(Thiet Bi) Boue de Forage

Text prepared by
P. LONGCHAMP (Bouygues Travaux Publics)

with the close collaboration of:
Antony BESQ (LEA) - Fabrice BONIN (JF Tech) - Bruno DEMAY (Vinci) - Michel GUERIN (Calypso)
Alexandre GUILLAUME (MS) - Anne PANTET (ESIP-Poitiers) - Jean-Marie ROGEZ (RATP)
Andr SCHWENZFEIER (CETU)
Other members of Working Group GT 4 (Mechanized Excavation) also contributed to these Recommendations:
Alain AMELOT (SPIE) - Daniel ANDRE (SNCF) - Franois BERTRAND (Chantiers Modernes)
Laurent CHANTRON (CETU) - Didier CUELLAR (SNCF) - Jean-Marc FREDET (Pergolese)
Jean-Luis GIAFFERI (EDF) - Christian MOLINES (Eiffage) - Philippe MONNET (ESIP Poitiers) -
Laurent NICOLAS (JF Tech) - Paul RENAULT (Razel) and Jean-Franois ROUBINET (Vinci).
The Working Group acknowledges the help of
J. GUILLAUME (Razel) - B. GODINOT ( GTM Construction) - G. PIQUEREAU (CAP)
of the Technical Committee for reviewing and validating the text.
Grateful to D.P. Richards (Parsons Brinckerhoff International) for his translation review
AFTES RECOMMENDATIONS CONCERNING
SLURRY FOR USE IN SLURRY SHIELD TBM
1
Pages Pages
1 FOREWORD PURPOSE OF THE RECOMMENDATIONS - - 2
2 BASIC ROLES AND FUNCTIONS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3
2.1 - General - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3
2.2 Primary functions of slurry - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3
2.3 Secondary functions and qualities of slurry - - - - - - - - - - - 3
3 BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR USING SLURRY - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4
3.1 Confinement function - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4
3.1.1 General - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4
3.1.2 Filtration - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4
3.1.3 Stiffening of slurry - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4
3.1.4 Types of cake - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4
3.1.5 Speed of cake formation - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4
3.2 Transport function - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4
3.3 Separation function - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4
3.4 Changes to slurry during excavation - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4
3.4.1 Physical contamination of slurry by solid load - - - - - - 4
3.4.2 Chemical contamination of slurry - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4
4 BASIC PROPERTIES OF SLURRY AND THEIR MEASUREMENT 4
4.1 Rehological properties - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5
4.1.1 - Introduction - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5
4.1.2 Apparent viscosity (AV) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5
4.1.3 Plastic viscosity (PV) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5
4.1.4 Yield point - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5
4.1.5 Thixotropy and gels - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6
4.2 Physical properties - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6
4.2.1 Density of slurry - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6
4.2.3 - Filterability - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6
4.2.4 Quality of cake - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6
4.3 Chemical properties - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6
4.3.1 - Presence of electrolytes - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6
4.3.2 pH variation - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7
5 - MATERIELS AND PROCEDURES FOR MEASURING SLURRY
QUALITY - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7
5.1 Test equipment - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7
5.2 - Procedures - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7
6 CHOICE OF MAIN SLURRY CHARACTERISTICS - - - - - - - - - 7
6.1 - Properties - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7
6.2 Guiding the choice of slurry type - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7
7 COMPONENTS OF SLURRY - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8
7.1 Composition - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8
7.2 Choice of components - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8
CONTENTS CONTENTS
2
Recommandations relatives la boue de forage usage des boucliers pression de boue
For vertical drilling:
The volume and sectional area of the bore-
hole are relatively small, and any ground insta-
bility is localized.
The mud pressure is governed directly by its
density and the hydrostatic head.
Cuttings from the cutterhead are carried up
the hole by laminar flow to prevent erosion of
the borehole walls. This calls for low flow velo-
cities and a mud whose viscosity enables it to
carry the cuttings at that speed.
The borehole generally goes through a series
of sub-horizontal geological strata, but gene-
rally crosses them at nearly perpendicular
angles.
For tunnelling:
Support conditions are generally more diffi-
cult , with a high risk of instability.
Slurry pressure is produced and controlled
mechanically.
Spoil is carried by a turbulent flow regime
which requires high flow velocity; the suspen-
1 - FOREWORD PURPOSE OF THE RECOMMENDATIONS
S
lurry is an indispensable aspect in the use of closed face slurry-shield tunnel boring machines (TBMs), for tunnel support and for slurry remo-
val. The AFTES Recommendations on the choice of mechanized tunnelling techniques (TOS No. 157, January/February 2000, paragraphs
4.3.4, 6.3.3, 7.3.3, and 8.5) provide more information on this.
AFTES Working Group GT 4 dealing with mechanized excavation considered it important to publish recommendations on slurry.
The science of slurry for this kind of application is indeed relatively complex. It consists of a combination of experience and theory, as the slurry
itself combines rehological, physical, and chemical phenomena. It also has to take account of another range of complex sciences, the earth
sciences.
Use of slurry for tunnelling can undoubtedly trace its origins back to drilling fluid (mud) for vertical holes. Because of their immense resources and
the economic issues involved, oil companies played a leading role in the development of the technology. Civil engineering thus benefited from a
wealth of prior knowledge, first in respect of deep foundations and drill holes for ground improvement, and then, some years later, for excavation
of tunnels in loose water bearing granular soils.
While the composition of tunnelling slurry is essentially the same as that of the drilling mud used in the oil industry, it does have its own special
requirements. Some examples are given below:
Pages Pages
8 TREATMENT OF EXCESS SLURRY (see Appendix 6) - - - - - - 8
9 SLURRY SCHEDULE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9
9.1 - Objectives - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9
9.2 - Preparation - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9
9.2.1 Regulatory considerations: environment / health
and safety - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9
9.2.2 Site conditions: project geometry, geology,
geotechnics, and landtake - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9
9.2.3 - Plant - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9
9.2.4 Quality of components (water, additives) - - - - - - - - - - - 9
9.2.5 Consumption estimate - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9
9.3 Testing implementation and follow-up - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9
9.3.1 Documentary system and checks - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9
9.3.2 Personnel - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9
10 USING SLURRY - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10
10.1 Reception of basic products - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10
10.2 Manufacture - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10
APPENDIX 1: GLOSSARY - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10
APPENDIX 2: POLYMERS AND BENTONITES FOR
TUNNELLING SLURRIES - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 11
1- General - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 11
2 - Types of polymers used in tunnelling slurry- - - - - - - - - - - - - 11
2.1 Starches and amylase derivatives - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 11
2.5 - Polyacrylamides - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 11
2.6 - Polyacrylates- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 11
3 - Bentonite - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 11
3.1 - Structure of bentonite - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 12
3.2 - Bentonite properties - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 12
3.3 - Bentonite for underground works - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 12
APPENDIX 3: PRINCIPLE FOR EVALUATION OF THE
REHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TUNNELLING SLURRIES 13
APPENDIX 4: SLURRY PARAMETER TABLE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 14
APPENDIX 5: SLURRY RHEOLOGY - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 14
1 - Definition of rheology - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 14
2 Rheology of tunnelling slurries - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 14
3 - Definitions and terminology - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 14
4 Components models- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 15
APPENDIX 6: PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF A SLUDGE
TREATMENT PLANT- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 16
APPENDIX 7: PERMEAMETER - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 18
APPENDIX 8 STANDARD SLURRY-MONITORING
DOCUMENTATION - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 19
SOMMAIRE SOMMAIRE
3
ded solids (cuttings) carrying capacity is
governed by the dynamics of the turbulence .
Since the geological strata encountered are
sub-horizontal and sub-parallel to the axis of
excavation, ground at the face is often strati-
fied and heterogeneous.
The excavation volumes involved and the
sectional face areas of the excavation are
large with
The basic solids mixing component for
mud/slurry is bentonite, a type of clay with
very special physical and components pro-
perties.
Other products such as polymers or defloc-
culants are being used increasingly. They
complement and improve the basic proper-
ties of the slurry. They are therefore addressed
in these Recommendations.
Geological and hydro-geological conditions
and dimensions can vary widely from one
project to another and therefore entail project-
specific problems.
The purpose of these Recommendations is
to provide help for preparing, managing,
and checking the slurries used in conjunction
with closed face slurry-shield TBMs.
2 BASIC ROLES AND
FUNCTIONS
2.1 - GENERAL
Tunnelling slurry fulfils several roles. These
are principally groundwater control and sup-
port of the excavated surfaces. Other secon-
dary roles must also be taken into account.
They are dealt with in Section 2.3.
In the simplest cases, only the function of
slurry removal is required (hydraulic muc-
king). Plain water (with no additives) can fulfil
this purpose effectively.
In the majority of cases, however, the condi-
tions under which slurries are used are less
favourable and are associated with a combi-
nation of:
the presence of unstable ground
moderate to high in-situ permeability
high ground water pressure, which aggra-
vates the above two difficulties.
A slurry consisting of water, bentonite, and
possibly some special additives must then be
designed to overcome these difficulties.
2.2 PRIMARY FUNCTIONS
OF SLURRY
The fundamental function of tunnelling slurry
is to impart to the tunnel walls and excava-
tion face the qualities that will hold up the
excavation. To achieve this, its components
and physical properties must:
create an impermeable membrane at the
ground interface (at the face and around the
shield, in the case of overcutting). The
ground interface must be made imper-
meable so that the slurry can develop ade-
quate confinement pressure, or, more preci-
sely, extra confinement pressure above the
hydrostatic ground water pressure.
create and maintain confinement pressure
gradient at the ground interface sufficient to
ensure stability (see Appendix 3).
It as sometimes been claimed that the use of
slurry and the associated development of
confinement pressure improve the mechani-
cal characteristics of the ground around the
tunnel by adding extra cohesion and/or an
specific state of stress. However, with current
knowledge of the phenomena involved, such
improvement cannot be quantified because
it is so complex, and accordingly it is not taken
into account in tunnel stability calculations.
It is important to remember that these funda-
mental functions must be maintained in
order to provide excavation face stability
during man access to the cutterhead cham-
ber for hyperbaric maintenance operations.
The conditions ensuring face stability by
confinement are represented on the follo-
wing Mohr diagram:
Excavation of the tunnel produces a change
in the state of initial stress around the ope-
ning.
v
is assumed to be constant whereas
h
tends to 0. The initial Mohr circle ()
expands until it reaches the critical circle
beyond which stability is no longer guaranteed.
This diagram has been simplified. It corres-
ponds to the stability of an infinitely large
tunnel face with a two dimensional stress
state. In practice, stability calculations involve
three-dimensional stress mechanisms.
2.3 SECONDARY FUNC-
TIONS AND QUALITIES OF
SLURRY
Although referred to as secondary here,
these functions and qualities are very impor-
tant and can be decisive in some cases.
Such cases include:
Mucking: the viscosity of the moving slurry
must enable it to be pumped at high velocity
in the pipes of the slurry circuit.
Lubrication: the slurry must limit wear of
plant (cutting tools, pipes, valves, pumps,
etc.) by reducing plant/slurry friction.
Encapsulation of muck: The slurry must
reduce hydration of the muck in order to limit
its propensity to stick and to flocculate (this is
particularly important when excavating in
silty-clayed materials with a water content
below the plastic limit).
Inertness at treatment plant: the slurry
must be designed to facilitate its treatment,
i.e. separation of slurry from the muck it
conveys.
Environmental inertness: water, muck, and
residual slurry must be acceptable in terms of
environmental regulations.
Initial state
Characteristic curve of ground (C, )
z Case of excavation without confinement (unstable)
Critical circle corresponding to minimum confinement pressure ensuring stability (without
safety margin and without water pressure)
Shear stress
Normal stress
h
Horizontal normal stress
v
Vertical normal stress
c
Stress resulting from confinement pressure (without hydrostatic pressure)
4
3 - BASIC PRINCIPLES
FOR USING SLURRY
3.1 CONFINEMENT
FUNCTION
3.1.1 General
Slurry penetrates the ground at the face and
along the tunnel walls (especially in the case
of overcutting).
In accordance with the permeability of the
ground and its intrinsic properties, the
slurrys penetration into the ground will gra-
dually slow down, then stop, as a result of
two interdependent, simultaneous pro-
cesses: filtration (pressure filtration) and an
increase in the stiffness of the slurry.
3.1.2 Filtration
The pressure in the cutterhead chamber
forces the slurry through the soil at the tunnel
face and walls and into the ground. As it per-
meates the ground, the liquid and solid com-
ponents of the slurry are separated, gra-
dually leaving the solids at or near the
surface,
The filtered solids themselves enhance the
filtering process until the barrier is imper-
meable. When the face is excavated, the
filter is partially or totally destroyed by each
cutting tool, but the process resumes imme-
diately once the tool has passed.
This continuing process results in creation of
a filter cake of varying thickness, depending
on the permeability of the ground and the
characteristics of the slurry.
3.1.3 Stiffening of slurry
The filtration effect of slurry penetrating into
the ground immediately reduces the velocity
of slurry flow into the ground.
Bentonite slurry is a non Newtonian (ref.
chapter 4). Therefore, as a consequence of
its reduction in flow velocity, it gradually stif-
fens and sets.
Setting is directly linked the conventional
yield point or yield value of the slurry.
3.1.4 Types of cake
There are two types of cake:
Membrane cake: this is obtained in ground
of low permeability by using a relatively stiff
slurry. The slurry does not penetrate very far
into the ground, and creates only surface
imperrmeabilization of the ground interface.
It will be several millimetres thick.
Impregnation cake: in moderately to
highly permeable ground of varying porosity,
the slurry penetrates relatively deeply into
the pores in the ground before it stops and
sets. It is this impregnation that constitutes
the impermeable interface. This zone can
vary between several tens of centimetres and
several metres thick.
3.1.5 Speed of cake formation
As commented above in 3.1.2, the filter
cake at the tunnel face is partially or totally
destroyed with each sweep of a cutting tool,
but re-forms behind it immediately.
Rheograms (cf. Section 4.1) show that the
yield point of the slurry after agitation is
lower than its initial value.
It therefore takes some time period before
the slurry returns to its initial consistency.
This time should be as short as possible in
order to reinstate watertightness to its full
value. It is characterized by the 0-10 min.
gel strength test (cf. 4.1.5).
3.2 TRANSPORT
FUNCTION
The apparent viscosity of the slurry (cf. 4.1.2)
must be as low as possible for the hydraulic
mucking system. One of the properties of
Bingham fluids is that above the yield point,
the apparent viscosity decreases with increa-
sed agitation. Sufficiently intense agitation is
obtained by creating a turbulent flow regime
in the slurry pipes.
3.3 SEPARATION
FUNCTION
Use of slurry to excavate and support a tunnel
and to remove excavation spoil necessarily
implies that the slurry is treated in order to:
separate solid spoil from the slurry so that
the slurry can be recycled into the mucking
circuit
separate in excess slurry as new slurry is
added
treat in excess slurry for disposal.
The first two of these operations are carried
out in real time, and the separation rates are
governed by the instantaneous penetration
rate of the TBM. Slurry in excess can be trea-
ted as a background task, and is governed by
the mean advance rate (limited to a certain
time interval), taking account of shutdowns,
lining erection, etc.
The components and physical characteristics
of a slurry must take into account this requi-
rement for separation. These characteristics
may be inconsistent with the characteristics
required for tunnel support. A trade-off must
therefore be found to meet the opposing
requirements of ground support and solids
separation.
The basic operation of a slurry separation
and treatment pl ant i s descri bed i n
Appendix 6.
3.4 CHANGES TO SLURRY
DURING EXCAVATION
A variety of external contaminates blend into
the slurry as excavation proceeds, and can
modify its initial characteristics.
3.4.1 Physical contamination of
slurry by solid load
Slurry treatment plants cannot filter out the
finest soil particles. The concentration of
external contaminates particles in the recy-
cled slurry therefore increases with continued
use of the slurry and the density of the slurry
gradually increases, generally to the detri-
ment of its properties (yield point, filtrate,
etc.) (cf. 4.2).
It then becomes necessary to regenerate the
slurry by adding fresh slurry.
3.4.2 Chemical contamination of
slurry
Minerals or pollutants in the soil and/or
groundwater can also modify the characteris-
tics of the slurry. They should therefore be
taken into account when the slurry compo-
nents are chosen (cf. section 4.3).
Attention should also be paid to the possibi-
lity of contamination of the slurry by cement
and other chemical products (silicates etc.)
used for ground improvement prior to tunnel
excavation.
4 BASIC PROPERTIES OF
SLURRY AND THEIR MEASU-
REMENT
The slurry used for closed face shield TBMs is
a water-based fluid with a variety of solids
added to form a colloidal suspension. The
solid components are essentially:
mineral colloids (chiefly bentonite)
organic colloids (chiefly polymers).
There are hundreds of branded products
throughout the world described as bento-
nites or polymers. This can lead to conside-
rable confusion, for although they may be
similar, they often have very different physico-
chemical, rehological, or filtration properties.
5
4.1 REHOLOGICAL
PROPERTIES
4.1.1 - Introduction
Rheology is the science devoted to the study
of deformations and flow of matter under the
effects of internal and external stresses. In
rehological terms, tunnelling slurries are defi-
ned by a number of characteristics whose
measurement and verification are of the
greatest importance since they govern:
stabilization of the tunnel face and control
of ground water
muck removal
slurry preparation and treatment perfor-
mance.
Refer to Appendix 5 (Slurry rheology) for
more information.
4.1.2 Apparent viscosity (AV)
The apparent viscosity of slurry is its real vis-
cosity. However, since these kinds of fluids
are non-Newtonian, their viscosity depends
on their flow velocity. Their viscosity is high
for low velocities (during filtration into the
ground, in storage tanks), but conversely, is
low for high velocities (in muck pipes, in
hydrocyclones), as can be seen from the fol-
lowing graphs:
Viscosity-velocity gradient graphs are not
often used. Since viscosity is determined by
the shear
Viscosity-velocity gradient graphs are not
often used. Since viscosity is determined by
the shear forces at play between layers of
liquid, it has become customary to use a gra-
phic representation of the shear stress ver-
sus velocity gradient; commonly called a
rheogram. Viscosity is no longer explicitly
discussed.
Apparent viscosity is the relationship between
the shear stress and the velocity gradient.
Consequently it is not a constant quantity:
Rheogram: solid lines
Apparent viscosity: dotted lines
Apparent viscosity is expressed in mPas
these days, and formerly in centipoise (cP).
1 mPa.s = 1 cP
4.1.3 Plastic viscosity (PV)
Plastic viscosity concerns non-Newtonian
fluids and characterizes Bingham fluids. It
corresponds to the gradient of the linear part
of the rheogram, as shown
In the case of tunnelling slurries, the plastic
viscosity is deemed to be constant, as a first
approximation. It is determined by extrapo-
lating the linear part of the rheogram (as
shown above). This physical quantity is
important for calculation of pressure losses in
the slurry pipes. It depends above all on the
solids content of the slurry and the nature of
those solids.
Plastic viscosity is also expressed in mPa.s
(or cP).
4.1.4 Yield point
The yield point determines the ability of a
slurry to set in the ground. When slurry
penetrates into the ground around a tunnel,
since its flow velocity decreases, shear
stresses become insufficient to allow it to
flow further, and it sets.
Contrary to a Newtonian fluid, a Bingham
fluid requires a certain minimum shear stress
to be able to flow; it behaves like a visco-
elastic fluid. At stresses below this yield
Newtonian fluid
A
p
p
a
r
e
n
t

v
i
s
c
o
s
i
t
y
Velocity gradient
A
p
p
a
r
e
n
t

v
i
s
c
o
s
i
t
y
Slurry
Velocity gradient
Newtonian fluid
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
Velocity gradient
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
Slurry
Velocity gradient
A
p
p
a
r
e
n
t

v
i
s
c
o
s
i
t
y
A
p
p
a
r
e
n
t

v
i
s
c
o
s
i
t
y
Bingham fluid
Velocity gradient
Slurry
Velocity gradient
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
A
p
p
a
r
e
n
t

v
i
s
c
o
s
i
t
y
A
p
p
a
r
e
n
t

v
i
s
c
o
s
i
t
y
6
point, and since its viscosity is infinite, it
behaves like a solid. The actual yield point
depends on initial conditions and increases
with time at rest. In slurry-tunnelling practice,
the convention is to use a value determined
from the intersection on the rheogram of the
straight line obtained with the Fann rheome-
ter and the vertical scale of co-ordinates.
This extrapolation is called the Yield Value
(cf. below).
The yield point of a tunnelling slurry is asso-
ciated with the physico-chemical reactions
between the active particles of the suspen-
sion. It also depends on the content of such
active particles. However, increasing the den-
sity and viscosity of a slurry by adding inert
particles does not necessarily result in an
increase in the yield point; on the contrary, it
can lower it appreciably. Tunnelling expe-
rience shows that since the soil can contain
both inert particles and active particles (clay),
slurry viscosity can also increase with density
in some cases.
Yield point (YP) is generally expressed in
Pascals (Pa) or in pounds per hundred square
feet (lb/ 100 ft
2
).
The conversion is 1 Pa = 2.084 lb/100 ft
2
.
4.1.5 Thixotropy and gels
An interesting property of some fluids or col-
loidal suspensions such as bentonite slurries
is that at rest they create a structure which
increases the stiffness of the fluid, but which
can be destroyed by agitation. Thixotropy
refers to the reversibility of this phenome-
non. The process creating the structure is not
immediate, however. As stated in paragraph
3.1.5, the effective yield point changes with
the slurrys time at rest, which allows for gra-
dual restructuring of the slurry.
Any increase in the stiffness of the slurry is
assessed by measuring gel formation times.
In practice, thixotropy represents the ability
of the slurry to reform a cake behind the cut-
ting tools more or less quickly. It is quantified
in the laboratory by measuring the 10-sec.
and 10-min. gel strengths (refer to the
Thixotropy entry in the glossary).
Bentonite has this thixotropic behaviour.
Other commonly used additives such as
water-soluble polymers contribute other pro-
perties (viscosity, filtrate reduction, electroly-
tic stability, etc.).
The rheogram below illustrates the concepts
described above.
4.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
4.2.1 Density of slurry
Measurement of the density of a desanded
slurry serves chiefly to check the fines
content of the slurry being recycled to the
TBM. Monitoring its change can also give
information on the face conditions since:
an increase in the clay or marl content of
the slurry during excavation indicates that
solids from the ground are remaining in the
slurry, increasing its density (this can be
beneficial or detrimental to the yield value,
depending on conditions).
a decrease in the clay or marl content not
subsequent to addition of water (dilution)
indicates that groundwater is entering the
slurry, or that there is a chemical imbalance
(action of silicates, for instance, which cause
micro-foaming of the slurry).
4.2.2 Sand content (particles >
80 m)
The sand content of a slurry depends upon
the performance of the separation plant
(cyclone split ratio). Any sand remaining in
the slurry directly affects the permeability of
the cake and its stability on the ground
interface.
4.2.3 - Filterability
Filterability is the ability of a slurry to imper-
meabilize the ground interface by forming a
filter cake. It depends on the quality and
quantity of the components making up the
slurry.
Filterability is generally inversely related to
slurry density.
4.2.4 Quality of cake
Filter cake results from deposition of suspen-
ded solid materials on the tunnel face and
walls as the slurry penetrates into the
ground. The intrinsic qualities of a cake are
determined by its thickness and its ability to
deform without breaking. They are represen-
tative of its stability of the ground interface
and of its resistance to mechanical and
hydraulic effects induced by excavation.
4.3 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
4.3.1 - Presence of electrolytes
The intentional or unintentional addition of
electrolytes such as Ca
++
, Mg
+
, K
+
, Cl
-
, and
SO4
-
ions (mix water, ground water, mineral
content of the ground, grouted areas, etc.)
can considerably modify the physical and
rehological properties of slurry. Exchange of
ions modify the initial ionic environment of
Yield value
Yield point
Velocity gradient
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
A
p
p
a
r
e
n
t

v
i
s
c
o
s
i
t
y
7
the clay-layers and can produce coagulation
and flocculation of the suspension. These
ions modify ion balances, resulting in phase
separation due to liberation of free-water
molecules initially attached to clay platelets
or polymer chains: this results in flocculation.
Special attention must be paid to the chemi-
cal composition of water (lime-bearing water,
sea water, etc.) throughout the excavation
process.
4.3.2 pH variation
A change to the pH of the slurry also affects
its ion balances and physico-chemical pro-
perties. Beyond a pH range from 8 to 10,
there is a significant risk of poor slurry perfor-
mance in both acid environments (in contact
with organic matter, for instance) and in basic
environments (in contact with cement, for
instance).
5 - MATERIELS AND
PROCEDURES FOR
MEASURING SLURRY
QUALITY
5.1 TEST EQUIPMENT
Many types of equipment can be used for
measuring the different physical, chemical,
and rehological parameters of slurries. We
have selected only the following equipment
for continuous measurement.
Testing rehological properties: measure-
ment of AV, PV, YP, gels
Marsh funnel viscometer (not very mea-
ningful in this field)
Fann rheometer
Possibly, a rheometer with imposed velo-
city gradient (Rhomat or similar)
- It should be pointed out that many automa-
tic viscometers found on tunnelling projects
are derived from the geometry of the Fann
rheometer and can thus be used to deter-
mine the characteristic rehological parame-
ters of slurry on a quasi-continuous basis
by measuring values at 600 and 300 rpm.
Testing physical properties
Density: Baroid mud balance, densimeter
Sand content kit (sieve analysis apparatus)
Filtration and cake: API fluid-loss-test filter
press and, for a more realistic approach to
interface problems, a large permeameter (cf.
Appendix 7).
Testing chemical properties
pH: indicator strips, pH meter
Conductivity: conductivity meter
Specific surface (activity): methylene
blue value
electrolyte content
5.2 - PROCEDURES
Most slurry tests required already have stan-
dardized test procedures, principally develo-
ped by the oil industry (cf. American
Petroleum Institute: section 13),
("Recommended Practice Standard
Procedure for Field Testing Water Based
Drilling Fluids"), and also the ISO 13500 stan-
dard. Other test equipment has its own spe-
cific test method pertaining to applications in
other fields.
The methylene blue value is obtained using a
standardized test
(French standard NF P18-592).
6 - CHOICE OF MAIN
SLURRY CHARACTERISTICS
6.1 - PROPERTIES
When tunnelling using a closed face slurry
shield TBM, the main characteristics of the
slurry must be determined in accordance
with:
the type of ground to be excavated,
the possible presence of a groundwater,
together with its chemical properties,
the risks identified (geological, environ-
mental hazards, etc.).
Among the most important criteria for defi-
ning a slurry are the following:
Rehological parameters, essentially yield
point (YP) and plastic viscosity (PV)
From the yield point and plastic viscosity can
be defined:
the conditions of impregnation of the
ground interface (formation of cake),
the conditions of fluid flow and solid sepa-
ration in the slurry circuit and treatment
plant,
Methods for calculating these parameters
are presented in Appendix 3.
Filtration properties
Filtration properties govern cake formation.
The cake must be sufficiently impermeable,
strong and flexible (deformable) to guaran-
tee there will be a pressure gradient across
the thickness of the cake. It will sometimes
limit hydration of geological strata contai-
ning clay or evaporite.
Density
The density of a tunnelling slurry depends on
its components, on physical contamination
by fines from the ground that are recycled
through the slurry circuit, and on regenera-
tion by fresh slurry and additives.
It has an effect on viscosity and therefore on
pressure losses in the slurry circuit.
The thickness and permeability of the cake
increase with greater density, which is there-
fore detrimental to the resistance of mem-
branes and the impermeability of the tunnel
walls.
Other characteristics:
Other characteristics (pH, polymer or soluble
salt types and contents, etc.) have to be iden-
tified for better characterization of a slurry
and to meet environmental requirements:
ground/slurry interaction during excavation
(contaminated sites and grouted areas)
recycling in the slurry circuit,
disposal of liquid waste.
For guidance, Appendix 4 gives a table sho-
wing representative values for slurry parame-
ters for different ground permeabilities.
6.2 GUIDING THE CHOICE
OF SLURRY TYPE
The number of parameters to be taken into
account when choosing a slurry type is so
great that these Recommendations cannot
define an exhaustive, ready-made proce-
dure. Further difficulty arises in the case of
mixed faces (relative to variation in geology
over short distances).
For guidance and training, an elementary
classification of ground types on the basis of
their permeability is given below, with sug-
gestions for the appropriate slurry types:
Highly permeable ground with granular or
intensely fractured structure.
Solution: bentonite slurry with rheology sui-
table for high porosity; in particular, appro-
priate yield value, 0/10-min. gel strengths,
filtrate.
Silty to sandy semi-permeable ground.
Solution: bentonite slurry (pure or with addi-
tive) with low filtrate and suitable rheology
(as per above).
Impermeable ground with no particular
reactivity or sensitivity to water.
8
Solution: water or bentonite slurry and/or
polymer.
Impermeable, reactive ground.
To find the right type, it is necessary to:
have perfect knowledge of the mineralogi-
cal composition of the ground,
analyze the physical and chemical interac-
tions of the associated minerals and organic
matter.
This makes it possible to quickly define the
best system for inhibiting hydration of clay
and therefore limiting the problems entailed
in swelling, dispersion, and sticking.
The following cases can arise:
Ground with high dispersion potential
(containing illite or kaolinite, for instance):
Materials dispersing in the slurry rapidly and
in large quantities.
Solution: bentonite slurry and/or polymer
(phpa, CMC, acrylic plasticizer or phos-
phates, etc.)
Swelling or flowing ground (smectite,
fibrous clay, for instance):
Materials very sensitive to hydration by slurry,
or of plastic consistency.
Solution: inhibited polymer slurry, KCl, Ca
++
type, etc.
Overconsolidated ground (shale, argillite,
for instance):
Materials whose structure is often foliated,
making the ground mass somewhat fragile.
Solution: bentonite slurry with little filtrate
and appropriate rehological parameters.
Ground containing evaporites (gypsum or
anhydrite, various salts, etc.:)
Solution: water, bentonite slurry and/or poly-
mer slurry treated with sodium carbonate; in
some cases a Ca++ salt slurry can be used.
7 COMPONENTS OF
SLURRY
7.1 COMPOSITION
Tunnelling slurry is made up of components
of four different categories:
Mix water:
The quality and temperature of the mix
water have a significant effect on the proper-
ties of the components.
Active (mostly) bentonite type clays.
Organic and chemical additives:
Organic additives are divided into two
categories:
- water-soluble polymers (cf. Appendix 2)
- special organic products (defoaming
agents, antifriction agents, etc.).
Chemical additives:
Various chemical additives such as KCl,
sodium carbonate, sodium polyphosphate,
etc. for modifying the initial properties of
clayey colloids by ion exchange.
Groundwater and solids from the ground.
Active clays and additives are chosen in
accordance with the effect desired:
Viscosity improvers and filtrate reducers:
bentonites, cellulosic polymers, acrylate
polymers / acrylamides.
Dispersing agent and plasticizers: low-
molecular-weight sodium-acrylate polymers,
phosphates.
Clay stabilizers: cellulosic polymers and
acrylate polymers / acrylamides of high
molecular weight, salts.
pH corrector: sodium carbonate and bicar-
bonate
It is important to realize that the way the
slurry is prepared (order of addition of com-
ponents, thoroughness of mixing, etc.)
affects the performance of the components
in the resulting mix. Any undesirable effects
of the components should also be taken into
account. These might include, for example,
foaming or micro-bubbling of detergent-
type surface-active agents.
Tunnelling slurries are complex products with
a range of common properties that are highly
sensitive to external factors. Mix-design tes-
ting must be carried out, for their properties
are generally not very reproducible and
depend on geological and hydrogeological
conditions.
In most cases it is recommended that a spe-
cial programme for studies into tunnelling
slurries be carried out in order to allow the
mix-design is defined. This programme
should be validated and, as necessary, cor-
rected during the works, in connection with
ongoing technical management of the
slurry. A procedure for this is proposed in
Chapter 9.
7.2 CHOICE OF
COMPONENTS
Tunnelling slurries are generally colloidal sus-
pensions containing two types of colloids:
Mineral colloids (chiefly bentonite),
Organic colloids (chiefly polymers).
There are hundreds of branded products
throughout the world described as bento-
nites or polymers. This can lead to conside-
rable confusion, for although they may be
similar, they often have very different phy-
sico-chemical, rehological, or filtration pro-
perties.
The choice of the polymers or bentonites to
be used will depend on economic considera-
tions, the specific performance of each pro-
duct, the circumstances in which it will be
used, and the following requisite functions:
Viscosity level,
Sensitivity to salts, to pH, to bacterial or
enzymatic degradation,
Capacity to stabilize clays,
Decrease of filtrate,
Length of use,
Ease of use,
etc.
In addition to the specific test methodolo-
gies of each contractor, there is a standardi-
zed method for testing the efficacy of certain
additives in different types of slurry:
Recommended Practice Standard
Procedure for Laboratory Testing Drilling
Fluids - API RP 13I.
It should be remembered that adding bento-
nite or polymer to a tunnelling slurry often
has a dual effect:
a principal effect: increased viscosity, redu-
ced filtrate, etc.
one or more secondary effects: inhibition of
swelling or dispersion of clays, increased vis-
cosity, etc.
8 TREATMENT OF EXCESS
SLURRY (SEE APPENDIX 6)
To be comprehensive, the selection of a
slurry system should consider the full life-
cycle of the slurry. This will cover its manufac-
ture, its maintenance in accordance with the
expected physical or chemical contamina-
tion, and its disposal. It is sometimes possible
to give an economic value to in excess slurry:
mortars or grouts for ground improvement
or tunnel backgrouting, agricultural fertili-
zers, ground impermeabilization, etc.
In general terms, disposing of or treating in
excess slurry involves considerable cost for a
project; Attention should therefore paid to:
Taking account of the difficulties when stu-
dying the choice of slurry,
Minimizing the volume to be wasted
9
Limiting the cost of treatment to the exact
need,
Making provision for the site footprints
necessary for treatment plant in the project
planning stage.
Slurries are stable colloidal suspensions
of particles that do not easily settle out
naturally.
It is generally necessary to use physico-che-
mical treatments to flocculate them and cla-
rify the water extracted from them.
A variety of standard tests should be perfor-
med beforehand to optimize the quality of
treatment required prior to industrial-scale
testing.
9 SLURRY SCHEDULE
9.1 - OBJECTIVES
The slurry schedule is a document serving to
guide the determination of slurry types and
of means of testing them to ensure they
meet the technical and economic require-
ments of the project. Its purpose is to pro-
pose the system that best meets the require-
ments.From natural slurry to the most
complex chemical formulations, there are
enormous numbers of possibilities which
should, in principle, provide a solution per-
fectly suited to every project.
9.2 - PREPARATION
In addition to what is presented in the prece-
ding chapters, the slurry schedule should
include a detailed study of what follows.
9.2.1 Regulatory considerations:
environment / health and safety
In France, the use, storage, and disposal of
spoil and slurry are governed by Law No. 92-
3 of 3/1/92 on water and waste. The Law
demands that potential users carefully study
their project in respect of slurry and spoil
starting at the beginning of the project.
Together with equipment for treating waste,
the slurry schedule should result in a reduc-
tion in the volume of waste to be dumped
and in optimization of the environmental
quality of that waste.
9.2.2 Site conditions: project geo-
metry, geology, geotechnics, and
landtake
The slurry schedule should consider the geo-
metry, geology, and environment of the pro-
ject, and any ground improvement that may
be required. The geological report should
specify the physical, chemical, and mineralo-
gical nature of the ground and ground water
that will be encountered, including any parti-
cular or localized features. It is also useful to
include on a longitudinal geological profile
the prior ground improvement carried out,
with indication of the products used. The
profile should specify and demarcate the
succession of different formations. This data
will serve to identify the sequence of diffe-
rent slurries best adapted to the individual
circumstances.
The schedule should also integrate other
conditions concerning the project, particu-
larly the landtake likely to be required for the
slurry separation and treatment plant.
9.2.3 - Plant
The correct choice and definition of plant
(TBM and treatment plant) are vital for the
success of a project.
The slurry schedule should address the
compatibility of plant, ground, and spoil. It
should consider the possibility of frequent
water inflow which would modify the initial
slurry concentrations. It should contain consi-
derations relating to hyperbaric work in the
cutterhead chamber.
By considering these factors and the expec-
ted TBM advance rates, the slurry prepara-
tion and treatment plant capacity should be
correctly sized.
9.2.4 Quality of components
(water, additives)
The specifications drawn up the suppliers of
bentonite and additives should define the
means of delivery, the necessary reserve sup-
plies, and the quantities of consumables
(water, main additives).
9.2.5 Consumption estimate
Using the factors described above, it will be
possible to estimate the quantities required
and the cost price of the different solutions
considered (total cost, per cubic metre of
slurry, per cubic metre of excavation).
The quantities of different materials expec-
ted to be consumed are estimated by consi-
dering the following volumes:
Volume of purges of the slurry circuit,
Volume lost to the surrounding ground,
Volume lost with solid spoil,
Volume of in excess slurry.
9.3 TESTING IMPLEMENTA-
TION AND FOLLOW-UP
Tests should be carried out to establish a sys-
tem for checking the required instructions
and specifications. These tests will concern:
Slurry types and components,
Requisite characteristics. The checks are
carried out by means of standardized tests
and/or other measuring systems (e.g. real-
time logging system).
Treatment of waste.
9.3.1 Documentary system and
checks
The checks should be described in proce-
dures specific to each project:
Checks of incoming products delivered to
the site (quantity and quality); the delivery
checks will be associated with sampling, as
required.
Ongoing checks should be carried out for
at least every lining ring, and should com-
pare the values at the start of the circuit and
after desanding in order to quantify the phy-
sical and chemical contamination of the
slurry.
Consumption of different products (water,
bentonite, additives, etc.) should be monito-
red daily.
The results of these checks should be recor-
ded on standardized project data sheets
(Appendix 8).
For formalization of this data, the documen-
tary system will therefore comprise at least:
a set of procedures,
a shift report (or daily report) serving to
draw up a report on the follow-up of effec-
tive parameters and consumptions.
an executive report at the end of the
project.
9.3.2 Personnel
Consideration must be given to the technical
qualification of the personnel, and where
necessary the needs for special training on
the techniques involved should be defined.
The workforce and supervisors must have
sufficient knowledge to be at ease with:
technical aspects of tunnelling slurries and
their treatment,
the effect of these aspects on the environ-
ment and health and safety (manufacturers
issue technical and safety data together with
advisory notices on use of their products).
10
10 USING SLURRY
10.1 RECEPTION OF BASIC
PRODUCTS
Bentonite is a natural product. If necessary,
its rehological characteristics should be chec-
ked when it is delivered to the site.
The quality of the mixing water used should
be analyzed at the basic formulation stage.
10.2 MANUFACTURE
Usually, mother slurries with high bento-
nite contents (60 to 80 kg/m
3
) are produced
in order to reduce the volumes to be stored.
This mother slurry is subsequently diluted
with water to achieve the required density
just before it is injected into the slurry circuit.
This dilution and injection must be carried
out very carefully, particularly as regards
compliance with the concentrations and qua-
lity of the mix. The slurry treatment station
must therefore have equipment specifically
for these operations.
Bentonite does not hydrate easily and the
efficiency of and thoroughness hydration
depends very much on the mixing energy
expended. It requires a high-turbulence
mixer followed by a minimum period of
maturing (12 to 24 hours).
Incorporation of additives also requires spe-
cial equipment for storage, handling, dilution
(where applicable), and batching.
Activity of clay: The activity of clay is repre-
sentative of ion charge that gives it the ability
to swell due to adsorption.
Adsorption: Fixing of water molecules on
the surface of elementary soil particles (clay
platelet for example).
Apparent viscosity (AV): Ratio of the shear
stress to the velocity gradient. The unit of
measurement is the pascal second (or milli-
pascal second). With the Fann rheometer, it
is calculated by testing at 600 rpm and divi-
ding the result by 2. The unit of measure-
ment is the millipascal second (1 millipascal
second = 1 centipoise (former unit)).
Bentonite: Cf. Appendix 2, Chapter 3.
Bingham fluid: Fluid requiring exertion of a
minimum stress to set it in movement. The
Yield Value determines the value of that
stress.
Cake: In laboratory testing, the thickness of
a layer of solid materials deposited on filter
paper in the filtrate measurement test (filter-
cake); the unit is the millimetre. For the mea-
ning in the context of excavation, refer to the
definitions in Chapters 3.1.2 and 3.1.4 .
Coagulants: Products that neutralize or
invert surface charges of suspended matter:
ferric chloride, lime, aluminium sulphate, etc.
Density: Ratio of the mass of a given
volume of one body to the mass of the same
volume of a reference body, under condi-
tions which must be specified for both
bodies (water at 4C for liquids). It is expres-
sed as a dimensionless number.
Fann rheometer: A.P.I standardized appa-
ratus for applying shear to a fluid by means
of an immersed cylinder rotating at a control-
led speed and for determining the response
of the fluid by measuring the stress applied
to a concentric cylinder left free to turn. The
preset speed of rotation are 3, 6, 100, 200,
300, and 600 rpm. Stress is read off in
lbs/100 Square feet. Simple calculation
methods enable the data obtained to be
used to determine the values of different
rehological parameters (apparent viscosity,
plastic viscosity, yield point)
Filter press: A filter press consists of a
series of hollow trays clamped between a
mobile plate and a fixed plate by a hydraulic
cylinder. The edges of the chambers thus
created are covered with filter cloth. Slurry is
pumped into the chambers, generally from
the centre of the trays, and the filtrate is col-
lected in a channel at the side.
Filtrate test: Laboratory test characterizing
the ability of a slurry to retain water. Filtrate
measurement is expressed as the quantity of
fluid collected in a test tube after 30 minutes
at a pressure of 7 bars exerted by an appara-
tus known as the filter press. The unit of mea-
surement is the millilitre. All things being
equal, the volume of filtrate is proportional
to the area of filtration, to the pressure, and
to the square root of the test duration.
Flocculants: Products with inter-particle
action due to bridging. They include high-
molecular-weight polymers, bentonite, etc.
Fluid: See Appendix 5, Chapter 3.
Gradient or velocity (or shear velocity):
See Appendix 5, Chapter 3.
Marsh viscosity (MV): Laboratory test
where the time in seconds for 946 ml of slurry
to flow through a 4.75 mm nozzle
(water = 26s). The reading obtained depends
on YP, PV, thixotropy, and density.
Consquently this measurement is hardly
representative of the characteristics of a
slurry.
Newtonian fluid: Fluid for which the shear
stress is directly proportional to the shear
rate.
pH: Expresses the acidity or alkalinity of an
aqueous solution. The pH value of pure
water is 7. The products used in tunnelling
slurry achieve their optimum yield when the
colloidal state of the slurry is in the pH range
from 8 to 10.
Plastic viscosity (PV): See Article 4.1.3.
With the Fann rheometer, plastic viscosity is
calculated by testing at 600 rpm and redu-
cing from the reading the reading taken at
300 rpm. , The unit of measurement is the
millipascal second (1 millipascal second =
1 centipoise (former unit)).
Polymers: See Appendix 2, Chapter 2.
Rheogram: Graphic representation of the
behaviour of a fluid subject to shear. Shear
stress is plotted against the velocity gradient.
Rheology: Branch of mechanics which stu-
dies the deformation of materials or their
flow under stress (see Appendix 5).
Shear stress: Force exerted on a surface by
a fluid and causing shear (refer also to
Appendix 5, Chapter 3).
Slurry: Also known as drilling mud/fluid.
Colloidal clay suspension, with or without
water-soluble polymers and/or salts to
enhance its original characteristics, that has
desirable rehological and filtration properties
and possibly the ability to stabilize ground to
be excavated.
Stiffness: See Article 4.1.4.
Thixotropy: Reversible phenomenon of
certain colloidal suspensions whereby they
fluidify when agitated and gel when left to
rest. Thixotropy can be estimated from the
evolution of gelling over time. With the Fann
rheometer, gels are measured by testing at
no more than 3 rpm after a waiting period of
10 sec. (gel 0) and 10 min. (gel 10). The unit
of measurement is lbs / 100ft
Yield point: See Article 4.1.4.
Yield value (YV): An extrapolated yield-
point value (see Article 4.1.4) derived from a
Fann rheometer test. Calculated by testing
at 300 rpm and deducting from the reading
the reading for the plastic viscosity, PV. The
unit of measurement is the lb/100 Square
feet. To convert to Pa, divide by 2.
Yield point (YP): See Yield value
A AP PP PE EN ND DI I X X 1 1: : G GL LO OS SS SA AR RY Y
11
A AP PP PE EN ND DI I X X 2 2: :
P PO OL LY YM ME ER RS S A AN ND D B BE EN NT TO ON NI I T TE ES S F FO OR R T TU UN NN NE EL LL LI I N NG G S SL LU UR RR RI I E ES S
1- GENERAL
Polymer: chemical compound obtained by
polymerizing molecules of a given com-
pound known as a monomer.
Polymers often have high molecular weights
(high polymers) and are formed by chains
repeating:
the same unit:
-A-A-A-A-A
or several units:
(-A-B-A-B-A-B)n
or linear units with branches:
B-B
|
(-A-B-A-B-A-A-B-A-B)n
|
A
The degree of polymerization ( n ) refers to
the number of repetitions of the basic unit.
The molecular weight - which depends on
the degree of polymerisation, the degree of
substitution, and the distribution of substitu-
tion govern the physical and chemical pro-
perties of a polymer, Organic polymers,
which are the most common products on the
market, can be pure or mixed with each
other or with inorganic products such as clay,
salts, carbonates, etc.
2 - TYPES OF POLYMERS
USED IN TUNNELLING
SLURRY
There are four types of water-soluble poly-
mers:
Bacterial polymers: xanthan, scleroglucane
Natural polymers: starches, guars
Synthetic polymers: acrylamides, acrylates
Semi-synthetic polymers: cellulose ethers,
modified starches and guars
2.1 STARCHES AND AMYLASE
DERIVATIVES
There are various natural starches: potato,
corn, wheat, rice starch, etc. and they have
characteristics as follows:
They consist of amylose and amylopectin.
They are hydrolyzed by heat to increase
their water solubility.
They are sensitive to fermentation and are
not greatly used other than as slurry filtrate
reducers.
Etherification gives them a better level of
viscosity.
2.2 - GUAR GUM
Guar gum is an extract of the guar seed. It is
often referred to as a natural polymer or
polysaccharide and is used as a viscosity
improver. Being non-ionic, it exhibits good
tolerance to mono-valent salts such as NaCl,
KCl, etc. or divalent salts like CaCl
2
, etc.
However, it is sensitive to bacterial attack, to
enzymes, to oxidation, and to high pH
values. It is difficult to screen. It can be cross-
linked to form a stiff jelly by creating bridges
between the different polymer chains.
2.3 - XANTHAN
Xanthan is obtained from bacterial fermenta-
tion of sugar by-products. It is often referred
to as a bipolymer, and is used as a viscosity
improver. Its pseudo-plastic naturehigh vis-
cosity at low shear rates and low viscosity at
high shear ratesis sought after in slurries
with low bentonite contents. Despite its anio-
nic nature, it exhibits good resistance to salts.
2.4 CELLULOSE ETHERS
Cellulose ethers are extracted from cellulose.
Depending on the derivation process, they
may be anionic (CMC, PAC) or non-ionic
(HEC). CMCs are widely used as viscosity
improvers and filtrate reducers.
CMCs are characterized by:
Their molecular weight: The higher their
molecular weight, the more viscous the
aqueous solutions made with them will be.
Their degree of substitution (or the number
of carboxyl groups attached to the molecule
(DS= 0.7 1.2 ): This characteristic gives
CMCs solubility and resistance to salts. If
substitution is more regular, as in the case of
PACs, clay stabilization is increased by redu-
cing the clay hydration and, consequently,
their dispersion and swelling.
Their degree of purity, i.e. their active-mat-
ter content: the other products they contain
are salts, which are by-products of the reac-
tion (degree of purity = 50 to 99%).
Cellulose ethers are not stable under bacte-
rial or enzyme attack.
2.5 - POLYACRYLAMIDES
Polyacrylamides are derivative of acrylamide.
A whole series of derivatives has been prepa-
red from the basic structure by copolymerisa-
tion:
Either with acid compounds like acrylic
acid, giving anionic copolymers: phpa.
Or with amine-type compounds, giving
cationic copolymers.
They are anionic, non-ionic, or cationic long-
chain, purely synthetic high polymers. They
remain stable under bacterial or enzyme
attack but are sensitive to high shear rates.
They are used as viscosity improvers and as
flocculants, possibly in association with a
coagulant to stabilize clay. The basic unit is
repeated a very large number of times and
has undergone more or less thorough hydro-
lysis, which results in a broad variety of pro-
ducts with varied characteristics regarding:
Viscosity,
Adsorption on clay,
Flow resistance,
Sensitivity to salts.
2.6 - POLYACRYLATES
Anionic low-molecular-weight synthetic poly-
mers used as plasticizers and dispersing
agents.
There are other varieties with higher molecu-
lar weights which are used as filtrate reducers
or bentonite dopes.
3 - BENTONITE
The gross percentage breakdown of
Montmorillonite is the same as that of alumi-
nium silicate and hydrated magnesia, like
many natural silicates, but its exceptional
properties are due to a special molecular
structure that is characterized as follows.
This appendix presents the main types of polymers used for underground works.
12
3.1 - STRUCTURE OF
BENTONITE
The elementary Montmorillonite platelet
consists of two tetrahedral layers of Si4+ on
either side of a third octahedral layer whose
centre is occupied by a cation such at Al3+.
The three layers comprise an elementary pla-
telet about 10 thick. The smallest volume
with all the characteristics of crystal is a sand-
wich of two layers of these elementary plate-
lets. In practical terms, bentonite always
takes the form of primary particles of about
ten platelets or micro-aggregate or agglo-
merations of several hundred platelets.
These are the finest particles of a bentonite
well dispersed in water. They are microscopic
in dimension (0.1 to 2 m).
During the alteration of igneous rocks (peg-
matites, diorites, rhyolites, ash), a series of
cation migrations have resulted in substitu-
tion of Si by Al, for example, in the tetrahe-
dral layers and of Al by Mg-Fe-Li cations,
etc., in the octrahedral layers. Substitution of
cations of lower valence creates excess nega-
tive charges in the platelet. This excess is
compensated by cations between platelets
(Na
+
, Ca
2+
for instance). These cations are the
source of the capability for cation exchange,
an essential characteristic of bentonites (CE
expressed in milliequivalents of cation per
100 g of bentonite calcined at 1000 C).
Since these substitutions, the numbers of
which are highly variable, occur in very
haphazard fashion and allow a great many
possible combinations, it is easy to imagine
the very large variety of bentonites that can
exist.
The exchangeable cations attached to the
available negative charges are located in the
spaced between the layers and in breaks in
the platelets. In an aqueous medium, water
molecules attach between the plates, cau-
sing them to move apart, causing intra-struc-
tural swelling of the bentonite. The space
between layers becomes the seat of cation
exchange. Some important properties of
bentonites depend closely on the type and
number of cations exchanged: swelling, vis-
cosity of suspensions, plasticity, Atterberg
limits, and some other characteristics of
interest for foundry work. The type of
exchangeable cations provides a basis for
classifying natural bentonites into two cate-
gories:
Natural calcium bentonites:
In which the exchangeable cations are gene-
rally Ca
++
and Mg
++
cations in varying propor-
tions.
Natural sodium bentonites:
In which the exchangeable cations are mostly
Na
+
(70-80%) cations, with approximately 20
to 30% Ca
++
and Mg
++
cations.
3.2 - BENTONITE
PROPERTIES
The properties of a bentonite depend on all
the mineralogical characteristics referred to
above, in short:
the type and variety of Montmorillonite,
the purity of the raw bentonite
(%Montmorillonite),
the size of colloidal hydrated particles (1-2 m),
the specific surface of the particles (expres-
sed in m
2
/g),
the cation-exchange capacity,
the type of exchangeable cations (alkaline
alkaline earth),
behaviour under heat (up to 1000C),
possible presence of electrolytes (stabili-
zing or flocculating action).
The properties of a bentonite also depend
on the physical state it is in. It can be solid,
semi-solid, plastic, semi-liquid, or liquid,
depending on the proportions of bentonite
and water. The essential properties of bento-
nite as a slurry component in tunnelling are
as follows:
adsorbant properties,
binding, agglomerating, and adhesive pro-
perties,
rehological properties (colloidal suspen-
sions),
clogging properties (colloidal suspensions).
3.3 - BENTONITE FOR
UNDERGROUND WORKS
Depending on the intended use (deep or
shallow drilling, special foundations, bento-
nite/cement grout, tunnelling, or ground
impermeabilization), bentonite producers
propose a variety of different products adap-
ted to each application. The performance of
these products depends on their origin and
the treatment the raw material may have
been given in the plant: activation (sodium
carbonate or other salts for calcium bento-
nites), drying, crushing, addition of mineral
or organic dopes (CMC, acrylate/acrylamide,
etc.). The requisite tests should be carried
out in order to select the products that best
meet the characteristics required by the
slurry schedule. In this respect, particularly
close attention should be paid to bento-
nite/polymer interaction, stability over time,
etc.
13
A AP PP PE EN ND DI I X X 3 3: :
P PR RI I N NC CI I P PL LE E F FO OR R E EV VA AL LU UA AT TI I O ON N O OF F T TH HE E R RE EH HO OL LO OG GI I C CA AL L
C CH HA AR RA AC CT TE ER RI I S ST TI I C CS S O OF F T TU UN NN NE EL LL LI I N NG G S SL LU UR RR RI I E ES S
The principle of ground support using slurry
pressure relies on the possibility of mobili-
zing a pressure in a liquid against a soil sub-
ject to a state of stress, be it saturated or not.
Soil is a porous medium through, which a
liquid whose rehological characteristics
match the Bingham model, can flow.
Slurry penetration into soil has been studied
experimentally in the laboratory by a number
of TBM manufacturers, using large permea-
ters (see Appendix 7). The test set-ups used
comprise a cylinder filled with the soil to be
studied, into which the slurry is made to
penetrate by a hydrostatic pressure diffe-
rence. The pressure gradient, the depth of
penetration, and the flow rate can also be
measured.
In the extreme case of a ground mass with a
very high in-situ permeability, and with a very
fluid slurry, flow occurs under the effect of
the hydrodynamic (over)pressure, until
such time as this pressure ceases to exist
when the slurry stops penetrating into the
ground because of head losses or the yield
value of the slurry.
In these experiments, it has been seen that
the volume of ground to be penetrated can
be insufficient to stop slurry penetration, and
that as a result there is permanent flow
through the ground, with a certain flow rate.
This extreme case corresponds to creation of
a hydraulic flow regime in a soil as a result of
a hydrodynamic pressure. The pressure can
be maintained only if there is the required
flow rate (generally high), which, in the
medium term, is not good for the support
function required.
On the other hand, as soon as a mem-
brane (polyethylene film, for instance) pre-
vents outward flow, hydrostatic thrust is
mobilized. This is the mechanism wanted in
slurry-pressure support system: ideally, for-
mation of a film or membrane, or more com-
monly of a clogged zone called the cake
that will mobilize all or part of the potential
hydrostatic thrust.
Such a cake can be the membrane or
impregnation type (see section 3.1.4).
The stability of the ground supported
depends on the stability of the soil particles
at the ground interface. When the stability of
an infinitesimal volume of a non-cohesive soil
at the edge of the free surface is studied, it is
demonstrated [1] that the pressure gradient
required to ensure stability can be be calcula-
ted from the relationship:
f = (1 n ) (
g

s
)
sin ( )
sin
where
n = porosity of the soil
g
= density of solid grains
s
= density of slurry
= angle of internal friction of the soil
= angle of the free surface to the hori-
zontal
Soil saturated with slurry
-
s
= (1 - n ) (
g
-
s
)
for = 90
The slurry is considered to act like a perfect
Bingham fluid, establishing a gradient known
as the stagnation gradient because of its
thixotropic properties. This stagnation gra-
dient, f
so
, depends on the permeability and
porosity (pore diameters) of the ground. It
has been studied both theoretically and
experimentally:
1. Theoretically: a study of the mobilization
of the flow of a Bingham fluid with a yield
point
f
in a circular tube of radius R shows
that flow in the tube ceases if the hydraulic
gradient p /L proves the relation
R = 2f x[L/p], yielding a relationship of the
type:
f
so
= (f in Pa)
2. Experimental studies
[2,3]
have demonstra-
ted a relationship between R and the d
10
of
the in situ soil (d
10
in mm):
f
so
= a.
f
/ d
10
, with a varying from 0.25 to 2.
a = dimensionless coefficient
3. More recently, theoretical and experimen-
tal studies
[4]
have led to a relationship of the
following type being established:
f
so
=
where K is the horizontal permeability of the
in situ soil, and A is an adimensional coeffi-
cient between 5 and 10 which in theory
increases with the degree of scatter of soil
pore diameters and decreases with gradual
clogging of the ground by slurry.
Comparison of the two gradients, one requi-
red by the ground and the other provided by
the slurry penetrating the ground, using the
safety factor inherent to uncertainties over
the values of the parameters (F 2), indicates
the yield point
f
required for the slurry, in
accordance with ground conditions.
When the pores are too big, the value of
f
required may be high. Rather than adjust the
characteristics of the bentonite solution
(higher concentration, additives, etc.), it may
be possible to reduce the pore diameter by
adding clay or sand fines, for example.
The particles added form a granular mix with
maximum dimension d
slurry
for which the fol-
lowing characterization can be proposed:
d
15ground
5d
slurry
(filter condition)
According to some authors
[2]
, experience
shows that relations of the type
d
15ground
8d
slurry
or d
20ground
= 3d
slurry
are acceptable.
tg.dS > ( -
s
). dv or f
g s
2.f
R
REFERENCES REFERENCES
[1] Les boucliers pression de boue, by J.
Ferrand and J. Pera Annales de lITBTP n
420 (December 1983)
[2] Stability of slurry trenches
MllerKirchenbauer 5
th
International Soil
Mechanics Congress, Madrid 1972, IV-12.
[3] Nachweis des Sicherheit gegen den
Schlitz gefhrende Gleitflgen im Boden,
nach DIN 4126 Vornorm. Kilcher (M) and
Karstedt (J).
[4] La prvention des fontis dans les travaux
au tunnelier : des tudes en temps rel.
P. Aristaghs, F. Berbet, P. Michelon
Tunnels et Ouvrages Souterrains No. 128,
March/April 1995.
[5] Impermabilisation du front de taille par
injection de boue bentonitiques pralable-
ment des interventions hyperbares (BPNL)
B. Demay, L. Nicolas Tunnels et
Ouvrages Souterrains No. 150 Nov./Dec.
1998.
1 - DEFINITION OF
RHEOLOGY
Rheology can be defined as the science of
the flow and deformation of matter. It studies
the reactions of all solid or liquid substances
to deforming forces and classifies them using
precise terms, and in the least complex
cases, serves to draw up empirical equations
taking account of deformation. It thus serves
to accurately define properties that we refer
to with vague terms such as thick, thin,
sticky, viscous, etc, but it calls into ques-
tion concepts that we feel we know about,
such as solid and liquid: when subjected to
long-term stress, most solids flow and
deform. The stained-glass windows of cathe-
drals, which are thicker at the bottom than at
the top, are one of the most spectacular
examples proving the fluid behaviour of glass.
2 RHEOLOGY OF
TUNNELLING SLURRIES
The rheology of tunnelling slurries can be
defined by a number of quantities (viscosity,
gel strengths, etc.) whose testing and measu-
rement are of great practical importance
since they govern::
Pump ratings
Cleaning of the excavation and suspension
of spoil
Correct flow velocities.
3 - DEFINITIONS AND
TERMINOLOGY
Fluid:
A fluid is a deformable continuous sub-
stance. It has no specific shape. It can flow
and undergo substantial deformation under
the effect of even very weak forces. Liquids
and gases are both fluids, but whereas a
liquid occupies a determined volume which
varies little with external conditions (tempe-
rature, pressure, etc.), a gas always takes up
the greatest volume available to it. In what
follows, the term is used loosely, and any
fluid is taken to be a liquid.
Laminar flow:
Laminar flow is a special kind of hydraulic
flow characterized by conservation of the
form of liquid layers during their movement.
Reynolds defined a quantity which bears his
name and which determines the kind of flow
in a pipe (laminar, unstable, or turbulent).
Viscosity:
Viscosity is the expression of frictional forces
between the particles of a fluid; it demons-
trates the imperfection of its fluidity. It
must be remembered that viscosity exists
only in relation to the movement of a fluid.
Velocity gradient (shear gradient):
A liquid flowing under a laminar regime can
be assimilated to a stack of layers sliding
14
A AP PP PE EN ND DI I X X 4 4 : :
S SL LU UR RR RY Y P PA AR RA AM ME ET TE ER R T TA AB BL LE E
The table below gives orders of magnitude in the form of bracket values for slurry parameters against different permeabilities in homogeneous
ground. These values are merely orders of magnitude for the purposes of illustration.
SOLS TYPES
Parameters Unit Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 4
K>1*10
-4
m/s 10
-4
<K<10
-7
m/s K<1*10
-7
m/s K<1*10
-7
m/s
permeable semi-permable impermable neutral impermeable reactive
(alluvium ETC.) (sandy soils, etc.) (chalk, etc.) (clay, etc.)
AV cp 15 - 40 10 - 20 8 - 20
PV cp 5 - 20 5 - 10 5 - 10
YP Pa 8 - 5 5 - 10 < 15
0/10 gel strengths lbs/100ft 10 - 30 3 - 20 Not applicable
Filtrate ml 20 - 50 15 - 30 Not applicable
Cake (API test) mm 2 - 6 1 - 5 1 - 5
Marsh viscosity s/946 ml 40 - 120 35 - 50 30 - 50
Density 1.02 - 1.15 1.02 - 1.20 1.02 - 1.60 1.02 - 1.30
pH 7 - 10 7 - 10 7 - 10
Sand % 1 5 1 - 5 1 - 5
(standardized test methods Recommended Practice Standard Procedure for Field Testing Water-Based Drilling Fluids API RP 13 B-1, 1 June 90)
S SL LU UR RR RY Y R RH HE EO OL LO OG GY Y
15
over each other, each driven at its own
speed. The velocity gradient between any
two layers of a fluid is therefore the quotient
of the velocity difference between those
layers divided by the distance between
them. The dimensional measurement of the
velocity gradient (sometimes called the shear
gradient or the shear rate) is the reciprocal of
a time; it is measured in s
-1
.
Shear stress:
Shear stress is the result of forces of internal
friction opposing the flow of liquid. It
depends on the velocity gradient of the fluid,
and its evolution in accordance with the velo-
city gradient characterizes the response of
the material to deforming forces, which the-
refore defines its components performance.
Shear stress is sometimes referred to as
shear tension; it is always compared to a unit
surface area, making it similar to a pressure,
and it is therefore expressed in Pa in the
System International (S.I).
4 COMPONENTS MODELS
In a laminar regime, the flow of a liquid is
characterized by a relationship between a
shear stress and a deformation velocity.
Depending on the type of fluid, this relation-
ship can take on different forms, the most
common of which are as follows:
Newton model: = x G
where : shear stress
G: velocity gradient
: viscosity
Bingham model: = YP + PV x G
where YP: yield point
PV: plastic viscosity
Ostwald model: = K x G
N
where K: consistency index
N: rehological performance index
Representative rheograms of these three
models are as shown below:
In practical terms, these very simple theoreti-
cal models do not fit tunnelling slurries per-
fectly. Since they can define a fluid only over
a limited range of velocity gradients, they
cannot take account of the plastic or visco-
plastic behaviour of tunnelling slurries.
Consequently other models have been deve-
loped. Most of them are based on the basic
models above.
Herschel-Bulkley model: = YP + K x G
N
This model is a synthesis of the above three
models, for, depending on the values of YP,
K, and N, it can represent them all:
YP = 0 , N = 1: Newton model (K = )
YP = 0 , N 1: Ostwald model
YP > 0 , N = 1: Bingham model (K = PV)
This model gives a better representation of
the behaviour of tunnelling slurries and
allows for subsequent introduction of notions
of gelling in time (YP = f (t)), which is charac-
teristic of destructuring/restructuring pheno-
mena.
Steiger-Ory model: G = a
3
+ c
The Steiger-Ory model was developed from
assumptions of symmetry and continuity
(curve through the origin, symmetry of repre-
sentation). The formula used to draw the
representative rheogram is
a mathematical function, G
= f (t ), whose terms do not
have any real physical
significance, but the equa-
tion has the advantage of
illustrating the behaviour
of many fluid types:
Newtonian, plastic,
pseudo-plastic. We shall
restrict ourselves here to
giving the empirical
Steiger-Ory formula and to
presenting different
variants for different values
for coefficients a and c.
If:
a = 0, the plot is a straight line passing
through the origin; the fluid is Newtonian,
with viscosity h = 1/c (1)
a < 0, is meaningless
a > 0, the liquid is pseudo-plastic or plastic,
depending on whether c is positive or negative
c< 0, in addition to the origin, the plot has
two further intersections with the vertical
scale. There is a yield point. The liquid is plas-
tic and close to being a Bingham fluid (2)
c 0, the liquid is pseudo-plastiqc (3), c = 0
being a special case where the liquid can be
considered to be a plastic material whose
yield point has been moved to the origin.
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
Velocity gradient Velocity gradient Velocity gradient
NEWTON BINGHAM OSTWALD
Shear stress t
Velocity gradient
16
P PR RI I N NC CI I P PL LE E O OF F O OP PE ER RA AT TI I O ON N O OF F A A S SL LU UD DG GE E T TR RE EA AT TM ME EN NT T P PL LA AN NT T
6.1 - SEPARATION OF SOLID
SPOIL FROM SLURRY: (in
real time)
6.1.1. Scalping: Separation of
large particles (> 6 mm approx.):
gravel and pebbles, but also
lumps and flakes of earth that
have not been broken down.
a) Scalping with vibrating screen: For sandy
and stoney ground that does not stick
b) Scalping with drum screen: Especially
good for sticky, clogging clayey ground.
6.1.2 - Desanding: Separation of
sand from slurry
Sand is separated out from the slurry in 1, 2 or
3 series stages of hydrocyclones. Centrifuges
may also be used to separate out silt.
How a hydrocyclone works: (from French
documentation: Mines et Carrires /
Lpuration physico-chimique des eaux)
6.1.3 - Dewatering:
Vibrating dewatering units are fitted with
slot-type grilles on a slight slope. They are
used to dewater underflow material from
hydrocyclones. After dewatering, sand and
silt has residual humidities of between 10 and
20%, depending on the characteristics of the
mucking slurry.
Unlike screens, there is a self desatura-
tion phenomenon in a dewatering unit: with
a given circulating load, an underlying layer
of filter material is formed.
Because of the diversity of the ground
types encountered and the broad range of
viscosities of mucking slurries, a desanding
unit with 2 separation stages plus dewatering
is generally necessary for most tunnelling
projects. The second separation stage refines
the relatively coarse split of the first.
6.2 - SEPARATION OF
EXCESS SLURRY FROM
RECYCLED SLURRY: (in real
time)
After desanding and desilting, most of the
slurry is fed back into the slurry circuit, after
compensating with fresh slurry to maintain
the required rehological characteristics. The
excess is disposed of, to maintain the correct
weight/volume balance (density and levels).
6.3 - TREATMENT OF EXCESS
SLURRY: (in real time, part-
ly as a background task)
The treatment of excess slurry is closely lin-
ked to the required spoil consistency (liquid,
paste, or solid) and the quality of the ground
water absorbed and of the water discharged
from the plant (pH, SS, hydrocarbons, etc.).
Cycloning is a process for separating liquids from solids that uses centrifugal force. Slurry is injected tangentially into the cylindrical part of the
cyclone. The vortex created causes the heavy, i.e. coarse particles to be thrown against the walls of the cyclone and to be carried down the coni-
cal section with downward flow while the finest particles, which are less affected by centrifugal force, are carried by
the upward flow. The fineness of separation increases with increasing inlet velocity, and a small-diameter hydrocy-
clone also separates out finer particles.
The split size, or d50, is the particle dimension which has equal chances of being in the overflow or underflow. It is
the grain size that is split exactly into two equal amounts by the hydrocyclone. The empirical Yoshioka and Hotta
formula can be used to calculate the d50 integrating viscosity:
0,2 x 10
6
.D
c
0,1
x D
0
0,8
x D
i
0,6
x
d
50
(m) =
Q x (
s
-
p
)
d50: split size in m
D
i
: equivalent diameter of cycline
inlet in metres
Q: inlet flowrate in m
3
/s
D
c
: cyclone diameter in metres
: apparent viscosity of slurry
1 + 2,5 x ((
p
1) / (
s
1) ) en mPa.s
s
: real density of solids in kg/ m
3
D
0
: overflow diameter in metres
p
: pulp density in kg/m
3
A division curve can be drawn up, with on the horizontal scale the grain size and on the vertical scale the percentage by mass of the underflow gra-
ding. The plot is generally linear between points d
25
and d
75
, from which the split size can be characterized by the imperfection coefficient I:
d
75
d
25
I = ;
the smaller I is, the better the split ( 0.3-0.4 for cyclones)
entre inlet asurverse overflow sous-verse underflow
2 x d
50
17
Treatment Appearance Density of Details
of discharge discharge
No treatment (direct discharge) Liquid 1,15 1,25 Slurry is remoed at its optimum density for
separation conditions
Thickening by flocculation-settlement Paste 1,20 1,40 Coagulant and flocculant required
Epaississement par centrifugation Paste 1,25 1,45 Flocculant required
Treatment with cement, and lagooning Solid 1,30 1,50 Addition of 20 to 40% cement by weight of dry
solids + 12 to 24-hours holding time
Belt-filter treatment Solid 1,60 1,75 Flocculant added to slurry
Filter-press treatment Solid 1,70 2,00 0 to 10% slaked lime added to slurry (by weight of
dry solids)
6.3.1 - Thickening by flocculation-
settlement of thick slurry paste
Flocculation requires effluent concentra-
tions of about 20 to 30 g per litre of dry
solids, which generally implies addition of
considerable quantities of water for dilution
before treatment.
Clay particles consist of a stack of elemen-
tary platelets of variable specific surface
( 20 m
2
/g for kaolinite / 100-150 m
2
/g for
construction bentonite): this structure
explains the high swellability of bentonite.
There is a layer of adsorbed water on the sur-
face of the particle (ionic double layer) which
is electrically charged with easily exchan-
geable cations (+). Its potential increases
with the specific surface of the particles. The
presence of more or less bentonite usually
requires there to be a phase of coagulation
by adsorption of cations to reduce the
potential of the ionic double layer, followed
by addition of a flocculant (generally a syn-
thetic polymer such as polyacrylamide) to
form inter-particle bridges (coagulant
consumption 100 - 200 ml/T of dry solids
flocculant consumption 100 - 200 g/T of
dry solids).
6.3.2 - Additional treatment by
pressing to obtain solid bulk
waste that can be handled easilty:
The filterability of bentonite slurries is gene-
rally poor ( r
0.5
= 10
14
to 10
15
m.kg
-1
)
If a belt filter is used, the slurry must be
flocculated beforehand, and belt filters can
only be used if the slurry has a low specific
resistance (r
0.5
< 10
11
m.kg
-1
) and is compres-
sible (s>1), for the filter pressures that can be
applied are relatively low (0.3 to 1 bar).
In most cases a filter-press produces hard,
solid cakes from slurrys with high specific
resistances (r
0.5
= 10
15
m.kg
-1
), using the pos-
sible filtration pressures of 0 to 20 bars. It is
generally necessary to treat the slurry before-
hand by adding lime or some other filtration
aid to dewater a slurry with a specific resis-
tance of r
0.5
= 10
12
m.kg
-1
.
6.3.3 - Slurry filter index: (from
Degrmont technical report on
water)
6.3.3.1 - Specific resistance to filtration
Use a filtration cell of the Baroid filter-press
type using compressed air and a paper filter.
Pour 100 to 150 ml of slurry into the cell.
Allow the filtrate to flow off and record the
volume V0
Apply the required pressure (0.5 to 16 bars)
and record the volume of filtrate every 10,
15, 20, 30, or 60 seconds, depending on the
filtrate flow velocity.
Filtrate volumes V0, V1, V2 correspond
to times T0, T1, T2
Plot points against Vx horizontally and
Tx / ( Vx V0) vertically, and measure slope a
of the linear part of the curve.
Specific resistance r in
m.kg
-1
= ( 2 A P S
2
) / ( C )
Where
P: filter pressure in Pa
A: slope of straight plot for filterability test, in
s.m
-6
S: filtration surface in m
2
: dynamic viscosity of filtrate in Pa.s
(approximately 1.1 x 10
-3
Pa.s at 20C)
C: dry solids at 105C divided by the volume
of slurry in kg.m
-3
Different slurries are generally compared
in terms of their r
0.5
values (0.5 bar pressure):
If r
0.5
= 10
14
to 10
15
m.kg
-1
: slurry not easily
pressed, requiring an admixture such as lime
to assist filtration
If r
0.5
= 1x10
11
to 5x10
11
m.kg
-1
: slurry easily
pressed, requiring no filtration admixture.
6.3.3.2 - Compressibility factor
Measure the specific resistance to filtration,
r, at several pressures, P.
Plot curve log r = f (log P)
The value of s is determined from the slope
of the straight line
= (log r1 log r) / (log P1 log P)
If s < 1: the filteration flow rate increases
as P increases => the slurry is not very com-
pressible and high pressures are recommen-
ded (15-16 bars).
If s > 1: the filtration flow rate decreases as
P increases => the slurry is compressible and
it is recommended that the pressure be rai-
sed gradually to facilitate drainage.
18
A AP PP PE EN ND DI I X X 7 7
P PE ER RM ME EA AM ME ET TE ER R
PressionValve + pressure regu-
lator with aadjustment from 0
to 0.15 MPa ajustable
Compressed air in
Levels
Translucent cylinder
Service pressure up to 0.15 MPa
Soil - (20 litres)
Attachment
4 legs allowing permeameter handling
ManomPressure
Entonfunnelnoir
Valve
Tube
T
Boue - (15 litres)
Overflow
gracylindergg
NB
It would be useful to have the permeater
To a tilting base so that filter cake
Performance under compressed air can be
Tested and to facilitate emptying
Additionnal equipment
Scales for soil weight
Scales for water weight
PERMEAMETER - PRINCIPLE GUIDE
19
S ST TA AN ND DA AR RD D S SL LU UR RR RY Y- - M MO ON NI I T TO OR RI I N NG G D DO OC CU UM ME EN NT TA AT TI I O ON N
The following forms are given to illustrate standard documentation for monitoring tunnelling slurry:
Daily monitoring report
Test report
20
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