technical

Development of an in-line ultrasonic inspection tool for detection of pinhole-type defects in duplex-steel pipelines
By Hans Gruitroij, A.Hak Industrial Services, Geldermalsen, Netherlands NAM (a joint venture between Shell and ExxonMobil) operates several wet gas duplex-steel pipelines in the Netherlands, ranging in diameter from 414 inches. Given the right conditions, duplex-steel pipelines may suffer from (external) pinhole-type corrosion. This type of corrosion is regarded as a risk to the pipelines integrity, and in a constant effort to improve pipeline integrity, NAM decided to implement in-line inspection (ILI) on these duplex lines to be able to assess their condition. Due to the type of material and operating conditions, no standard tool currently available on the market was able to detect and size these types of defect. It was decided to support the optimisation of the Piglet ultrasonic inline inspection tool from A.Hak Industrial Services for this purpose.

Introduction
A.Hak Industrial Services Piglet tool is based on one centrallymounted ultrasonic transducer which uses a rotating mirror to reflect the ultrasonic beam to the surface of the pipe. The mirror can be used to focus the ultrasonic beam, creating a small footprint on the pipe surface or inside the pipe wall, and thereby allowing very small defects to be detected and sized. The rotatingmirror principle allows for extreme high resolution as the number of measurements per circumferential scan can be set without restriction, and the tools speed can be reduced to enhance the axial resolution. The mirror surface was calculated and simulated to have an optimised beam (a small footprint) in the centre of the pipe wall to allow detection and sizing of external pinholes. After optimising the tools ultrasonic beam and resolution, pull tests were performed on a 10 inch diameter duplex test pipe with artificial defects. These test results were used to confirm the simulated results and create performance specifications such as detection and sizing capabilities. As the pipeline to be inspected was 12 inch diameter, a special optimised mirror was also calculated for this size creating the optimum beam midwall of the 12 inch pipeline. The test and simulation results were combined determine the specifications. The pull test used 10 inch diameter duplex steel pipe having unknown internal and external artificial defects. The pipe was wrapped and the test witnessed by NAMs representatives in order to ensure that the data analysts did not have any knowledge of the location, shape, or size of the defects. This blind test confirmed the specifications and, based on the positive results, the actual inspection was performed. The pipeline to be inspected was a 12 km long, 12 inch diameter duplex steel pipeline with wall thicknesses of 7.6 mm and 9.7 mm. The tool was propelled in a batch of water in an otherwise nitrogen-filled pipeline. As only parts of the pipeline were suspected to be suffering from this type of corrosion, these areas were inspected at a low inspection speed, with consequent very

high resolution. On other sections, the tool speed was increased giving a somewhat lower axial resolution. All the results were monitored online using the tools fibre-optic link, and were also stored on board using the tools on-board memory. When all areas of interest were inspected the tool was reversed and retrieved into the launcher by the pressurised nitrogen. This article describes the optimisation process for the tool, the tests executed to establish specifications and verification, as well as the in-line inspection itself.

Optimising the Piglet tool

A.Hak inspected a 12 inch duplex-steel pipeline using very high-resolution ultrasound ILI. The companys Piglet tool was optimised to detect and size-small external pinhole corrosion in the pipeline. Pipeline operator NAM decided to use ILI capable of detecting and sizing this pinhole-type defect in its duplex steel pipeline. However, after evaluating current magnetic flux leakage (MFL) and ultrasonic inspection technologies, it became clear that no tool on the market could meet the desired specifications. It was therefore decided to contract A.Hak to: Optimise its ultrasonic Piglet tool to be able to detect and size small external pinholes in duplex-steel pipe. NAM would supply a 10 inch duplex-steel pipe for testing. To demonstrate the performance of the modified tool on a blind duplex-steel test pipe. NAM would deliver a test pipe with artificial defects unknown to A.Hak. Inspect the pipeline if the tool optimisation was regarded successful. The Piglets rotating-mirror principle allows for extreme high resolution as the number of measurements per circumferential scan can be set without restriction and the tools speed can be lowered to enhance the axial resolution. The mirror can be used to focus the ultrasonic beam, creating a small footprint at the pipe surface or in the pipe wall, and allowing very small defects to be detected and sized.

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Duplex-steel pipe
Duplex stainless steels have a structure that contains both ferrite and austenite, and derives its name from the two phases present in the microstructure. This group of steels is intermediate in terms of structure and alloy content between ferritic and austenitic stainless steels. Duplex alloys have higher strength and better corrosion and stress-corrosion cracking resistance than most austenitic alloys, and greater toughness than ferritic alloys, especially at low temperatures; they are therefore often used in dynamically stressed environments. Duplex alloys have good resistance to stress-corrosion cracking in a chloride environment. The corrosion resistance of duplex alloys depends primarily on their composition, especially the amounts of chromium, molybdenum, and nitrogen they contain. Duplex alloys are often divided into three sub-classes: lean duplex, standard duplex, and super duplex. The duplex used in this application is standard duplex (1.4462) having high general, localised, and stresscorrosion resistance properties in addition to high strength and excellent impact toughness. Due to these characteristics, duplex steel has found its applications in the oil, gas, and petrochemical sectors, both onshore and offshore. Typical applications are platform risers in the offshore industry and applications where high corrosion rates can be expected using carbon steel. Nevertheless, given the right conditions, duplex steel pipes may still be susceptible to metal loss due to corrosion, which can be very small localised pinholetype corrosion.

Figure 1: Data presentation: 1. Wall thickness (WT C-scan) 2. Distance of centre to inner wall (IR C-scan) 3. Signal amplitude of the inner-wall reflection 4. Signal amplitude of the outer-wall reflection 5. Visualisation of the ultrasonic signal (A-scan) 6. Visualisation of all A-scans of one circumference (B-scan)

The Piglet ultrasonic ILI tool

A.Hak developed and operates a range of ILI tools (referred to as Piglet) that use high-resolution ultrasound to measure wall geometry and metal loss in steel pipelines ranging from 442 inches in diameter. The inspection system is designed to combine the advantages of free-swimming ILI tools with those of cable-operated tools, with the disadvantages of both having been eliminated. The Piglet system consist of an ultrasonic measuring head, an electronics module, a battery pack, odometer wheels, and a module containing fibreglass wire; most Piglets are also equipped with internal data storage. The modular construction

and mechanical design of the tool enables the inspection of nonpiggable pipelines, and the tool can be propelled bi-directionally. The displacement of the Piglet tool is the same in as freeswimming inspection pigs in which the tool is propelled by the flow of the medium in the pipeline. During the inspection run, the fibreglass cable transmits all data from the tools measuring head to the external data-acquisition system. These data, in the form of ultrasonic echo patterns for each measurement (typically every 510 mm) are stored, displayed, and analysed to determine any anomalies in the pipeline. The data-acquisition system translates this signal into several outputs that are presented on-line, including full-colour ultrasonic C-Scan images showing the wall thickness of the pipeline. The most critical anomalies are identified on-line and reported, enabling corrective action to be taken immediately if necessary. Thereafter, the inspection data are post-processed and a detailed analysis is made of all defects and anomalies for the final assessment report. In order accurately to detect and size defects and corrosion of the pipeline, analysis software is used. Apart from extra (filter) settings and extended algorithms, the analysis software allows the operator to use other scans such as the B-scan (Figure 1) which represents all A-scans of one circumference (one mirror revolution) in a one-colour plot, resulting in all (raw) signal information of this circumference.

Performance optimisation for small pinholetype defects

As the resolution can be easily set, the main focus of this project was the ultrasonic beam itself. The mirror profile can be calculated and a new mirror can be manufactured in order to have an optimised (i.e. small) footprint in the middle of the pipe wall.

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Figure 2: UT sensor.

To be able to detect and size pinhole-type of defects, a programme was set up to optimise the tools performance, the main issues being: Resolution, high circumferential and axial resolution Focal point position, inner surface, mid-wall, outer wall Focusing mirror, calculate new mirror for optimum beam profile Transducer, select frequency, diameter and bandwidth Beam profile simulation, 3.5 MHz versus 5 MHz, 10 inch versus 12 inch.

Resolution
The Piglet tool is based on one ultrasonic transducer mounted centrally in the pig with the ultrasonic beam pointing in the axial pipe direction onto a mirror. This mirror rotates and reflects the ultrasonic beam onto the pipe wall; the inner and outer wall echoes reflect back onto the mirror and the ultrasonic transducer. This principle allows for extreme high resolution as the number of measurements per circumferential scan can be set without restriction. The number of measurement per circumference and the speed of the tool hence determine the circumferential and axial spacing between measurements. As standard, the system is set to at least one measurement every 10 mm in both circumferential and axial directions. Increasing the number of measurement per circumference increases the probability of detection (PoD). If the inspection speed is decreased, the same applies for the axial direction.

Figure 3: Mirror calculation.

Focusing the mirror and beam profile

The mirror can be used to focus the ultrasonic beam. Together with the ultrasonic transducer itself, the shape of the mirror surface is one of the key parameters that define the footprint dimensions of the ultrasonic beam. The mirror can be exchanged for one with specific measurements, creating a small footprint at the pipe surface or in the pipe wall to optimize detection of specific anomalies, allowing very small defects to be detected and sized. The mirror in this case was designed to have an optimized (i.e. small) footprint in the middle of the pipe wall for both 1012 inch pipe internal diameters. Computer simulation of the ultrasonic beam indicated elliptical footprints with an average diameter (at -6 dB sound pressure) of around 4.1 mm for a 3.5 MHz transducer, and of around 2.8 mm for a 5 MHz transducer at the mid-wall position of a 10 inch duplex-steel pipe of 10 mm wall thickness. For the 12 inch pipe, the beam diameters were around 4.9 mm for the 3.5 MHz, and 3.3 mm for the 5 MHz, transducers. The average footprint (diameter) was thereby approximately 20 per cent larger than in the 10 inch pipe. Given the higher resolution, and after testing the 5 Mhz transducer on the duplex steel, it was decided to use the 5 Mhz configuration for the pull tests, the blinds test, and eventually for the actual inspection. Based on the mirror dimensions as used in the simulations, a new mirror was manufactured for both 10 inch and 12 inch pipes, and mounted inside the measuring head of the Piglet.

Figure 4a: Beam profile in liquid. Figure 4b: Beam profile mid-wall.

Figure 5: Calibration pipe.

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Figure 6: Data-calibration pipe.

Performance tests
The new configuration was assembled and tested in the 10 inch duplex-steel calibration pipe provided by NAM, in which known artificial defects had been machined. The artificial defects were external and comprised flat-bottom holes (FBH) located at 50 per cent wall thickness (mid-wall) and spherical-shaped holes located at 25 per cent, 50 per cent, and 75 per cent of the wall thickness. Both types of hole ranged from 1 mm to 20 mm in diameter (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 15, and 20 mm). As the reflectivity of the FBH is higher than that of the spherical-shaped defects, it was expected that these would be easy to detect; the real challenge was the more-realistic sphericalshaped defects, from which it could be expected that the mid-wall defects would be slightly easier to detect.

3.2 mm (axial). Evaluation of the tests indicated that 100m per hour was an optimal speed: lower speed (higher resolution) does not significantly improve the performance, but at higher speeds (lower resolution) the smaller defects are missed.

Probability of detection (POD)

The 100 m per hour test was repeated ten times and, based on the test results, the POD was estimated at 90 per cent in the 10 inch pipe with nominal wall thickness of 10 mm for the following defects: 2mm diameter flat-bottom holes; 3mm diameter spherical-shaped defects at 50 per cent remaining wall thickness; and, 4mm diameter spherical-shaped defects at 25 per cent and 75 per cent remaining wall thickness. Based on the POD for the optimal (laboratory) testing, a realistic POD for pitting-type defects in the 10 inch and 12 inch duplex-steel pipes was estimated. Realistically, the 50 per cent POD in the 10 inch duplex-steel pipe for a circular defect was around 3 mm, and in the 12 inch pipe was around 4 mm. For a POD of 90 per cent, the defect diameter was expected to be 6 mm in the 10 inch pipe, and 7 mm in the 12 inch pipe.

Tool speed
The detection and sizing performance of the tool was evaluated by pull tests in the calibration pipe. As the tool speed (axial resolution) is an important factor in the detection performance, the tests were performed using different speeds (17 m per hour, 100 m per hour, and 200 per hour). The velocity of 100m per hour should give approximately 100 per cent coverage at the measurement resolution of 2.4 mm (circumferential) and

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Depth sizing
The remaining wall thickness was determined using the datapost process software. The results were plotted against the actual value (certified value) and the comparison is given in Figure 8. The depth-sizing error (actual minus reported) was, on average, 0.29 mm with a standard deviation of 0.38 mm. This resulted in a sizing accuracy of 0.6 mm at 80 per cent certainty.

Discussion
Some of the deepest defects were not detected or were not sized properly. The spherical-shaped defect with a depth of 75 per cent (25 per cent remaining wall thickness) was detected only due to the loss of any back-wall reflection, but a wall thickness could not be measured at all due to the fact that no reflections from the defect could be distinguished. The reason for this is that the actual depth was 96 per cent, resulting in a remaining wall thickness of less than 1 mm, which implies that the reflection from the defect is interfering with the inner-wall reflection and cannot be measured. This defect was not used during the statistical analyses. In addition it was concluded that detection of defects with a remaining wall thickness <2 mm was not possible. Figure 7: POD.

Length and width sizing

For the first three runs, the defects were boxed by the data-processing software and the length and width has been determined. The difference between the measured and the actual was determined, and the results are presented in Figure 10. The length-sizing error was, on average, -0.06 mm with a standard deviation of 3.2 mm, resulting in a sizing accuracy of 4.1 mm at 80 per cent certainty. The width-sizing error was, on average, 0.35 mm with a standard deviation of 3.1 mm, resulting in a sizing accuracy of 4.0 mm at 80 per cent certainty. It can be observed that the 50 per cent FBH are slightly oversized, which is common due to the way the data analyst manually boxes a defect and due to the fact that a defect edge may still be visible. In addition, it can be observed that the width is slightly oversized. However, it must be noted that this is mostly caused by the over sizing of the 75 per cent depth small pits.

Figure 8: Detection and sizing performance.

Performance verification (blind test)

To verify the tools performance, a test pipe with unknown defects was prepared by NAM. The diameters of the defects ranged from 220 mm, and their depth ranged from 1.8 mm to 6.8 mm. All defects were machined and were round with conical, spherical, or flat-bottomed shapes. The defects were manufactured in both the inner and outer pipe surfaces. A launcher was been placed upright, and filled with water, and in this the test pipe was placed. A winch is used to lower the inspection UT head, electronics unit, battery unit, and fibre unit. The winch was used to control the speed and to measure the distance. The test pipe was transported to A. Hak for testing and, as agreed, the blind test was witnessed by representatives from NAM and Shell SGI. The first test was not successful: the quality of the data was inadequate for proper evaluation due to some oily substance on the test pipes surface (which was thought probably to have remained after defect machining). The internal surface of the test pipe was then cleaned using brushes, after which another blind test was carried out and

Figure 9: Length-sizing performance.

Figure 10: Width-sizing performance.

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Results
The actual defect depths values from all defects, regardless of the type, are plotted in Graph 1 against the defect depths as reported by A. Hak. The defects that were not detected are plotted on the horizontal axis (on which the reported depth is taken as 0 mm). The actual defect length and depth values of the internal defects are plotted in Graph 2. From the six defects with a diameter of 2 mm, only one was detected and sized. All defects with a diameter 3mm were detected and sized. These detection results confirm the realistic POD curve. The actual defect length and depth values of the external defects are plotted in Graph 3. From the five conical defects with a diameter of between 2 and 3mm, no defect was detected. From the four saw-cut defects along the girth weld, only one was detected. All defects with a diameter 5.2 mm were detected and sized. These detection results confirm the realistic POD curve. The actual defect depths are plotted against the reported defect depths in Graph 4 for all internal defects. The average depth values of the defect depths that were detected are slightly oversized with an average difference of 0.37 mm at a standard deviation of 0.60 mm. This results in a sizing accuracy for internal defects of 0.9 mm at 80 per cent certainty. The actual defect depth is plotted against the reported defect depth in Graph 5 for all external defects. The average depth values of the defect depths that were detected are slightly undersized with an average difference 0.26 mm at a standard deviation of 0.70 mm. This results in a sizing accuracy for external defects of 0.9 mm at 80 per cent certainty. The saw-cut defects are ignored for this analysis. The actual defect lengths are plotted against the reported defect lengths in Graph 6 for all internal and external defects. The average length values of the defects that were detected are slightly undersized with an average difference 0.7 mm at a standard deviation of 2.4 mm. This results in a length sizing accuracy of 3.2 mm at 80 per cent certainty. The actual defect widths are plotted against the reported defect widths in Graph 7 for all internal and external defects. The average length values of the defects that were detected are slightly undersized with an average difference 0.6 mm at a standard deviation of 2.4 mm. This results in a length sizing accuracy of 3.2 mm at 80 per cent certainty.

Figure 11: Test set-up. witnessed by a NAM representative. This second blind test was successful and data were analysed using a special version of the data-analysis software which had been developed to detect small defects in the ultrasonic signal between inner and outer wall reflections. During the second test run the results were displayed immediately on-line, and defect indications immediately were shown on the wall-thickness and on the outer-wall-amplitude C-scans. The data were analysed directly after the test using the standard post-processing software. From the detected defects the depth, length, and width of each were determined in the presence of the client. In addition, the internal/external discrimination was determined. For each detected defect this was implemented in the C-scans after postprocessing and presented in a Word document. The data were then processed using a special version of the data-analysis software, in which extra features helped to detect the small reflections which may be present inbetween the inner and outer-wall reflections originating from small defects. The defects were boxed manually, giving the width and length sizing. The remaining wall thickness was sized either automatically or manually. The list of known defects was provided after reporting and was used to compare the reported defects with the actual values. The detection performance, depth, length, and width sizing was determined for both the internal and external defects. It must be noted that there were also defects present having a V-shape, which were not present in the calibration pipe. Three indications are not present in the list of known defects, and may have been present in the pipe before it was machined.

Summary of tool specifications

From the evaluation of the inspection data of the blind test pipe it can be concluded that the defect POD (90 per cent POD for defects >6 mm), length and width-sizing accuracy (4 mm at 80 per cent certainty) as defined via the calibration pipe are confirmed. The defect depth-sizing accuracy, however, was found to be less and defined to be 0.9 mm at 80 per cent certainty. The tool evaluation was based on tests in the 10 inch pipe, whereas the actual pipeline has a diameter of 12 inch. Due to the design of the tool, this larger diameter has some effects on the detection and sizing capabilities, as the diameter of the spot of the UT beam is approximately 20 per cent larger. The depthsizing accuracy is expected not to be significantly influenced, but the POD and defect length and width sizing are assumed to be reduced. The POD is already extrapolated from the 10 inch pipe to the 12 inch pipe.

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Figure 14: Dig up. Figure 12: Receiver set-up. The next day two brush pigs and a foam pig were sent within a batch of 30 cubic metres of pre-heated water down the pipeline, with nitrogen. After the three pigs were retrieved from the receiver, two brush pigs were run with nitrogen. Next, a further batch of 30 cubic metres of pre-heated water was sent together with two brush pigs sealed with a bi-directional pig. After the three pigs were retrieved, two brush pigs were again run with nitrogen. Finally, a further 30 cubic metres batch of pre-heated water was pumped into the pipeline. A b-directional pig with gauge plate was sent at the end of the batch. The gauge-pig was retrieved without any damage, clearing the line for the inspection. The pipeline was pressurised to 8 bar and isolated before the crew left the location.

Inspection
Figure 13: Launcher set-up. The specifications of the tool, applied to in the 12 inch pipe are estimated to be: POD: 90 per cent for defects with length and width 7 mm; 50 per cent for defects with length and width 4 mm; Defect depth-sizing accuracy: 0.9 mm at 80 per cent certainty; Defect length- and width-sizing accuracy: 4 mm at 80 per cent certainty; and, Defects with a remaining wall thickness of 2 mm will be missed. As high-resolution inspection of only short sections of interest was required, the tool was pumped at a relatively high speed to the area of interest, after which it was propelled at a speed of around 90m per hour. The inspection data, tool speed, and location were monitored on-line, and the speed was controlled manually. A bi-di pig was sent with 30 cubic metres of water before the inspection Piglet was launched. The inspection was set with a speed of 300 m per hour until the Piglet arrived at the first section of interest. This section was inspected with a speed of approximately 90 m per hour, where the pig speed was increased to 750m per hour toward the next section of interest. This second section of interest was covered with a speed of approximately 90 m per hour, and the pigs were then returned using the nitrogen pressure in the line. The inspection Piglet and the bi-directional pig were retrieved and the pipeline was isolated again with a remaining pressure of 7 bars. The next day, a run from the other end was executed. All results were monitored online using the tools fibre-optic link, as well as being stored onboard using the tools on-board memory.

Inspection
Based on the initially reported results of the blind test, it was decided to inspect the pipeline with the newly designed Piglet tool. The pipeline had some sections of interest on both sides and it was decided to perform two separate inspection runs.

Displacement and pre-inspection cleaning

After the equipment was rigged-up at both pipe end locations including tanks, separator, and temporary flare, the nitrogen tank and pump were installed to displace the line by running two medium-density pigs through the pipeline. The pigs arrived together with 10 cubic metres of condensate at the receiving end.

Data analysis and reporting

The inspection data were been recorded and a field report was made directly after the inspection. Afterwards the data were processed and reported in a final report.

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The inspection indicated that no corrosion defects were detected. Based on the estimated, realistic, detection capabilities of the Piglet in a 12 inch duplex-steel pipeline, it can be concluded that with a probability of 90 per cent no corrosion defects with lengths and widths greater than 7 mm (or greater than 4mm with a POD 50 per cent) are present in the pipeline at the sections of interest. In both sections of the pipeline, however, some lamination features were reported. Laminations are normally not a threat to the integrity of the pipeline, but as lamination features are not expected to occur in duplex-steel pipeline material, NAM was advised to check one or more of these features at an easily assessable location.

Dig-up verification
To verify the lamination features, a dig up was performed. Manual ultrasonic testing (UT) did not find the mid-wall feature, but it is clear that no external corrosion was present at this location. After double-checking the correct location of the dig-up site, it can be concluded that indeed the features were correctly reported as mid-wall features. To further examine the ability of the system to discriminate between internal, external, and mid-wall features, the pipe used for the blind test was examined. During the blind test three features were reported that were not on the defect list, one feature being reported as mid-wall. This pipe, wrapped on the outside, was cleaned and examined and it became clear that all three reported features were present, the mid-wall feature being located using hand-held UT.

Graph 1. Actual vs reported defect dimensions, all defects.

Summary
The development of the Piglet tool with optimised ultrasonic specifications to detect and size pinhole defects in a duplexsteel pipeline was successful. The tool specifications for the 12 inch, 9.5 mm wall thickness, duplex-steel pipeline at a tool velocity of 90m per hour were: 50 per cent POD for defects with a length and width > 4mm 90 per cent POD for defects with a length and width > 7mm Length and width sizing accuracy 4 mm at 80 per cent certainty Defect depth sizing accuracy 0.9 mm at 80 per cent certainty. The inspection of the wet gas pipeline in a liquid batch was successful. No corrosion defects were detected.

Graph 2. Detection of internal defects based on type and dimensions.

Figure 15: Test pipe.

Graph 3. Detection of external defects based on type and dimensions.

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Graph 4. Actual vs reported defect dimensions, internal defects by type.

Graph 5. Actual vs reported defect depth dimensions, external defects by type.

Graph 6. Actual vs reported defect length dimensions, all defects.

Graph 7. Actual vs reported defect width dimensions, all defects.

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