen individualslacktheinternalandexternalresourcestoattaintheirgoalsinaprosocial way.TheGLMisanapproachbasedonthepursuitofabetterlife,waysoflivingthat areconstructedaroundcorevalues,andconcretemeansofrealisingtheirgoalsin

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certainenvironments(Ward&Maruna,2007).Inorderforindividualstodesistfrom offendingtheyshouldbegiventheknowledge,skills,opportunitiesandresourcesto liveagoodlife,whichtakesintoaccounttheirparticularpreferences,interestsand values.Inshort,treatmentshouldprovidethemwithachancetobebetterpeople withbetterlives. TheSocialRecognitionApproach Socialrecognitionisvitalforyoungpeopletogainasenseofachievementandsocial belongingastheymovethroughthechildhoodandteenageyears(Barry,2006).The familyoforiginandoneslocalcommunityprovidestheplatformuponwhichcapital accumulationgrowsanddevelops.Inotherwords,resourcesandrecognitionof varyingkindssteminthefirstinstancefromwhatthefamilyandfriendscanprovide. Issuesofpoverty,unemployment,lackofincome,homelessnessandsoonare relevanthere.Butitistheexpenditureofaccumulatedcapitalthatbringstherewards ofindividualgratificationandsocialstability.Examplesofthisincludesuchthingsas makingyourowndecisions,buyingyourownclothes,engaginginvolunteerwork, andgenerallyencouragingandhelpingothers.Socialrecognitionandselfesteem, generally,arebuiltthroughexpenditureofcapital(doingsomethingforoneselfand forsomeoneelse). RestorativeJustice Inmanycasesofrestorativejustice,thereisanemphasisonactiveagency(Cunneen &White,2007).Thisreferstotheideathatpeoplearetobehelddirectlyaccountable insomeway,andthattheyaremeanttodothings,themselves,ratherthansimply beingpassiveactorsinthecriminaljusticesystem.Importantly,whentheyengagein doingsomething(e.g.,paintingafence),thisisgenerallyconstructedasbeingtothe benefitofsomebodyelse(e.g.,avictimofgraffiti).Restorativejusticethusinvolves actsofgiving(onthepartoftheoffender),aswellasactsofforgiving(onthepartof

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victims).Theoffendingactmaybecondemned,andrespectfortheoffender maintained,butoffendersarenonethelessexpectedtorepairtheharmstheyhave caused. TowardReciprocalReintegration Whilesomeofthemorerecentrehabilitationandreintegrationapproaches emphasisetheactiveagencyofprisonersinthereentryprocess,thenatureof offendinganditssocialcircumstancesdemandsaframeworkthatprovidesfor reciprocalreintegration.Inotherwords,communitylevelinterventionisrequiredto addressthestructuralunderpinningsofmuchstreetcrimeandantisocialbehaviour. Forexample,thepenaltiesofsocialexclusionincludehavingtodealwithsocial stigmaandeconomicmarginalisation,bothofwhichdemandmaterialandsymbolic rectificationaspartoftheprocessesofsocialjustice. Whileoffendersareinmanycasesnotsociallyresponsiblefortheiractions,they neverthelessbearamoralresponsibilityfortheharmstheycause.Thisdualityof responsibilityhascertainpracticalimplications. First,itmeansthatoffenderrehabilitationisasocietalimperative,giventhepersonal backgroundandsocialdisadvantagesofmoststreetorworkingclassoffenders.As such,rehabilitationdemandsthatsignificantcommunityresourcesbeputinto changingthelifecircumstancesandsocialopportunitiesofoffenders.Societyhasto givesomethingtotheoffenderinorderforthatindividualtomovebeyondoffending. Secondly,responsibilityofamoralkindrequiresthatindividualoffendersshouldhave aninterestinmakingthingsright,inrepairingtheharm,inaddressingthewrongswhich theyhaveperpetrated.Rehabilitationinthiscontextthusdemandssomethingfrom theoffenderthemselves,aswellasfromthoseinthecommunityaroundthem.The

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offenderhastogivesomethingtosocietytosomeoneelseifredemptionandthe creationofanewlifearetobepossible. Contemporarydiscussionsofrehabilitation,desistanceandrestorationareconstrued asbeingmainlyaboutcapacitybuildingratherthanpersonaldeficits.Thepointof interventionistoachievearesultwherebytheoffenderwillbeseenasacommunity assetratherthanaliability: Thecapacityorcapabilityaspectofrehabilitationdirectlyinvolvesproviding individualswiththeinternalandexternalconditionsnecessarytoattainvalued outcomesinwaysthatmatchtheirabilities,preferencesandenvironments. Internalconditionsrefertopsychologicalcharacteristicssuchasskills,beliefs andattitudes,whileexternalconditionsrefertosocialresources,opportunities andsupports(Ward&Maruna,2007:174). Hencethegoalofinterventionwithintheseframeworksistodisplaythetalentsand skillsoftheoffenderinausefulandvisiblerole,allowingthepersontoexercisea greaterdegreeofindividualagency. Thesocialrecognitiontheory,thegoodlivesperspective,andtherestorative justiceapproachallacknowledgethedynamicinterplayofstructureandagencyof howpersonalchoicesandpersonalvaluesaremadeandexperiencedwithinthe confinesofcertainexternalmaterialconstraints.Foryoungpeopleespecially,social interventionbasedupontheseapproacheshastotakeseriouslythenarrative accountsofthejuvenileoffendersthemselves.Theyalsohavetoaddressthose internalandexternalfactorsthatimpingeuponyoungpeoplessenseofselfandtheir placeintheworld. Byfocusingonselfempowermentandselfdeterminationthroughcapacity development,modelsofinterventionbaseduponthenotionofpositivestrengths

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operateontheassumptionthatincreasesinthepositiveswillnaturallyresultin decreasesinthenegatives,forexample,desistancefromoffending.Wewouldargue thatopportunitiestogive,andinsomecasesactuallylearningtogive,isanimportant stepinoffenderrehabilitation.Thisrequiresdevelopmentofspacesinwhichthis mightoccurasinthecase,forexample,ofprisoneducationmentorschemes,or volunteerworkbrigadesthatassistwithdisasterreliefefforts(suchasrespondingto cyclonedamageinfarnorthQueensland). Thechallenge,therefore,istoacknowledgethatinstitutionalsupportsareneededfor workingwithoffendersinwaysthatallowthemtoworkandtherebytocontributeto society.Reciprocalreintegrationmeansthatthegivinghastobeonbothsidesofthe offendercommunityrelationship.Weneedtoreconfigureprisonworkasan opportunitytobesomeoneofworthandvalue.Thatworkshouldalsobearsome relationtothetaskofcommunitybuilding.Inthiswayweextendtheminimalvalueof theworkhousefromthegrantingofgoodtimefornegativeworktoa reconceptualisedandintegratedcorrectionalapproach,wherebysuccessful reintegrationiscouchedintermsofopportunitiesforimportantworkthatdevelops skillstocounterworkforcemarginalisation,enrichedpersonalidentity,enhanced qualityoflife,positiveformsofcommunitybelongingandinteractiveengagementa statusenhancementapproachtoprisonlabour.Suchanapproachwouldemphasise expansionofopportunitiesandhumanitarianvaluesofsocialjustice. Forinstance,disasterreliefhasdemonstrablebenefitsforoffendersandcommunities alike.Thebiggerquestion,however,ishowtolinktheprisonworkagendatothatof communitybuildingassuch,andnotsolelyasdisasterrelief.Wemightask,for example,candisasterreliefberedefinedtoincludeinstitutionaleffortstoovercome socialdisadvantage?Unemployment,povertyanddecliningopportunitiescontinueto directlyaffectthephysicalandpsychologicalwellbeingofpeopleinour communities.Suchsocialproblemsareentrenchedataspatiallevel,andare increasinglyconcentratedinspecificlocationswithinourcities.Thisissometimes

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referredtoasaprocessofghettoisation.Thesocialcostsofmarginalityareinevitably translatedintotheeconomiccostsofcrime.Disastrouslivesandlivingconditions equallydemandsrelief.Communitybuildingandphysicalrejuvenationof neighbourhoodsisasocialtaskthatlikewisecanbeaddressedthroughinnovative socialplanningandcreativeoffenderprograms. Manyjurisdictions,forexample,nowdemandsomekindofinvolvementin restitution,reparationorrestorativejusticeactivities,bothwhileanoffenderisin prisonandwhiletheyareonleavefromprisonoronparole.Whereappropriate,and wheresuitable,humanandmaterialresourceshavebeenputintoplace,such mechanismscanbeusefullyappliedinrelationtoprereleaseprogramsand strategies. Practicalexamplesofhowcommunitycorrectionscanbeimbuedwitharestorative ethicataconcretelevelarestillrelativelyfewandfarbetween,althoughthisis changinginsomejurisdictions.Theusualemphasisincommunitycorrectionsworkis whatcanbedonetobettersupervisetheoffender,orwhatcanbedonetoassist themtomakethetransitiontowardsbeingalawabidingcitizen(seeforexample, Nelson&Trone,2000).Restorativejusticeinvertsthisrelationshipbymakingthe offenderanactivecontributorandparticipant.Thus,intheUK,Offendersinsome programscarryoutworkfortheirowncommunities,whichcanhelpgivethe offendersasenseofsocialresponsibilityandanexperienceofsocialacceptanceand recognition(Marshall,1999:14).Seymour(2001)citesexamplesintheUSAwhere theconceptofrestorativecommunityservicehastakenhold.Relevantcommunity workhasincludedsuchthingsasyouthfuloffendersescortingAlzheimerspatients fromalocalretirementcentreandtheirfamiliesforadayattheStateFair,throughto alicensedpharmacistwhowasconvictedofforgingdrugdocumentsperforming500 hoursofcommunityserviceatthefreeclinicintheneighbourhoodinwhichhehad solddrugs.

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Importantly,communityservice,assuch,shouldnottobeequatedwithrestorative justice.Walgrave(1999)discusseshowinsomejudicialsettings,authoritiesuse communityserviceasapunishment(i.e.,intendedtoinflictpain),whileinother settingsitisinformedbyarehabilitativeobjective(asmanifestinvariousformsofre educationandtreatment).Incontrasttotheseapproaches,hearguesthat communityservicecanalsobeusedinarestorativesense,ifitismeantto compensateforharm,restorepeaceinthecommunityandcontributetosafety feelingsinsociety.Attentionwillnowbeturnedtotheharmandtherestorationof it,includingthereintegrationoftheoffender,asthisisanimportantiteminrestoring peaceinthecommunity(Walgrave,1999:140).Thistypeofcommunityservice demandsaclearappreciationofthephilosophicalfoundationsofrestorativejustice, andhowcommunitycorrectionsworkerscanachievethepotentialssuchaphilosophy appearstooffer. Aprincipledapproachtoplanningforfreedomdemandscertainpracticalsafeguards, toprotecttheinterestsofoffenders,victimsandthewidercommunity.Thismeans addressingthosebureaucratic,legalandpoliticalobstaclesthatneedtobeovercome forpositiveworkexperiences(e.g.,worktickets,arangeofcorrectionalguidelines, restrictionsontypesofoffenders,regulatoryauthorities,ACTUstances,ILO conventionsetc).Wealsohavetoensurethatundernocircumstancesshouldprison workslideintoexploitationoranewformofslavery.Opportunitiestogiveonthepart ofoffendersmustbematchedbyopportunitiestogiveonthepartofcorrectional authoritiesandthewidercommunity.

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References AustralianBureauofStatistics(2008)PrisonersinAustralia,Catalogue4517.0. Canberra:ABS. AustralianInstituteofCriminology(2005)CrimeFactsNo.90,1February2005. Canberra:AIC. AustralianInstituteofCriminology(2005)CrimeFactsNo.102,19July2005.Canberra: AIC. AustralianInstituteofCriminology(2008)CrimeFactsNo.168,15April2008. Canberra:AIC. Barry,M.(2006)YouthOffendinginTransition:TheSearchforSocialRecognition. London:Routledge. Bonta,J.&Andrews,D.(2007)RiskNeedResponsivityModelforOffender AssessmentandRehabilitation.Ottawa:PublicSafetyCanada. Callan,V.&Gardner,J.(2007)TheroleofVETinrecidivisminAustralia,inS.Dawe (ed)VocationalEducationandTrainingforAdultPrisonersandOffendersinAustralia: ResearchReadings.Adelaide:NationalCentreforVocationalEducationResearch. Coventry,G.&Westerhuis,D.(2009,forthcoming)PreparationforFreedom:Cyclone LarryandPrisonWork. Cunneen,C.&White,R.(2007)JuvenileJustice:YouthandCrimeinAustralia. Melbourne:OxfordUniversityPress.

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Evans,C.(2005)APinkPalace?:RisdonPrison,19602004.Hobart:Tasmania DepartmentofJustice. Fajnzylber,P.,Lederman,D.,&Loayza,N.(2002)InequalityandViolentCrime,The JournalofLawandEconomics,45(1):140. Foucault,M.(1995)DisciplineandPunish:TheBirthofthePrison.NewYork:Vintage Books. Irwin,J.(2007)TheWarehousePrison:DisposaloftheNewDangerousClasses. OxfordUniversityPress. Michalowski,R.&Carlson,S.(1999)Unemployment,Imprisonment,andSocial StructuresofAccumulation:HistoricalContingencyintheRuscheKirchheimer Hypothesis,Criminology,37(2):217249. Polk,K.&Kobrin,S.(1972)DelinquencyPreventionThroughYouthDevelopment. WashingtonD.C.:U.S.DepartmentofHealth,EducationandWelfare. ProductivityCommission(2007)ReportonGovernmentServices.Melbourne: ProductivityCommission. Vinson,T.(2004)CommunityAdversityandResilience:Thedistributionofsocial disadvantageinVictoriaandNewSouthWalesandthemediatingroleofsocial cohesion.Sydney:TheIgnatiusCentreforSocialPolicyandResearch. Walmsley,R.(2007)WorldPrisonPopulationList(seventhedition).London: InternationalCentreforPrisonStudies,KingsCollege.

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Ward,T.&Maruna,S.(2007)Rehabilitation:BeyondtheRiskParadigm.London: Routledge. WesternAustraliaDepartmentofCorrectiveServices(2008)10thAnniversaryofWork CampsinWesternAustralia:CommemorativeBooklet. White,R.(1999)OnPrisonLabour,CurrentIssuesinCriminalJustice,11(2):243248. White,R.(2008)Prisoners,RehabilitationandtheActofGiving.Paperpresentedat thePrisonBreakConference,SalvationArmy,Hobart,27August,2008.

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ResearchingCCTV:SecurityNetworksandtheTransformationof PublicSpace
DeanWilson CriminologyDepartment MonashUniversity Dean.Wilson@arts.monash.edu.au

ThispaperchartssomeofthedirectionsthathaveemergedinthestudyofCCTVin thepastdecade,bothwithinAustraliaandinternationally.Indoingso,myintentionis tosuggestanagendaforfutureresearchthatwilltakeaccountofthisimportant developmentinsecurityanddevelopamoresophisticatedaccountthatmoves beyondeithertheinstrumentalwhatworks?paradigmorsimplisticallycritical accountsengagingvariantsofthebigbrothercritique.InitiallyIwishtosketchsome recentdevelopmentsinthepoliticalcontextofCCTV,bothinternationallyandwithin Australia,thatIbelievemarkthisasatopicofconsiderableinteresttocriminologists. Iwillthenprovideacriticalaccountofsomeofthedominantexplanatoryframeworks thathavebeenengagedtodateinthestudyofCCTV.Indoingso,theintentionisto highlightasignificantlacunawithinAustraliancriminology.Isuggestthatour knowledgeofhowCCTVoperates,anditsbroadersocialimplications,areatpresent poorlyunderstood.WhatisrequiredisaresearchmodelthatpositionsCCTVwithina broadertheoreticalframework,whilebeingsensitivetotheimportanceoflocal organizationalcontextsandtheambiguitiesofsurveillance.Criticalscholarsneedto examinewhattheriseofvisualsurveillancemaypresageforexperiencesof citizenshipandinclusion;howtheseexperiencesofsurveillancearemediatedbythe specificlocalandnationalconditionsencounteredinAustralia,andwhatthespecific outcomesofvisualsurveillanceareindifferingcontexts.

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TheRiseandRiseofCCTV ThegrowthofCCTVinAustralianpublicspacesmirrorsbroaderglobaltrends.The mostwidespreaddiffusionofsuchCCTVisintheUK.In1999itwasestimated530 towncentrepublicsurveillanceschemeswereoperatingorscheduledfor establishmentacrosstheUnitedKingdomforwhichfundinghadbeenallocated. BritishgovernmentsupportforCCTVhasnotdeclinedundertheBlairLabour government,andnewfundingchallengeswith50millionavailablein2000and103 millionintwofutureroundswereannouncedin1999(Williamsetal2000:170). McCahillandNorris(2003)estimatedonthebasisofoneLondonboroughthatthere maybeasmanyas4.2millioncamerasintheUKor1forevery14ofthepopulation.In EuropethereisalsoanotablediffusionofCCTVinpublicareas,althoughlessuniform andpervasivethanintheUK.TheEUfundedUrbaneyeprojectdocumentedthe deploymentofCCTVacrossEurope.Somenations,suchasAustriaandDenmark, werefoundtohavenopublicspaceCCTVsystems.Othernations,however,suchas France,HungaryandIrelandweremirroringtheBritishexperiencemoreclosely (Norrisetal,2004;Urbaneye2004;Hempfel&Tpfer2002). TheparticularpoliticalcontextofBritain,notablytheabundantfundingprovidedby theUKHomeOffice,hasfacilitatedtheexpansionofCCTVinthatcountry.However thereareindicationsthatinthewakeof9/11manyothernationsarefollowingsimilar patterns.TheuseofCCTVintheUShasundergoneanoticeablesurgesince9/11 (Nietoetal,2002).LikewiseCCTVsystemsinpublicareasaredocumentedinNew Zealand,SouthAfrica,China,Japan,Israel,Iran,Russia,theCzechRepublic,Indiaand Pakistan(Norrisetal2004).Thereisthereforeanacceleratingtrendtowards deployingCCTVinpublicspaces.Thismaybeattributedtoglobaltrendsinlate modernsocieties.Increasingurbanizationhasexacerbatedtheanonymousnatureof contemporarycitiesandtowns,leadingtoconcernsoverhowidentityistobe establishedandverified(NorrisandArmstrong1999).Theincreasingcentralityofrisk managementparadigms(OMalley2004),bothwithingovernmentsandcorporations,

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isaccompaniedbyactuarialpracticesincriminaljusticesuchasopportunity reductionandsituationalpreventionofwhichCCTVisanotableexample. ThePoliticsofAustralianCCTV WhileAustraliamirrorsglobaltrendsinthedeploymentofCCTV,itiscrucialthatthe localcontextofthisglobaltrendbecriticallyassessed.DavidLyon(2004)hasnoted thatwhilesurveillancetechniquesareincreasinglyglobalized,localandregional social,politicalandculturalcontextsmediatetheexperienceofsurveillancein differentways.AninitialquestionofinterestwaswhytheexpansionofCCTVin Australiawasinitiallyrelativelymodestatleastincomparisontoitsdiffusioninthe UK.AustraliasfirstpublicareaoropenstreetCCTVsystembeganoperationin Perthin1991.Openstreetsurveillancesystemshavesubsequentlyexpandedtocover publicspacesinthecapitalcentresofAdelaide,Hobart,Sydney,Brisbaneand Melbourneandmanyregionallocations.Attheendof2002Australiahad33schemes (WilsonandSutton,2003;2004),which,whilenotinsignificant,demonstrateda considerablymorerestrainedrolloutthantheUK.AdamSuttonandmyselfhave arguedelsewhere(Sutton&Wilson2004)thatthiswaslargelyattributabletoCCTVin Australiabeingfundedatthelocalgovernmentlevel.Aconsequenceofthiswasthat CCTVwasoftenstronglycontested,mainlydueitssymbolicfreightasatough securitymeasure,viewedtobesometobeinvestedintothedetrimentofmore inclusiveprogramsofsocialcrimeprevention.Inlocalcouncilswheretherewasa strongdedicationtosocialjusticeamongstthoseresponsibleforcrimeprevention, CCTVthuscametoepitomizeanarrow,sociallyexclusivelawandordervisionof localcrimecontrol.Wealsowarned,however,thattheincreasingdistributionof fundingfromstateandfederalgovernmentcouldtipthebalanceofthesevigorous localdebatesstronglyinfavouroftheadvocatesofCCTV(Sutton&Wilson2004). Thispredictionhassubsequentlytranspired.Priorto2005stategovernmentshad alreadybecomemoredeeplyinvolvedinthefundingofCCTVthrougharangeof

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crimepreventionfundingschemes(Wilson&Sutton2004:215).Researchconducted in2005indicatedconsiderableexpansion,withnearly66schemesreportedaround Australia(IBISResearch,2005)doublingthenumberofsystemsthathadexistedin 2002(Wilson&Sutton2003).FollowingtheLondonbombingsenthusiasmforthe installationofCCTVinAustralianpublicspaceshasaccelerated.Federalpolitical enthusiasmforCCTVintensifiedin2005followingthereturnofthenPrimeMinister JohnHowardfromavisittotheUKproclaimingtheextraordinaryvalueof surveillancecameras.Suchsurveillanceboosterismwasechoedbyothermembersof theLiberalGovernmentCabinet,withAlexanderDowner,thenForeignMinister, claimingthatCCTVhadclearlyprovedtobeveryeffective(anassumptionbased onlyonthefactthatsurveillancecamerasarewidelyused)(Humphries2005,July25). SubsequentlysubstantialwerefundswereallocatedtowardstheinstallationofCCTV inlocalcommunities.On30September2005thenPrimeMinisterJohnHoward announcedanadditional$6millionoffundingthroughtheNationalCommunity CrimePreventionProgrammeadministeredbytheFederalAttorneyGenerals Department,underthespecialheadingFundingforSecurityRelatedInfrastructure IncludingClosedCircuitTelevisionSystems(AGD,6October2006).TheAttorney GeneralsDepartmentalsopreparedatipsheetonCCTV,whichpointedlyfailedto mentiontheambiguousfindingsofexistingevaluations(AGD,2006).Enthusiasm andfundingforCCTVisbeingcontinuedbytheRuddLabourGovernment,with MinisterforHomeAffairsBobDebusannouncing$5.9millionallocatedunderthe SaferSuburbsPlanforimportantcommunitysafetymeasureslikeCCTV(Debus 2008,26May).ThesedevelopmentsindicatethatthediffusionofCCTVwillcontinue apaceinthenearfuture.ItisthereforeimperativethatAustraliancriminologists developtheoreticalframeworksandaresearchagendatoexplainhowandwhyvisual surveillanceisbeingdeployed,andwhattheimplicationsofthisdeploymentare. ExplainingCCTV

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CCTVresearchismostdevelopedintheUK,understandablygiventherapid expansionofthetechnologythere.Howeverthescholarshipremainssharply bifurcatedbetweenadministrativeaccountswhatGarlandtermsthecriminologies ofeverydaylife(2001:127131)andcriticalaccountswhichsituateCCTVwithin largercontextsofpower,neoliberalcrimecontrolandspatialordering. CriminologicalliteratureonpublicCCTVwasinitiallyconcernedwiththebasic questionofwhetherCCTVledtoareductioninoffending.Nevertheless,overviewsof CCTVevaluations(Phillips1999;Welsh&Farrington2002)confirmthat,despite considerableresearchenergyexpendedinthisdirection,resultscontinuetobe ambiguous.QuantitativeandevaluativestudiesofCCTVeffectivenesscontinueto attracttheattentionofgovernmentsandsomescholars(Farrington&Painter2003; Welsh&Farrington2004).Nevertheless,theirnarrowlytechnicalfocusrendersthese studiesoflittleexplanatoryvalueforcriminologistsconcernedwiththebroadersocial andculturalramificationsofCCTV. Itiscriticalaccountsthathaveofferedfarmoreintermsofexplanatoryframeworks. However,asNorris&McCahillnote,thesehavetendedtobeconductedatavery highlevelofabstraction(2006:98).Oneofthecentralimagesengagedindiscussions ofCCTVhasbeenthatofthePanopticon,drawinguponJeremyBenthams18th centuryvisionofanarchitecturewherethepromiseofobservationwasasimportant asobservationitself.ForFoucault(1977)thePanopticonwasamodelfornew configurationsofdisciplineandpowerthatreshapedindividualsubjectivitiesthrough inculcatingabeliefintheunbridledsurveillancecapacityofthestate(Norris&Wilson 2006).Equallyasinfluential,thoughlessfrequentlydirectlycitedintheacademic literature,hasbeenthemetaphorofBigBrothertakenfromthefictionaltotalitarian regimecreatedbyGeorgeOrwellinhisnovelNineteenEightyFour.Orwellsdystopian vision,inwhichtelescreenscontinuallymonitorallactivities,hashadastrong influenceonsurveillancetheory,particularinraisingspectresofatotalsurveillance society(Norris&Wilson2006).

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ThePanopticonmetaphorhasprovenparticularlyinfluentialinthestudyofCCTV, withauthorssuchasReeve(1998)andFyfe,Bannister&Kearns(1998)seeinginCCTV thedispersalofanelectronicpanopticonacrossurbanspace.Thepanopticon metaphorisviewedasespeciallyapt,asitisnotpossibletoknowwhetherornotone isbeingmonitoredbyCCTV,facilitatinganticipatoryconformity(Norris& Armstrong1998:5).AsNorris&McCahill(2006)notehowever,othertheoristsview theemergenceofnewsurveillancetechnologiesaspresagingnovelformsofsocial controlthatmovebeyondthedisciplinarypoweroutlinedbyFoucault(1977).Some writersmaintainthatsurveillancehasmovedfromtheobservationofindividuals whoseidentitiesarealreadyknown,towardsamoregeneralizedgazeacrossspace, temporalityandcategoriesofpersons(Marx2002;Lyon2002).CCTVisthus emblematicofabroaderparadigmshiftincrimecontrol,identifiedbyFeeleyand Simon(1994)asthetransitionfromtheoldpenology(inwhichtheindividualwas identifiedforthepurposesofassigningguiltandblame,andthenimposing punishmentandtreatment)tothenewpenology(concernedwithidentifyingand managinggroupsclassifiedbylevelsofdangerousness)(Feeley&Simon1994; McCahill&Norris2002;Norris&McCahill2006).CCTVhasalsobeentheorizedas beingemblematic(ifnotconstitutive)ofanemergingprecrimesociety(Zedner 2007)inwhichactionsaretakenagainstpotentialcriminalactsbeforetheyoccur (Boyne2000;Lianos&Douglas2000). TherehavealsobeenusefulcritiquesofthepoliticalcontextofCCTV.Williamsand Johnston(2000),NorrisandArmstrong(1998;1999),Coleman&Sim(2000),Coleman (2004)andFussey(2004)situateCCTVwithinabroaderpoliticalmilieuwherethe impetusforCCTVisunderpinnedbytheriseoflawandorderpoliticsandneoliberal urbaneconomies.Mackay(2003)andSuttonandWilson(2004)alsonotethe importanceoflocalpoliticalframeworksintheinstallationanddeploymentofCCTV. AfurtherstrandofcriticalscholarshiphaspositionedCCTVmoregenerallyasan aspectoftheriseoftheconsumercityandthereconfigurationofpublicspaceforthe purposesofmassconsumption(Bannisteretal1998;Fyfe&Bannister1996).Drawing

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uponDaviss(1990)influentialthesisontheurbanfortificationofLosAngeles, numerousscholarshavesuggestedthatCCTVcontributestowardsthe commodificationofpublicspace,theerasureofsocialdifferenceandthe stigmatisationandexclusionofthoseBaumantermedflawedconsumers(1997:14). Thatthegazeofvisualsurveillancefallsunevenlyandismediatedthroughthe categoriesofrace,genderandageisnowwelldocumentedthroughdetailedstudies ofCCTVoperationinparticularlocations(Norris&Armstrong1999a;Lomell2004; Coleman2004).AsNorris&Armstrong(1999b)foundmaleyouths,particularlyif blackorstereotypicallyassociatedwiththeunderclass,representthefodderofCCTV systems(172).ThereforetheargumentthatCCTVhasthepotentialtoamplify existingpatternsofdiscriminatorypolicepracticeandexacerbatesocialexclusionis convincing. TheAmbiguitiesofSurveillance WhilecriticalaccountsofCCTVraiseimportantquestionsandpossibilitiesworthyof exploration,theytendtomakeanumberofmajorassumptionsthatareopento contention.AsNorrisandArmstrongnoted,boththecriticsandpromotersofCCTV oftenassumethatCCTVactuallyproducestheeffectsclaimedforit.Astheynote bothshareatendencytowardstechnologicaldeterminism:anunquestioningbeliefin thepoweroftechnology,whetherbenignormalevolent(1999:9).Importantlyalso, asSmithnotes,suchcriticalperspectivesfrequentlyassumewatchersasempowered agentswhilesimultaneouslyconceivingthewatchedaspassivedisempowered objects(2007:282).Thuscriticalaccountshavetendedconceptualizevisual surveillanceasaunidirectionalexerciseofpowerwithnegativeoutcomesforthose surveilled.However,asDavidLyon(1994;2001)remindsus,surveillanceisoften Janusfacedbothenablingandconstrainingandridingacontinuumbetweencare andcontrol.Criticalaccountsthereforeneedtobecognizantoftheambiguitiesof surveillance.Thefollowingsectionsofthispaperwillthereforeoutlinesomekeyareas wheretheambiguousnatureofvisualsurveillancebecomesmoreapparent,including

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tacticsofresistance,thepotentialforthewatchedtoharnesssurveillancefortheir ownends,thepeculiaroccupationofCCTVoperativesandtheimportanceof organizationalcontext. Whilemostaccountsstressthepowerresidingwiththosemonitoringcameras,there areseveralstudieswhichindicatethatresistancetacticsarepracticedbythose monitored.AsScott(1985;1990)hasimportantlynoted,thosesubjectedto relationshipsofdominationrespondinarangeofcreative,diverseandsignificant ways.OurknowledgeofhowCCTVisperceivedbythosemonitoredremains fragmentary.Nevertheless,thereisevidenceofovertresistancefromsurveillance subjects.InSmiths(2007)intriguingstudyfromtheUK,thosemonitoredfrequently wavedandgesticulatedatthecameras,oftenwithdefiantgestures.Ihavenoted similaractsofdefianceinAustralianCCTVcontrolrooms.InoneAustraliancentral citycontrolroom,astreetleveldrugdealerflashedabundleofhighdenomination banknotesatthecameraanactwhichdirectlychallengedthecameraoperators, andperhapsonecalculatedtoremindthemoftheirminimumwageincome.In anotherAustralianlocationIwasinformedthatmanywhoregularlyinhabitedpublic spaceswerewellawareofthecameralocations.Asoneofficernoted:Theyknowthe camerasarethere.Theresnodoubtaboutit.Wevehadthembrowneyethecamera, wehavethemdodancesinfrontofthecamera.Thecamerasareveryobvious(Senior Officer,SAPOL,2002).Smiths(2007)researchalsorevealscomplexactsofwhathe termsentrepreneurialdefianceinwhichthosemonitoredoutwittedcamera operatorsincatandmousegamesrevealingadvancedknowledgeofthesystemand itslimitations. Ifthereareactsofdefiance,therearealsoinnovativewaysinwhichthesubjectsof surveillanceengagethecamerasgazefortheirownprotectionandsafety.For example,Smithnotesthatmanybeggarschosetositdirectlyinfrontofthecameras aswouldmakethemfeelsafer.Likewise,henotesthatstreetprostitutesinurbanred lightzoneschosetoworkinfullcameraview,whereprospectiveclientsnumber

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platesandfaceswererecorded,toenhancetheirpersonalsafety(2007:309).Similar tacticshavebeennotedinMelbourne,wheresomeinjectingdrugusershavechosen toinjectnearsurveillancecamerasinordertoensureemergencyservicesarequickly alertedintheeventofoverdose(Malins2000).Thisevidenceisfragmented,andinno wayunderminesargumentsthatCCTVsystemsmaybeoperatedwithexclusionary intentions.Itdoes,however,pointtothepossibilitythateventhemostmarginalized mayengagewithsurveillancesystemsfortheirownreasons. Asalreadysuggested,oneweaknessofmanycriticalaccountsistoassumeaoneway relationshipbetweenempoweredwatchersandthedisempoweredwatched. Howeverrecentstudiesmakeapointalreadyapparenttoanyonewhohasconducted ethnographywithinprivatesecuritysettingsnamelythatprivatesecurityguardsare nottheidealizedembodimentoftheeyeofpower.AsJohnMcGrath,inhis fascinatingcontemplationofcontemporarysurveillancenotes: Thesecurityguardisinapositionofpeculiarlyabjectauthority.Withinthe corporatestructureofthebuildingsandcomplexestheymonitorsecurityguards areamongstthelowestontheladdersofpayandprestigetheuniformedbody staringatabankofvideomonitorsislikelytobeunderqualified,lowpaidand,not unusually,anexoffender(2004:186) CCTVoperatorsthusoccupyaverypeculiarpositionwithinthesecurityhierarchy. Whilesupposedlytheagentsresponsibleforadministeringtheexclusionaryimpulse, theyarethemselvessubjectedtoclosemanagerialsurveillanceandthedulltoilofa jobthatcanbeastoundinglymonotonous.Smith(2004)reportedthatoneofthekey findingsofhisresearchwaswhathetermedtheboredomfactor,wherehefound thatconcentrationafter60minuteswasextremelydifficult.Thiswascompoundedby thefactthatitwasajobpayingonlyaminimumwageandwithlittlechanceof occupationaladvancementorflexibility(388).

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TheimportantstudiesofMcCahill(2002)andNorrisandMcCahill(2006)revealthe importanceoforganizationalcontextinthedeploymentofsurveillance.McCahill (2002)notes,forexample,thathumanmediationofsurveillancesystemsplaces severelimitsontheirpotentialtofunctionasmechanismsofdisciplinarypower. Indeedinhisstudy,McCahillobservedthatmanyCCTVoperatorsusedthesystem itselftocreatespacesofresistancetocounterorevadethemanagerialstructures controllingthem(2002:1456).Thusthepotentiallydisciplinaryandexclusionary potentialofvisualsurveillanceisalwaysmediatedthroughparticularorganizational contextsandthroughindividualhumanagentsbothofwhichexertnotasingle gazebutamultitudeofvariablegazes.Whilesomeoperativesmayenthusiastically engageinthetaskofcrimepreventionandviewthemselvesasundertaking importantsecuritywork,otherswillbefarmorevariedintheirefforts(cfNorris& McCahill2006).IndeedSmith(2007)goesfurther,notingthatmuchofthe observationalliteratureonCCTVseemsalmosttoneglectthefactthatoperatorscan exerciseintheirgazecare,empathyandcompassionaswellasprejudiceand intolerance(2007:301). ItwasthelandmarkstudyofNorrisandArmstrong(1999a)thatfirmlyestablishedthe importanceofcontrolroomobservationasaresearchmethodforthestudyofCCTV. Sincethen,otherstudieshaveconfirmedtheimportanceofthismethodto understandtheparticularcontextsinwhichCCTVoperates(McCahill2002;Smith 2004;2007;Goold2004;Lomell2004).Onecentralissueraisedbythesestudiesis whethertheexclusionaryimpulseoutlinedinlargertheorizationsisoperationalized withinspecificcontexts.AsLomellsuggestsforCCTVtocontributetoincreased socialexclusion,itisnotenoughthatsomecategoriesaretargetedmorethanothers. Thistargetingmustalsohavetheconsequenceofexcludingtheunwanted(2004: 351).Andyettheevidencethatexclusionarypotentialismobilized,atleastinpublic settings,istodateuneven.EveninthemajorstudyconductedbyNorrisand Armstrong(1999a),whichobservedoperatorsforatotalof592hours,policewere deployedonly45timesresultinginonly12arrests.Otherstudies,suchasthat conductedbyGoold(2004),alsosuggestthatweneedtoexercisecautionin

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assumingthatvisionitselfissufficienttobringaboutpanopticpower.Troubled relationshipsbetweenpoliceandCCTVoperators,disgruntledworkforcesandpoor managerialpracticesallservetocurtailthepowerofthesurveillancegazeinpublic spaces. Conclusion InconsideringthelimitationsandambiguitiesofCCTV,itisthereforeimperativethat criminologistsaresensitivetotheparticularorganizationalandculturalcontextsin whichthetechnologyisdeployed.CCTVisnotaunitaryphenomenonwhose impactsarereplicatedregardlessofgeographicororganizationalcontext.Whilethe abstracttheoriesofactuarialjusticetheelectronicpanopticonortheconsumer cityhavemuchtocontribute,thismustbalancedagainsttheneedfordetailed empiricalobservationofparticularcontexts.Whatisrequiredtheninthestudyof CCTVistouseMertonsfamousterminologyatheoryofthemiddlerangewith thecapacitytocutacrossthedistinctionbetweenmicrosociologicalproblemsand macrosociologicalproblems(1968:68).Moreover,IbelieveitisvitalthatAustralian criminologistsnotsimplyrelyonBritishscholarshipassumingthatthesameapplies withinthelocalcontext.AsIhavearguedelsewhere(Wilson2007),localandregional culturesstillplayapartinfashioningtheexperienceofsurveillance,evenifmirroring broaderglobaltrends.ThisisparticularlypoignantinthecaseofCCTV,whichisso conditionedbythelocalorganizationalcontextbothinitsdeploymentandimpact. Lastly,criticalscholarsneedtointerrogateandinterprettheambiguitiesof surveillance,asthiswillprovidefarmorecredibleandnuancedaccountsthathavethe capacitytotranscendthepullofthetimewornmetaphorsofthePanopticonandBig Brother.

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