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1-Application 2-Presentation

3-Session

4-Transport

5-Network 6-Data Link

File Transfer File Management Message Handling (e-mail) Formats data for network Converts data to a language that the network can handle. May Encrypts/decrypts (Codes and decodes graphics and file format information) (traffic cop) Establish and maintain link (the session) Maintain synchronization Reestablish lost connections Sets terms of communications Who talks first How long each can talk (most important layer) Flow Control selects appropriate rate Sequencing reassembles packets in correct order Sends ACK when data is correct Sends requests when data is contains errors Sending will retransmit in ACK not received May break large packets into smaller ones Transport layer services: (TCP in TCP/IP) (SPX (Sequence Packet Exchange - in IPX/SPX) Routs data - Selects Best path Translates network to physical address May segment/reassemble if necessary Divides data into frames for transmission Adds to frame: Destination address Source address Control Information (data) Error Checking Information

Often Terminal-toMainframe connection ISP-home

Routers Bridges, switches

7-Physical OSI Model Pneumonic Open System Interconnect Greek for Equal All People Seem To Need Data Processing Page 1 of 11

Nic, cables

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OSI Model

Application Layer

Presentation Layer

Upper Layers Gateways Hardware or Software operate in these three layers The most common is software running on a computer. Interfaces with network services ( applications) Services Include: File Print Message Etc. Formats the data Character sets are converted Data is encrypted Data may be compressed Usually handles the redirection of data streams Most standard computer systems use the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII). Mainframe computers (and some IBM networking systems) use the Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC). The two are totally different. Protocols at the Presentation layer can translate between the two. Maintains the session Establishes, Synchronizes, Maintains and Ends a Session Does: Security Authentication Connection ID Establishment Data Transfers (Checkpoints) Acknowledgment Connection Release Middle Layers Flow Control Handles Errors Acknowledges (ACK) receipt of data Resizes messages into smaller or larger segments (reassembles the messages back to original size) Handles logical address/name resolution Establishes one of two types of Connection Services: Connection-oriented o Uses acknowledgements and responses to establish and ensure virtual connection is maintained o TCP is a connection-oriented protocol (TCP/IP stack) Used by FTP and HTTP (File Transport Protocol) (HyperText Transport Protocol) o SPX is a connection-oriented protocol (IPX/SPX stack) Connectionless o No error or flow control less overhead faster o UDP is a connectionless protocol (User Datagram Protocol - part of TCP/IP

Session Layer

OSI Transport Layer

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stack) Used by TFTP and NFS (Trivial File Transport Protocol and Network File System) o IPX is a connectionless protocol o NetBEUI is a connectionless protocol Address/Name Resolution Translates logical address to logical name DNS (TCP/IP stack protocol) provides cross-platform Address/Name resolution. (Domain Name Services) NDS Database (Novel Directory Services) provides address/name resolution at the Transport Layer in response to higher level NDS Directory Requester Controls Logical Network Addressing and Routing Logical Network Addressing Uses protocol centric addressing (i.e. TCP\IP or IPX) Duplicate addresses often render both users down o With Win9X first user is OK second user will be off line Duplicate TCP/IP addresses are more common than IPX conflicts o IPX uses the unique MAC address as part of its address IPX addresses have two portions o Network portion o Node portion For IPX (8:12 XXXXXXXX:XXXXXXXXXXXX) o Network portion is an 8 digit hex number The IPX Network Address Randomly assigned by installation program or manually by SYSOP o Node portion is the MAC address For TCP/IP o A dotted decimal notation is used (XXX.XXX.XXX.XXX) o 4 three digit decimal numbers (or four octets) (decimal #s 1-254) Routing Routers create an internetwork out of network segments. Each routers contain a Routing Table that permits the router to pass data with specific addresses to a specific port Routing tables may be either Static or Dynamic o Static Routing Tables are created and maintained manually by the administrator. (Time-intensive, expensive) In NT use the ROUTE command o Dynamic Routing uses discovery protocols to identify segments in the internetwork and to update other routing tables most popular routing technology Older Route Discovery Protocols use RIP (Routing Information Protocol) a Distance Vector Route Discovery method RIP for TCP/IP RIP for IPX Distance Vector Route Discovery method broadcast the routing table every minute receiving routers add a 1 to the hop count and then Richard L. Goldman Page 3 of 11

Network Layer Layer 3

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rebroadcasts it. Creates high network overhead. Link State Route Discovery method is more efficient. Sends the table multicast (not broadcast) every five minutes Other routers only respond with changes to the table (a if there is a change) Current Link State Route Discovery protocols: o OSPF for TCP/IP (Open Shortest Path First ) o NLSP for IPX (NetWare Link Services Protocol)

Routable Protocols: Protocol Route Discovery Protocol IPX RIP or NLSP TCP/IP RIP or OSPF XNS RIP Nonroutable Protocols: NetBEUI On a workstation a Default Gateway is the address that packets are sent to if the address is not located on its segment Network Layer Devices Router Connects segments into an internetwork Connects LAN to the Internet Facilitates communications between segments by selecting best route Can connect dissimilar lower level networks (Ethernet & Token Ring) Can provide firewall services and packet filtering Brouter Designed to bridge dissimilar networks not very effective not used much Layer 3 Switch Does everything that a Layer 2 Switch does plus basic routing for VPNs Most routing protocols function at this layer Translates logical names into physical addresses Prioritizes data transfer (puts AV data ahead of e-mail) (Prioritization is know as Quality of Service (QoS) Routs data from source to destination Builds and tears down packets Lower Layers Controls: Controls logical network topology o Ethernet o Token Ring o Etc. Method of media access o Contention Page 4 of 11
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OSI Model Data Link Layer Layer 2

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o Polling o Token Passing Controls physical addressing Controls transmission connection and synchronization

Sending Data: Accepts data frame from Network layer and reformats it to match the network logical typology (Ethernet, Token-ring, etc). Adds Data Link header and trailer to each new data frame Manages the flow of data to the Physical layer (The Physical layer will reject a data frame if the network is busy.) Listens of an ACK for each data frame it sends and re-sends it if an ACK is not received. Receiving Data: Accept raw data frames from physical layer Checks destination address on each frame received Discards all data frames not addressed to it Performs an error check on accepted data frames o Send ACK if the data frame is OK o If it is bad, it does not send ACK and discards the data frame (The send site will re-sends a frame if the ACK is not received) Removes Data Link header and trailer from the data frame Repackages the data frame as required and passes it to Network layer IEEE 802 divided the Data Link Layer into two Sublayers (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) LLC - Logical Link Control o Provides error correction and flow control o 802 Specifications: 802.1 Network management 802.2 Logical Link Control MAC - Media Access Control (The Data Link layer physical address) o Has direct communications with NIC o Provides access control o 802 Specifications: 802.3 CSMA/CD 802.4 Token Bus 802.5 Token Ring 802.12 Demand Priority Data Link layer Devices Bridges o Connects network segments o Restricts local traffic to local segment o Bridges that operate up to the LLC sublayer can connect some dissimilar
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Physical Layer Layer 1

networks (ie Ethernet and Token Ring) o Bridges that only operate up to the MAC layer can only connect identical networks Switches (AKA Layer 2 Switch or Switching Hub) o Builds a MAC Address table and routs traffic to proper port Network Hardware The Physical Topology Translate data received from the Data Link layer into signals that can be transmitted on the medium being used. (called signal encoding) Functional physical interface with the network Transmission technique Pin layout and connector type Physical Layer Devices Cable media (also called bounded media) NICs Transceivers (may convert signal types Example 15-pin DIN AUI to RJ-45 DIN Detusche Industrie Norm (German National Standards body) Repeaters Used to extend the length of a network passes all data (and noise) Hubs (also called a concentrator) a multiport repeater o Active (Powered) amplifies signal extends segment length o Passive (Typically Unpowered) reduces signal strength and segment length MAUs Multistation Access Unit (also MSAU) o Used for Token Ring Networks o Physical Star, Logical Ring o Max of 33 MAUs can be chained 5 Network segment Max 4 Repeaters Max 3 Populated segments Max Assigned at the Factory (some can be changed in the field) AKA: Hardware Address Ethernet Address Physical Address NIC Address Adapter Address A 12 digit hexadecimal number (six-octet number) The first 3 octets identify Manufacturer o The OUI Organizationally Unique Identifer The last 3 octets are unique numbers for that manfacturer o The Universal LAN MAC address Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection Used by Ethernet Used by Token Ring The first computer turned on creates a token The token is then passed from computer to computer until it reaches a computer that wants to transmit data. Richard L. Goldman Page 6 of 11

5-4-3 Rule MAC Address

Media Access CSMA/CD Token Passing

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CSMA/CA

IEEE 802 Standard

802.1 802.2 802.3 802.4 802.5

Only the computer that holds the token can transmit data. It transmits the data with the token. When the receiving computer receives the data it sends the token back to the sender. The sender may then send more data. When the computer finishes transmitting it passes the token on to the next computer. (Collisions are avoided) Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance Used by AppleTalk The sender transmits a request to send (RTS) packet and waits for a clear to send (CTS) before sending. 802.1 LAN/MAN Management (and Media Access Control Bridges) 802.2 Logical Link Control 802.3 CSMA/CD (802.3u includes 100BaseT) 802.4 Token Bus 802.5 Token Ring 802.6 Distributed Queue Dual Bus (DQDB) Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) 802.7 Broadband Local Area Networks 802.8 Fiber-Optic LANs and MANs 802.9 Integrated Services (IS) LAN Interface 802.10 LAN/MAN Security 802.11 Wireless LAN 802.12 Demand Priority Access Method LAN and MAN management MAC Bridges Spanning Tree algorithms Logical Link Control (LLC) (Upper half of the Data Link layer link between MAC and Network layer) CSMA/CD Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection Ethernet (DIX) 802.3u includes 100BaseT Token Bus Factory Automation Not used for data communication Resembles MAP Manufacturing Automation Protocol (Developed by GM) Token Ring Developed by IBM 1985 Uses MAU Physical star Logical ring 4Mbps or 16Mbps Can talk to IMB mainframe computers Busy networks just get slow do not crash like Ethernet Uses twisted pair (can uses other cabling) rated by type (not Category). Token Ring NICs are more expensive than Ethernet NICs Signals are amplified and regenerated by each NIC or other Token Ring device Distributed Queue Dual Bus (DQDB) Metropolitan Area Network City size networks Page 7 of 11
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802.6
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802.7 802.8

802.9

802.10

802.11 802.12

Many-to-many computers Broadband LANs Uses FDM Frequency Division Multiplexing Fiber-optic LAN and MAN Defines use of fiber optics on 802.3-802.6 Includes: FDDI Fiber Distributed Data Interface 10BaseFL Integrated Services (IS) LAN Interface ISDN spec - Integrated Switched Digital Network ADSL and Cable Modems have eclipsed ISDN (They are Cheaper, Easier to Setup, and have Better Performance than ISDN) LAN/MAN Security Spec for VPN Virtual Private Network Using public (Internet) network for connections between LAN locations Encrypts data for transmitting in the open Cheaper than renting a dedicated line Wireless LAN Demand Priority Access Developed by HP Not supported by other manufactures (They use Fast Ethernet with 802.3u) Assigns higher bandwidth to frames identified with high priority Important to real time audio and video transmission AKA: 100VG (Voice Grade) 100VG-AnyLAN 100Base VG AnyLAN

Use the OSI reference model to aid in topology decisions Jun 7, 2001 Mike Mullins CCNA, MCP Author's Bio | E-Mail | Archive 2001 TechRepublic, Inc. Knowing the seven layers of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model and understanding where your network devices fit in that model can prove to be a valuable asset when it comes to adding devices to different segments of your network and placing devices between networks. This knowledge enables you to take control of your topology and keeps you from leaving your network design to your vendors. In this article, well explore the most common network devices and discuss where they should reside in a good network topology. Lets break down the devices by layer and by their function on a network. Figure A provides a good overview. Figure A

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Where different devices operate on the OSI reference model Figure A

Layer 1, The Physical Layer: Bits The Physical Layer provides the mechanical and electrical connections to the network. In other words, it sends bits down a wire. Repeaters connect media segments and provide amplification and retransmission of signals with no filtering and will propagate all errors. Use them only for connecting long segments of wire. Hubs connect multiple hosts to one segment of wire. All hosts share the same bandwidth. This means that there is one large collision domain. Use them at points where you would deploy a network sensor, so the device can see all the traffic on that portion of the network. Layer 2, The Data Link Layer: Frames The Data Link Layer splits data into frames for sending on the physical layer and receives acknowledgement frames. It performs error checking and retransmits frames not received correctly. It provides an error-free virtual channel to the Network Layer. The Data Link Layer is split into an upper sublayer, Logical Link Control (LLC), and a lower sublayer, Media Access Control (MAC). Bridgesconnect different types of networks (token ring, Ethernet, etc.), filter network traffic based on MAC address, and remove errors from the network. Use them to connect different types of internal networks. Switches, also known as Multiport Bridges, transfer data between different ports based on the destination addresses. Each segment or port connection is its own collision domain, but all ports are in the same broadcast domain. Switches can be used to connect multiple ports to the same destination (i.e., multiple uplink ports), but only one port can be active at a time. Historically, this is a hardware Layer 2 device and typically operates in one of three modes: Store and Forward: This mode copies the entire frame into memory, computes the Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) for errors, and then looks up the destination MAC address and forwards the frame. This is
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slow but offers the best solution for error correction without affecting the entire backbone in retransmission. Cut-through: This mode reads the destination address of the frame and forwards the frame to the port connected to that destination MAC address before the entire frame is seen. This is fast but provides very little error correction and will propagate errors from one collision domain to the next. Modified Cut-through: This mode reads the first 64 bytes of the frame and then forwards the frame to a port based on MAC destination address. This is fast and efficient in error correction.

Use Layer 2 switches as your LAN subbackbone device with each host connected to a switched port. This dedicates bandwidth and segments the lowest layer of your internal network. Switches are also pretty inexpensive. Layer 3, The Network Layer: Datagrams/Packets The Network Layer determines the routing of packets of data from sender to receiver. Routes can be static or dynamic. The Network Layer provides sequencing and flow control of data, selects routes, and provides quality of service through error detection, recovery, and notification. It also segments collision and broadcast domains. This is where a MAC or hardware address is translated into Internet Protocol (IP) addresses (or other routable protocol addresses, such as IPX or AppleTalk). Routers are basically software-based packet-forwarding engines. The Network Layer provides information to these devices, allowing them to base their forwarding decisions on criteria such as IP, link, or network node availability and performance. A routers true advantage lies in its flexibility in network protocol. Use routers for their intended purpose. They were born to bridge networks and separate broadcast domains. This is your gateway device to the Internet or your linking device between LANs or WANs. Switches (Layer 3)are nothing more than wire-speed routers. They come in two basic models. Port switches decide which physical port network traffic needs to go to and direct the traffic appropriately. Each lane is actually a backplane segment on the switch. Because the switching is performed locally via logic circuits and at wire speed, port switches are easier and cheaper to implement than frame switches but give many of the same benefits. Frame switches examine each Ethernet packet, determine which segment it came from and where it is going, and send it on its way. These are more expensive than port switches but add a significant performance boost to your network. They are also known as Learning Switches. Use these devices at the backbone of your network. Theyre less expensive than routers and much faster. But read on: Theres another switch that might be a better solution for your network. Layer 4, The Transport Layer: Segments The Transport Layer (sometimes referred to as the Host Layer) determines how to use the Network Layer to provide a virtual point-to-point connection. It creates and dissolves connections between hosts. The most popular types of transport connection are TCP and UDP. TCP is a point-to-point connection protocol that delivers messages in the order in which they were sent and guarantees delivery. UDP is a connection-less protocol with no guarantee of delivery. The Transport Layer is a legitimate end-to-end layer. In other words, a program on the source machine carries on a conversation with a similar program on the destination machine. Layer 4 Switches are sometimes called session switches because they track and maintain individual sessions from start to finish. (This doesnt make them Layer 5 Switches; theyre just aware of sessions.) Layer 4
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Switches make forwarding decisions based on session and application-layer information and provide load balancing across multiple servers. Layer 4 Switches determine (through different complex and weighted algorithms) the best server of a cluster to process a service request and bind the session to that servers IP address until the session is terminated. They also designate and prioritize traffic by application. Because they are aware at the session level, they have the ability to prevent unauthorized access to servers. Layer 4 Switches true selling point is handling all packet processing in hardware. They utilize custom application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs), making them extremely fast! Substitute Layer 4 Switches for your Layer 3 Switches only if you intend to operate high-speed intranet application servers with multiple 100-Mbit or gigabit interfaces. What you need and what you can afford Do not let design and implementation of your network become dominated by one specific vendor. While no two networks are exactly alike, a variety of vendors exist. So dont settle for a device from one vendor based solely on company name. Above Layer 2, most devices are very specific in the protocols and configurations they support. Know the intended purpose of your network and let budget and function dictate design. What kind of network design tips do you have? Do you use the OSI reference model for topology planning and troubleshooting? We look forward to getting your input and hearing your experiences regarding this topic. Join the discussion below or send the editor an email.

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