The Age of Reformation: Chapter 3 I) Society and Religion 1) Section Overview A) In the second decade of the sixteenth century,

a powerful religious movement against practices in the Catholic Church erupted that attacked superstitions that robbed people of both their money and peace of mind B) The Protestant Reformation took place at a time of sharp conflict between emerging nation-states bent on conformity and centralization within their realms and the self-governing towns and villages long accustomed to running their own affairs C) By the late fourteenth century, territorial rulers laws and customs began to supersede local custom; therefore, many townspeople and villagers perceived in the religious revolt an ally in their struggle to remain politically free and independent II) Social and Political Conflict 1) Reformation first broke out in cities of Germany and Switzerland A) some cities turned Protestant and remained so, while others only embraced Protestantism for a short time B) others developed mixed faiths 2) Groups and Individuals who supported the Protestant Reformation A) Guilds embraced the Protestant Reformation (a) guildsmen had a history of opposition to governmental authority (b) members of the printers guild benefitted as they printed propaganda B) People who were pushed around and bullied by either local or distant authority often supported the reformation (a) religious freedom and toleration inspired people who perceived themselves as subjects rather than free citizens (b) Protestantism= a priesthood of al believers vs. Catholicism= strict hierarchical structure III) Causes of the Reformation 1) The Protestant Reformation occurred in part as a response to the decline of the late medieval papacy A) Increasingly powerful secular rulers challenged the power of the popes, and since the secular rulers had the real power, money and armies to back up their will, the pope's claims to dominance were no longer real (a) Clement V came to live in Avignon in what later was known as the Babylonian Captivity * The prestige of the pope suffered enormously, with the English and German rulers accusing him of being merely the creature of the French king (b) The Great Schism * The return of the papacy to Rome only produced the Great Schism when, for a time, there were two popes, one in Rome and one in Avignon * Eventually the schism was solved by the 1417 Council of Constance which elected a new pope * The council voted along national lines showing clearly that religion and politics were never far apart * But the dethroning of two popes had challenged papal authority and made later popes unwilling to call a council to deal with church abuses for fear of being dethroned themselves, even when the church found itself under attack by Luther 2) The Modern Devotion, or Brothers of the Common Life

A) religious group that promoted religious devotion outside formal church offices and apart from religious vows (a) people lived communal lives devoted to theological studies and prayer but took neither oaths or vows B) Erasmus and Johannes Reuchlin were educated by this order (a) began in the towns of Zwolle and Deventer in the Netherlands C) Thomas a Kempis wrote Imitation of Christ, a summary of the beliefs of the Modern Devotion 3) Lay Control over Religious Life A) growing sense of regional identity and secular nationalism replaced loyalty to the papacy in Rome (a) upper clergy (bishops and cardinals)were influential members of the nobility who purchased their positions from the churchs benefice system B) upper clergy rarely lived in the region that was under their jurisdiction * most German towns had issued complaints to the Vatican about clergy members (b) sale of Indulgences comes under attack * Luther was not the first to protest the selling of indulgences * local rulers had permitted the selling of indulgences as some of the proceeds were invested locally * local rulers and were not happy when money was raised for distant interests like the construction of Saint Peters basilica in Rome (c) medieval privileges of the clergy revoked * churches and monasteries were exempted from laws and taxes that applied elsewhere * law also deemed it unnecessary for clergy to participate in military service, compulsory labor, standing watch at city gates, and other civil duties * clergy enjoyed immunity for jurisdiction of civil courts * by the eve of Reformation governments had begun the process of revoking the rights of the clergy 4) John Wycliff and John Huss A) Martin Luther was not the first to challenge the doctrine of the church (a) John Wycliff (1329-84) in England had urged that the church be stripped of property and abolish such practices as veneration of saints, pilgrimages and the cult of Mary for which he could find no Biblical justification * He translated the Bible into English so people could read it themselves and see that his points were valid * At first he had influential protectors who wanted church property which Wycliff claimed the church did not need, but as his radicalism increased (he attacked the Eucharist), Wycliff fell into disgrace * The low point came when his ideas were used by the peasants to justify their 1381 Peasants Revolt in England as they condemned the church for its luxury and incompetence * As a result of the revolt, Wycliff's views, now known as Lollardy, were regarded as subversive and espousing them became a capital crime in England by 1400 (b) Wycliff's ideas spread to Bohemia to John Huss (1375-1415), the rector of the University of Prague * The Czech king Wenceslaus' sister, Anne, had been married to Richard II of England, and when he was murdered, she fled to Bohemia with her confessors who had been influenced by Wycliff

Huss' criticisms of the church fed Czech resentment against their German overlords Huss was invited to the Council of Constance to defend himself after being assured of his personal safety, but when he arrived, he was instead tried, convicted, and executed as a heretic * This produced the Hussite revolt (1420-24) in which Czech aristocrats seized the lands of the church and defeated Catholic German armies sent to put down the rebellion * Czechoslovakia would not be brought back into the Catholic fold until the 17th century following the Thirty Years War B) Wycliff and Huss were responding to an outcry among Catholics for popular piety and mysticism, as well as a preoccupation with death resulting from the onslaught of the Black Death C) Luther would respond to this as well, writing hymns which the entire congregation could sing and which were based on German folk songs (a) Gregorian chants in the Catholic church, by contrast, had become so technical that they required a professional choir to sing D) The main complaints of the reformers began with clerical immorality (a) Celibacy was hard to enforce, and drunkenness and gambling among the clergy were widespread (b) Many priests, especially the lower clergy, lived with women (c) Instead of stopping the practice, the church just taxed the couples to make their children legitimate E) Clerical ignorance was another complaint (a) The standards of ordination were shockingly low (b) It is estimated that maybe no more than 2% of the clergy could actually understand the Latin liturgy (c) As lay people learned to read Latin in the Renaissance, they could quickly see how ignorant the clergy really was (d) The printing of Bibles, moreover, allowed people to read the passages themselves; by 1522, there were 18 translations of the Bible F) Clerical pluralism was another abuse (a) Sometimes churchmen held several offices at the same time, just collecting the revenues but not visiting their parishes (b) This was especially true of Italian churchmen who had offices in England and Germany but never went there (c) Nationalistic resentment allowed some to believe that Germany and England were "second-class citizens" in the church as a result (d) Nationalists in the north were further angered by the domination of the Italian popes G) Many also criticized the church's lack of heartfelt piety IV) Section Two: Martin Luther and the German Reformation 1) Section Overview A) Northern humanists had set a sentiment of opposition to Rome in the German states which provided a solid foundation for Luthers movement B) Martin Luther * son of a successful miner * educated in Mansfield, Magdeburgwhere the Brothers of the Common Life had been his teachers

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earned a master of arts degree from the University of Erfurt in 1505 entered the Order of the Hermits of Saint Augustine in Erfurt in 1512 he moved to Wittenberg where he earned his doctorate in theology and became a leader in the monastery and the spiritual life of the city 2) Justification by Faith Alone A) beliefs of the Catholic Church regarding salvation (a) salvation is a joint venture , a combination of divine mercy and human good works * Luther believed Christians were left counting their merits and sins and struggled to maintain an inner peace of mind * Luther struggled with the idea that one must live a nearly sinless life to be saved * faith alone (sola fide), Luther taught, was all that was needed for salvation * This faith is a gift from God and cannot be earned 3) The Attack on Indulgences A) Indulgencea remission of the temporal penalty imposed on the penitents by priests. * first given to Crusaders who could not complete their earthly penance because they had fallen in battle * by the late Middle Ages, indulgences had become an aid to laypeople who were anxious about the time they may spend in purgatory * in 1343, Pope Clement VI proclaimed the existence of a treasury of merit, the fund of goodness built up by the saints and Christ, to give absolution * Now, instead of undergoing true penance, people were simply buying indulgences * Worse, those who sold them were making piles of money; the Fuggers in Augsburg got a onethird commission on each one they sold * Pope Sixtus IV extended indulgences to the unrepented sins of all Christians in purgatory (b) Selling Indulgences * sales of indulgences became a joint venture between Albrechtthe Augsburg banking house of Fuggerand Pope Leo X; they split the money raised 50/50 * John Tetzel was enlisted to preachor marketindulgences in Albrechts territory (c) Luther began his public protest of indulgences on October 31, 1517 when he posted the 95 theses to the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg * These theses challenged papal power to grant indulgences and criticized papal wealth * More important, they began the process of turning a critique of Catholicism into a new religion by saying the sole source of authority was the Bible and that indulgences were not in the Bible * To prove his point, Luther translated the Bible into German 4) Luthers Excommunication and the Diet of Worms A) Luther debated Catholic doctrine against John Eck Leipzig (a) Luther challenged the infallibility of the pope and Church councils (b) contended that sole authority of the Church lies in scripture alone (c) defended Jan Hus who had been condemned to death for heresy at the Council of Constance B) He believed: (a) The Bible was not the sole source of authority; the church recognized the role of the church fathers, the saints, and the councils (b) Luther only recognized two sacraments, baptism and communion, the only two mentioned in the Bible, while the church recognized seven (c) Luther could find no Biblical authority for the cult of Mary, purgatory, or relics, all of which were in fact added in the Middle Ages (d) And Luther rejected transubstantiation C) Luther published three famous pamphlets

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(a) Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation * tried to convince the German nobility to the political and economic power of the Church (b) Babylonian Captivity of the Church * argued that baptism and Eucharist were the only two sacraments mentioned in scripture (c) Freedom of a Christian * belief in salvation through faith alone D) Exsurge Domine (a) papal bull issued by Leo X which condemned Luther for heresy and gave him sixty days to recant E) Diet of Worms (a) meetingwhich was overseen by Charles Vwhere Luther was ordered to recant (b) Luther refused to recant and was placed under an imperial ban, which made him an outlaw to both religious and secular authorities F) Frederick the Wise protects Luther (a) remained in hiding for a year at the Wartburg castle (b) he translated the New Testament into German using Erasmuss new Greek text and Latin translation G) Imperial Distractions: War with France and the Turks (a) Charles V was the Holy Roman Emperor and king of Spain who had other responsibilities to attend to * family (the Habsburg dynasty) fought four major wars against France over territory in Italy * Charles V was responsible for stopping the advance of the Turks into eastern Europe (b) Peace of Augsburg which gave regional princes the authority to determine religious matters in their lands 5) How the Reformation Spread A) Political leaders, who had sought religious reform for decades, welcomed Luthers message B) Elector of Saxony and Prince of Hesse led the politicization of religious reform within the territories (a) recognized the political and economic opportunities if the Catholic Church failed C) Schmaldkaldic League (a) a powerful defensive alliance of Protestant states that prepared for war against the Catholic emperor 6) The Peasants Revolt A) Although declared a heretic, Luther was protected against the troops of Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, because the latter was busy fighting the Turks in eastern Europe and would require German troops to do so (a) Thus, German rulers made the protection of Luther the requirement for sending men (b) This gave Luther precious time to develop his ideas which came together in the Augsburg confession of 1530 which later became the creed of the Lutheran church 7) The Political Impact of Luther's beliefs A) The political impact of Luther's beliefs was enormous (a) Many worldly people embraced Luther because they hoped to get their hands on church lands and wealth which Luther had condemned (b) Many also objected that papal taxes to support a luxury loving church were draining wealth from northern Europe for the enrichment of Italy, and that Germany was especially prone to being "taken" because she did not have a central government to defend German interests (c) Some saw in Luther's views a way to unify Germany on the basis of a new religion B) The Peasants of Germany revolted in 1524, demanding the abolition of serfdom and a reduction in taxes

(a) While Luther recognized the justice of their grievances, he was appalled at the violence and asked the princes to crush the rebellion (b) This they did by 1525 with 100,000 dead (c) The religious strife in Germany was solved with the Peace of Augsburg in 1555 * Each German prince was to decide the religion of his subjects * Protestants were to keep confiscated church lands * All Protestant sects except Lutherans were forbidden * And from now on, Catholic bishops converting to Lutheranism would be obliged to give up their property * The Peace of Augsburg added to the political disintegration of Germany by granting more power to the German princes, including now the right to determine the religion of their subjects V) Section Three: The Reformation Elsewhere 1) Section Overview A) German Reformation came first but it quickly caught on in Switzerland and France 2) Zwingli and the Swiss Reformation A) Political make-up of Switzerland (a) loose confederation of thirteen autonomous cantons, or states (b) strong nationalism (c) desire for church reform had been deeply ingrained in Switzerland for about a century B) Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) (a) inspired by Erasmus (b) widely known for his opposition to the sale of indulgences and religious superstition (c) he advocated for the right of clergy to legally marry (d) disputed the notion of transubstantiation, the worship of saints, pilgrimages, purgatory, certain sacraments, and fasting during Lent since they are not mentioned in scripture C) Zwingli transformed Zurich into the center of the Swiss Reformation and made it a puritanical state (a) The Marburg Colloquy D) Martin Luther and Ulrich Zwinglidifferences (a) Disagreement over the Eucharist * Luther believed that Jesus physical body was present in the Eucharist * Zwingli believed that Christs presence in the Eucharist was symbolic or spiritual 3) Swiss Civil Wars A) Civil wars broke out between Catholics and Protestants (a) Two major battles (b) June 1529this battle was won by the Protestants and forced the Catholic cantons to recognize the rights of Swiss Protestants (c) October 1531Catholics victory and Zwingli lay wounded on the battlefield and was executed VI) Section Four: Anabaptists and the Radical Protestants 1) Section Overview A) Some people accused Zwingli and Luther of not promoting drastic change and these radicals desired a more thorough implementation of Apostolic Christianity B) Anabaptists, the sixteenth century ancestors of the modern Mennonites and Amish, were the most important of the radical groups that emerged who distinguished themselves by rejecting infant baptism and insisted on adult baptisms since Jesus had been baptized as an adult 2) Conrad Grebel and the Swiss Brethren

A) Conrad Grebel (1498-1526) (a) founder of the Anabaptists who were known as the Swiss Brethren (b) he was initially a co-worker of Zwingli but favored a more literal interpretation of scripture 3) Anabaptist Beliefs A) Schleitheim Confession (a) outlines the beliefs of Anabatists B) believed in pacifism, refused to swear oaths, and non-participation in the offices of secular government C) separated themselves from established society in order to live communal lives in the imitation of Christ (a) secular authorities perceived this separatism as a threat to basic social bonds (b) Anabaptist Reign in Munster * Catholics, Lutherans, and Zwinglians all opposed Anabaptism and they were persecuted in cities; * movement found a footing in the rural, agrarian classes of people * Anabaptism in the German city of Munster D) Jan Matthys of Haarlem and Jan Beukelsz of Leiden established an Anabaptists stronghold in Munster E) Catholics and Lutherans were forced to convert or leave the city F) Implemented an Old Testament theocracy in which polygamy was the norm G) these reforms shocked the rest of Europe and Protestant and Catholic armies attacked Munster and executed the radical leaders 4) Menno Simons (1496-1561) A) established a non-provocative separatist Anabaptism which became the historical form in which Antabaptist sects survived down to the present VII) Spiritualists 1) Protestant dissenters who scorned institutional religion 2) Significant spiritualists A) Thomas Muntzerdied as leader of the peasants revolt in Germany B) Sebastian Francka critic of all dogmatic religion who proclaimed religious autonomy and freedom of every individual soul C) Caspar Schwenckfeldprolific writer and wanderer who established a Church VIII)Antitrinitarians 1) advocated for a commonsense, rational, and ethical religion 2) notable Antitrinitarians A) Michael Servetusa Spaniard who was executed in Geneva at the encouragement of John Calvin who found his teachings blasphemous against the trinity B) Lelio and Faustus Sozzinitwo Italian men who were the founders of Socinianism and were strong opponents of Calvinism and in particular the ideas of original sin and predestination IX) Section Five: John Calvin and the Genevan Reformation 1) Section Overview (a) Calvinism replaced Lutheranism as the dominant form of Protestantism in the second half of the sixteenth century (b) Calvinism was the religious ideology that inspired massive political resistance in France, Germany, the Netherlands, and Scotland

(c) Calvinist beliefs * divine predestination, that is that you were saved or damned before birth ~ The argument ran that all men had inherited Adam's sin and all were therefore damned However, God in His infinite mercy saved some people before they were born, not because they deserved it, but because God was merciful Nothing done here on earth could change God's mind ~ The idea of predestination rested on the supreme power of God and the weakness of man * it is the individuals responsibility to reorder society according to Gods plan (d) John Calvin (1509-1564) * born into a wealthy French family * he earned a degree in law from a university in Paris * he believed that humans must conform to Gods will 2) Political Revolt and Religious Reform in Geneva A) People of Geneva revolt against the ruling Catholic bishop B) Guillaume Farel and Antione Froment arrived in Geneva shortly after the revolt and implemented religious reform C) Some thought Calvin and Farel had gone too far and they were exiled from Geneva D) Calvin wrote Institutes of the Christian Religion 3) Calvins Geneva A) Calvin was invited back to Geneva when his supporters were elected to government positions B) Calvin organized cooperation between the secular leaders and the clergy in matters of internal discipline C) Four Offices in Geneva (a) There were five pastors (b) teachers or doctors to instruct people in doctrine (c) elders, a group of twelve lay people chosen by the people of Geneva to oversee the life of everybody (d) deacons to dispense church goods and services to the poor and sick D) Predestination was at the center of Calvins beliefs (a) controversial as it denies the existence of human free will (b) living as the Bible instructed them to do is presumptive evidence that they were among Gods elect E) Calvin implemented strict moral order in Geneva (a) 5,000 refugees from France, England, and Scotland fled religious persecution and moved to Geneva (b) considered a womans paradise because there were strict laws against men beating their wives X) Section Six: Political Consolidation of the Lutheran Reformation 1) Section Overview A) Several attempts were made to eradicate Protestantism B) The political triumph of Lutheranism in the Holy Roman Empire validated that it would remain in Europe as a competing ideology with Catholicism 2) The Diet of Augusburg A) Conference in the Holy Roman Empire (a) presided over by the Catholic emperor Charles V (b) assembly of Catholic and Protestant leaders within the empire met to discuss the issue of faith (c) Charles V, and his Catholic supporters, demanded that all Lutherans revert to Catholicism B) The Schmalkaldic League (a) an alliance of Lutherans who opposed Charles Vs policy

(b) the league produced two documents, the Augusburg Confession and Schmalkaldic Articles, that advocated a moderate form of Protestantism 3) Expansion of the Reformation A) regional judicial bodies composed of theologians and lawyers oversaw the Protestant churches and replaced the old Catholic bishops B) education reforms in Germany provided compulsory primary education based on humanist curriculum C) King Christian II of Denmark promoted Protestantism D) King Gustav I of Sweden embraced Lutheranism so he could confiscate church lands E) Many people in Poland adopted Protestant views 4) Reaction Against Protestants A) Charles Vs Catholic army crushed an army assembled by the Schmalkaldic League (a) Protestant leaders John Fredrick of Saxony and Philip of Hesse were captured B) Protestant leaders went into hiding and Magdeburg became a refuge for persecuted Protestants 5) Peace of Augsburg (1547) A) Charles V realized that Protestantism was too deeply entrenched in the Holy Roman Empire to eradicate it B) Peace of Passau (August 1552) (a) Protestant forces defeated the army of Charles V and forced negotiations (b) at this meeting, Charles V reinstated Protestant leaders and promised Lutherans religious freedom C) Peace of Augsburg (September 1555) (a) declared that the ruler of a land would determine its religion (b) people discontented with the religion of their region were permitted to migrate to another (c) religious freedom did not extend to Calvinists and Anabaptists XI) Section Seven: The English Reformation 1) Section Overview: A) England maintained relative freedom from papal influence throughout the late medieval period (a) Edward I had rejected efforts by Pope Boniface VIII to prevent secular taxation of the clergy (b) rejected papal appointments to positions (c) The English Reformation was unique in that it was clearly politically motivated (d) England had already been the scene of reform with Wycliff and Thomas More B) Lollards in England (a) followers of John Wycliffe (b) believed the extravagance of the Catholic Church interfered with proper worship (c) basic beliefs * iconoclasts * church leaders should not pursue secular power or wealth * looked to scripture for religious truth * consubstantiation 2) The Preconditions of Reform A) some Cambridge theologians formally debated Luthers beliefs (a) William Tyndale translated the New Testament of the Bible into English B) Cardinal Thomas Wolsey and Sir Thomas More guided royal opposition to Protestantism in England C) Henry VIII had been declared defender of the faith by Pope Leo X for his opposition to Protestantism 3) The Kings Affair

A) Henry VII had arranged the marriage of his eldest son Arthur to Catherine of Aragon, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain B) Prince Arthur died shortly after their marriage so Henry took Catherine as his wife (a) Pope Julius II issued a special dispensation that allowed Henry to legally Mary his deceased brothers wife 4) the marriage of Catherine and Henry produced only one child, Mary, and Henry was concerned of the political implications of leaving only a female heir 5) by 1527, already married to Catherine for eighteen years, Henry fell in love (or lust) with Anne Boleyn and sought to marry her and attempt to produce a son A) Henry wanted a divorce from Catherine of Aragon who had not produced a male heir (a) Their daughter Mary would become Queen, and England had never been ruled by a queen before (b) Henry VIII was aware of the possibility of civil war, as England had already experienced in the War of the Roses B) shortly before Henry sent a plea to Rome for an annulment of his marriage to Catherine, Charles Vs army had sacked Rome and held Pope Clement VII hostage (a) since Charles V was also Catherines nephew, it was not in his interest to let the pope annul her marriage to Henry C) since Thomas Wolsey was unable to arrange Henrys annulment from Catherine, Henry dismissed him and promoted two Lutheran sympathizersThomas Cranmer and Thomas Cromwellas his close advisors 6) The Reformation Parliament (a) series of meetings which set the precedent that changes in religion must receive approval of Parliament and monarch before enactment (b) Convocation, or leg assembly representing the English clergy, publicly recognized Henry VIII as the head of the church in England B) Submission of the Clergy * placed cannon law under royal control (b) Henry appointed Thomas Cranmer as archbishop of Canterbury * he led the Convocation in invalidating Henrys marriage to Catherine of Aragon (c) Henry then married the pregnant Anne Boleyn (d) Two important pieces of legislation * Act of Successiondeclared the children of Henry and Anne the rightful heirs to the throne * Act of Supremacydeclared Henry the only supreme head of the Church of England (e) Thomas More and Bishop John Fisher of Rochester refused to accept these acts and Henry had them executed (f) Parliament dissolved Englands monasteries and nunneries (g) Monarch as head of the Anglican Church * Anyone who disagreed with Henry as the head of the English church was also disagreeing with him as king of England and thus guilty of treason; for this crime, Thomas More was beheaded * Henry moved to dissolve the monasteries and sold the land or gave it to men he could trust * This replenished royal coffers and also created accomplices in crime * Any attempt to restore Catholicism would mean the church would retake these lands * The "new men" as these new owners were known thus had a vested interest in supporting Henry (h) Parliament's role * The king had to work with Parliament to make his reformation so he could claim the support of the people whom Parliament represented

Thus the role of Parliament was enhanced in England while in other areas of Europe, representational assemblies were going out of fashion (i) The dogma of Henry's church was still Catholic, with the major exception that Henry and not the pope was the head of it * Henry still required transubstantiation as doctrine and confession to the priests, for example * Protestant ideas crept in slowly under his son Edward (1547-53), son of his third wife, Jane Seymour * Only then was the requirement of celibacy repealed and a new Common Book of Prayer established C) Wives of Henry VIII (a) Catherine of Aragonmarriage ended in divorce or was invalidated; they had one daughter, Mary (b) Anne Boleynbeheaded on allegations of treason and adultery; they had a daughter, Elizabeth (c) Jane Seymourdied after giving birth to the future Edward VI (d) Anne of Clevesmarries her to establish an alliance with the Protestant princes of Germany; Henry found her repulsive and had the marriage invalidated (e) Katherine Howardexecuted for adultery (f) Catherine Parrremarried for a fourth time after Henrys death D) Queen Mary (a) At Edward's death, Mary, the daughter of Catherine of Aragon, became queen (1553-58) (b) She tried to bring Catholicism back and her efforts have earned her the sobriquet of "bloody Mary." (c) She was quite unpopular, especially after marrying her cousin, Philip II of Spain, and forcing England into a war with France which England lost (and which forced England to give up Calais, the last English possession in France) (d) Mary executed some 300 Protestants, including former Archbishop Cranmer who had helped Henry divorce her mother E) Elizabeth I (a) When Mary died, her half-sister Elizabeth, daughter of the executed Anne Boleyn, became Queen (b) Elizabeth ran a middle course between Protestant and Catholic, insisting primarily on her authority as head of the realm * The Articles of Faith were written broadly so that as many as possible could swear to them * You had to attend a Church of England service, but Elizabeth did not inquire too closely into what you did the rest of the day, provided your loyalty to her was not questioned (c) Elizabeth was, therefore, a pragmatist, able to distinguish to a remarkable degree for the 16th century between church and state (d) The inability of the rest of Europe to do so, however, would plunge Europe into devastating wars of religion 7) The Kings Religious Conservatism A) Church of England split from Catholicism on only very few issues B) Six Articles of 1539 (a) reaffirmed transubstantiation (b) denied the Eucharistic cup to laity (c) upheld celibacy of clergy (d) continuation oral confession (e) England had to wait for Henrys death until it could enact genuine Protestant reform

8) The Protestantism of Edward VI A) Henrys son Edward VI took the throne at age ten (a) royal advisors Edward Seymour, the Duke of Somerset and the duke of Northumberland ruled the country B) major reforms (a) clerical marriage (b) communion wine shared with laity (c) Act of Uniformity (1549) * images were removed from churches * Thomas Cranmers Book of Common Prayer was imposed on the people of England (d) Second Book of Common Prayer issued by Cranmer * taught justification by faith and the supremacy of Holy Scripture * denied transubstantiation * recognized only two sacraments: baptism and eucharist C) Bloody Mary repealed Protestant reforms and imposed strict Catholic rule on the people of England D) Elizabeth I succeeded Mary and worked out a lasting religious settlement for England XII) Section Eight: Catholic Reform and the Counter Reformation 1) Sources of Catholic Reform A) Several reform groups emerged within the Catholic Church that emphasized apostolic piety (a) Theatinesa group who trained reform-minded leaders in the higher level of the church hierarchy * Bishop Gian Pietro Carafa, who founded this group, would go on to become Pope Paul IV (b) Capuchinssought to return to the ideas of Saint Francis (c) Barnabites and Somaschiworked to repair moral, spiritual, and physical damage done to people in war-torn Italy (d) Ursulinesa new order of nuns that established several convents in Italy and France B) Saint Teresea of Avila and Saint John of the Cross (a) Spanish mystics (b) encouraged apostolic piety C) By 1547, the Protestants were in control of England, Scotland, Scandinavia, the northern half of Germany and great pieces of France D) Catholics responded by taking the initiative and no new areas "fell" to the Protestants with the exception of the Netherlands E) This Catholic Church had actually begun a series of reforms before the Protestant Reformation, but the pace quickened in the 16th century F) One example of this reform were new religious orders (a) These were needed to raise the moral and intellectual level of the clergy in response to criticisms leveled against the church (b) Orders of Nuns * The Ursulines were an order of nuns trying to fight heresy through Christian education to train future wives and mothers; in this way, the Catholics reached out to women and their educational needs * The Carmelites were an order of barefoot nuns, founded by St. Teresa of Avila, who lived in extreme poverty, thus responding to the Protestant charge that the Catholics were too concerned with luxury 2) Ignatius of Loyola and the Jesuits A) The Jesuits, or Society of Jesus

(a) organized by Ignatius of Loyola (b) launched aggressive missions in India, Japan, and the Americas B) Ignatius wrote Spiritual Exercises which contained mental and emotional exercises designed to teach one self-mastery over ones feelings C) Jesuits fought against the Reformation (a) Taught that good Catholics deny themselves and submit without question to higher church authority (b) perfect discipline and self control were essential (c) Jesuits helped counter the Reformation and win many Protestants back to the Catholic persuasion (d) But the most important was the Society of Jesus, or Jesuits, founded by Ignatius Loyola, a Spanish nobleman and warrior who decided to become a soldier of Christ (e) The Jesuits were subject to iron discipline and became the pope' shock troops in the Catholic Reformation (f) They became confessors and advisors to kings and had enormous political impact (g) Jesuits created excellent schools and engaged in missionary work as far away as Ceylon, Japan and India 3) The Council of Trent A) Emperor Charles V advised Pope Paul III to call a general council of the church to reassert church doctrine (a) Council of Trent included three sessions spread over the course of eighteen years due to war, plague, and politics B) Reforms produced by the council (a) end the sale of church offices (b) bishops were forced to move to their dioceses (c) required bishops to say mass and preach in their dioceses (d) seminaries were to be established in every diocese in order to better train priests C) Conservatism at the council (a) Catholic Church reaffirmed its conviction in * good works were necessary for salvation * all seven sacraments * transubstantiation * withholding of the Eucharistic cup from the laity * clerical celibacy * purgatory * the veneration of saints, relics, and sacred images D) Popes had feared calling a council to deal with the abuses of the church, fearing such a council would trim their powers or even dethrone them as the Council of Constance had a previous pope (a) The Council of Trent was thus finally called only in 1545 * instead of compromising with the Protestants, the Council restated basic Catholic doctrine ~ salvation was due to both faith and good works ~ the Bible was not the sole source of authority ~ the cult of Mary and the saints were valid ~ and pilgrimages were valid as well * Theological seminaries would be created to train priests * The reforms at the Council strengthened the pope and made the church monarchical E) Impact of the Council of Trent

(a) The Council of Trent was not representative of the Catholic church, however * Almost no German bishops attended and at various times, neither Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, nor Francis I, king of France, would allow their bishops to attend ~ This was because major political concerns underlay the Council * Francis wanted to keep Germany divided, fearing a powerful, united Germany on his border ~ Thus Francis would not consider any compromise on Catholic dogma; this would keep Germany hopelessly divided between Protestants and Catholics ~ By contrast, Charles V wanted to reconcile Lutherans and Catholics so as to keep his divided empire together and make it easier to govern Clearly, Francis prevailed F) Even in architecture, the Catholics showed new vigor as the Baroque style was developed (a) Catholics now turned to the outward symbolism of the power and might of the church, the very things Protestants had criticized before (b) The churches of the Baroque were grandiose and contrasted sharply with Protestant simplicity (c) Most emphasized popular piety, especially the cult of Mary which again Protestants had condemned (d) Fittingly, the Jesuits new church in Rome was the beginning of the Baroque, characterized by great theatrical vistas and the dramatic use of light (e) All these elements centered on the altar where the supreme miracle of the mass was performed and around the pulpit where new dynamic preaching took place (f) The altar was moved forward so more people could see the service and so be a part of it, and the side naves were removed to avoid having columns interfere with parishioners seeing the service G) Catholics also placed great emphasis on the collectivity of men as opposed to the Protestant insistence on individual faith (a) Catholics restated their belief that you could benefit from the prayers of others as well as be hurt by the sins of others (b) Unfortunately, this came to mean that Protestantism was a direct threat to your personal salvation, not just a matter of private conscience for the dissenter * This belief may help to explain the ferocity of the religious wars (a subject for next semester) XIII) Section Nine: The Social Significance of the Reformation in Western Europe 1) Section Overview A) Luther, Zwingli and Calvin are often referred to as magisterial reformers which means that they were religious reformers whos successes were dependent upon the magistrates sword B) The Revolution in Religious Practices (a) Religion in Fifteenth-Century Life * clergy dominated both the secular and spiritual lives of the people * church calendar regulated daily life as nearly one-third of the year was given to some type of religious observance; there were frequent periods of fasting ~ on almost one hundred days out of the year, a pious Christian could not eat eggs, butter, animal fat, or meat * monasteries and nunneries were powerful institutions * religious shrines were everywhere and images of saints were paraded around towns and cities

many clergy walked the streets with concubines and children although they were sworn to celibacy * townspeople were unhappy that the clergy was exempt from paying taxes * people were concerned with the churchs influence over culture and education (b) Religion in Sixteenth-Century Life * after the Reformation took hold in these cities, few changes in politics and society were evident ~ the same aristocratic families were still in power and the rich continued to get richer and the poor, poorer * the number of religious feast days were noticeably reduced * most cloisters were shut down C) indulgence preachers no longer traveled through the towns D) clergy paid taxes and were tried in civil courts E) whereas one-half of Europe could be counted in the Protestant camp in the mid-sixteenth century, only one-fifth would be there by the mid-seventeenth century 2) The Reformation and Education (a) Protestant reformers in England, Germany, and France were humanists; therefore humanism was implemented as the focus of the curriculum in many of these areas * Philp Melanchthon ~ a young humanist and professor of Greek at Wittenberg University ~ scorned scholasticism Catholic Churchand in particular the Jesuitsbelieved that scripture should be read through the lens of the scholastic teachings of the Church fathers (b) John Calvin, and his successor Theodore Beza, established the Genevan Academy * created to train Calvinist ministers and the curriculum was similar to that established by Melanchthon 3) The Reformation and the Changing Role of Women A) Protestant reformers favored clerical marriage, opposed monasticism, and worked to eradicate the model of woman as temptress (a) believed that women should not be degraded as Eve but rather exalted as virgins on the model of Mary (b) wives remained subjects of their husbands but new laws gave them greater security and protection * Protestant women gained the right to divorce and remarry B) encouraged education of girls in literacy of vernacular so they could read and model their lives after the Bible (a) women found passages in the Bible that declare womans equality with man XIV) Section Ten: Family Life in Early Modern Europe

1) Section Overview A) Changes in the timing and duration of marriage, family size, and infant and child care suggests that family life was under a variety of social and economic pressures in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries 2) Later Marriages A) Between 1500 and 1800 men and women married at later ages than they had in previous centuries (a) men in their mid-late twenties and women in their early to mid-twenties (b) late marriages were due to the fact that couples found it increasingly difficult to support themselves independently B) Protestants and Catholics required parental consent to legalize marriage

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C) delayed marriages increased premarital sex and the number of illegitimate children (a) growing number of orphanages Arranged Marriages A) Marriage tended to be arranged in that the parents met and discussed the terms of the marriage before the preparations for the wedding became official B) Men and women could legally resist a marriage that they were coerced into by their parents Family Size A) western European family was nuclear consisting of a father and mother and two to four children who survived into adulthood (a) women produced six to seven children but one-third died as infants and one-half by their teens B) the larger household included in-laws, servants, laborers, and boarders Birth Control A) very few methods, other than abstinence were effective B) church condemned male withdrawal before ejaculation C) church opposed birth control methods West Nursing A) practice of hiring wet nurses to suckle newborn children was common with the nobility because it was convenient B) infant mortality was higher in infants who were wet nursed because often times the woman providing the service was not in as good of health as the infants own mother and because the wet nurses milk supply was shared C) lactating women were not considered fit for sexual activity according to the church Loving Families A) Relationships in families in Western Europe sometimes seemed cold and distant (a) children between the ages of eight and thirteen were routinely sent from their homes into apprenticeships, school, or employment in the homes or businesses of family friends or relatives (b) widowers and widows often remarried within a few months of the passing of their spouses

XV) Section Eleven: Literary Imagination in Transition 1) Miguel de Cervantes: Rejection of Idealism A) Spanish literature reflects the religious and political history of Spain in this period B) Influences on Spanish literature (a) traditional Catholic teaching (b) piety of Spanish rulers * Spains leaders attempted to coalesce piety and political power and emphasized honor, loyalty, and chivalric virtues ~ in most Spanish works of literature from this period, the hero goes through a series of tests of character (c) literature remained more Catholic and medieval than in England or Germany C) Cervantes (1547-1616) (a) considered Spains greatest writer (b) wrote Don Quixote in 1603 while imprisoned for money laundering * satire of the chivalric romances then popular in Spain * protagonist, Don Quixote, is an unstable middle-aged man who becomes crazy from reading too many romances ~ he comes to believe he was an aspiring knight who had to prove his worthiness through great deeds

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Don Quixotes squire, Sancho Panza, watches with skepticism as his lord does battle with a windmill that he mistakes for a Dragon Cervantes juxtaposed the down-to-earth realism of Sancho Panza with the old-fashioned religious idealism of Don Quixote and ~ the reader is left with the impression that Cervantes admired both sensibilities

XVI) William Shakespeare: Dramatist of the Age 1) Shakespeare blended the styles of classical comedies and tragedies, medieval morality plays, and contemporary Italian short stories in order to develop English drama