Contenuti / Contents

3 Finding and Keeping the Time / Trovando e Mantenendo il Tempo

4 Holograms of Real and Virtual Point Trajectories
6 Ologrammi del Reale e Traitettorie del Punto Virtuale (estratto)
8 Sad Young Man on a Train / Uomo Giovane e Triste su un Treno
9 A Study of the Persistence of Vision
13 Uno Studio Sulla Persistenza Della Visione (estratto)
14 A Photograph of Duchamp Using a Hinged Mirror
17 The Truth Is Out There
18 La Verità Stà La Fuori
19 Fotografia di Duchamp usando uno specchio movibile
20 Maker, Above Below and Between
22 A List of Blending Modes
24 Elenco dei metodi di fusione
28 An Event Over the Skies of France / Un Evento sui Cieli della Francia
30 Credits / Crediti

Presented as the Problem

1
2 3
 CHAPTER 2
HOL OGR A MS OF R E A L A ND
V IRTUA L POINT TR A JEC TOR IES
2.1 Introduction
In relativity, the orbit of a point event through
space-time is called its world line. The world
line itself is timeless, because it contains time
as one of its dimensions. Over a period of years,
we have been fascinated by the prospect of
recording world lines of moving points of light
holographically. Of course, these will have
their three-dimensional (3D) spatial (the 3D
trajectory) pattern and be timeless. There will
be no way to give a direction of time and all we
know is what events (3D positions) are the time
neighbors of others.
Does this multidecade effort shed light on
relativity or make it easier to understand? Prob-
ably not. Holography can help us understand
relativity, but that work is due to Abramson, not
us. Surprisingly, our efforts have caused us to
understand holography better. In this work we
discuss holographic recording of moving points
and compare the results with various aspects of
other ways of recording a line in 3D space, such
as recording an actual luminous line, sequential
recording of points, and computer generation
of lines.
2.2 Early Work
Our interest began with our efforts to generate
3D holographic images of synthetic scenes.
Why not draw the scene with a moving point
source using holography with a fixed reference
beam to record the 3d object? Figure 2.1 shows
the geometry. We moved the point continu-
4 5
ously parallel to the recording plate. Our results
were wonderful, both theoretically and experi-
mentally.
Theoretically, we showed that the coherently
time averaging an Airy pattern (the far-field
complex wave front of a point source) leads to a
sin x/x pattern (the far-field complex wave front
that would have been produced had the whole
line been present at once). This seemed quite
profound at the time. The coherent integration
obliterated the time dimension. It may still be
profound. We know that physics based on in-
stants and infinitesimal points fails profoundly
at the quantum level. It lacks the coherent
integration into the whole. Experimentally,
we found that the image of a clean bright line
was produced. Without that success, we would
not have persisted through the dark decades
of disappointments and partial successes that
followed.
Physicists progress by jumping to unwarranted
generalizations and then examining the results.
This is not so much a method as a predisposi-
tion. The obvious thing to do after the first suc-
cess was to move to more complex space-time
patterns. We expected, naively it now appears,
no problem in recording arbitrarily complex
scenes in this way. Instead, we encountered two
major problems. One problem we understood
almost immediately and later were able to work
around to some extent. The other problem
we did not even understand, although we im-
mediately invented a way to work around it. We
address those two problems below.
2.2.1 Brightness Problem
As we all should have known, there is a commu-
nication-theoretic limitation on the information
content of the image and how much informa-
tion we actually see depends on the encryption
method. All of the great holographers (e.g.,
Gabor, Leith, and Denisyuk) knew that.
Figure 2.1 Schematics of the optical configura-
tion. S is a point source and H is the hologram.
We did too, but it is easy to forget. The informa-
tion storage density (that is bits per square
centimeters for thin holograms and bits per
cubic centimeters for thick holograms) is very
material dependent. Resolution and noise are
the primary determinants. If we use all of that
capacity coherently to record a single point, the
image may have tremendous signal-to-noise
ratio (SNR). On the other hand, if we record
and reconstruct N distinct, equally bright
points, then each can have at most 1/N of the
available light and 1/N of the single-point SNR.
We emphasized the words “at most.” Only if
each point comes from a hologram with unit
contrast can we achieve the 1/N brightness
condition. This would be the case if we recorded
the hologram of N coherent points simultane-
ously. However, in the case as was done in our
first holograms, we are talking about recording
the N points sequentially. Thus we have holo-
grams from N essentially independent points
full overlapping and then each will use only
1/N of the shared dynamic range. The bright-
ness and SNR of each point can be at most
1/N of the values achievable for a single point.
So, whichever way we choose to record the N
points, the brighness and SNR cannot be better
than 1/N that of a single point and, usually, it
will be much lower.
Returning to our special interest here of a
continuously moving point, one should ask
the question: How big is N? That is a question
we did not even begin to answer in the middle
period of this multidecade effort.
We now know that the above discussion is over-
simplified and that there are ways, depending
on the recording material and recording condi-
tion, to improve the situation. In fact, at a quite
early stage we did conceive of and demonstrate
a way to improve the brightness and SNR. We
simply moved the points close to the record-
ing medium. Because of the limited angular
divergence of the point source, the area on the
recording medium illuminated at any instant
was small. Thus there was no need for a refer-
ence beam where there was no object beam, so
we could block that part of the reference beam.
Using a complicated optomechanical system,
we scanned a point in 3d space near the record-
ing plate and tracked it with the corresponding
part of the reference beam. All of the time, most
of the recording material received light only
near the image of the reference point. The rest
of the recording medium was shielded and,
therefore, not degraded. thus no point suffered
the full 1/N penalty, and very bright images
were obtained.
2.2.2 Longitudinal Motion Problem
Initially, we did not call the problem by this
name. All we observed was that when we moved
the point in a 3D orbit (rather than in the 2D
plane, parallel to the recording medium), we did
not get very good images. In fact, the images
were terrible. We did not know why, but we did
find a satisfactory experimental way to fix the
problem. We chopped (binary time modulated)
both beams. For reasons we did not understand
at the time, this allowed us to record beautiful
3D images.
This review of the history of a small part of
holography allows us to introduce the current
state of the art. We now know what the longi-
tudinal motion problem was and why chopping
“cured” it. We will show below that all parts of
the Airy pattern are “blurred out” during any
substantial longitudinal motion. Chopping
reduced the blurring effects by recording just
a very short light segment for each chopping
cycle. A general mathematical analysis of the
phenomena involved in holographic recording
of moving sources follows below. The general
consequences will then be represented with
some demonstrative examples of special inter-
esting cases.
6 7
CAPITOLO 2
OL OGR A MMI DEL R E A LE E
TR A IET TOR IE DEL PUNTO V IRT UA LE
2.1 Introduzione
Nella relatività, l’orbita di un punto attraverso
il tempo e lo spazio è chiamata linea del mondo.
La linea del mondo è senza tempo perchè lo
contiene come una delle sue dimensioni. Sono
anni che siamo affascinati dalla prospettiva di
registrare le linee del mondo dei punti di luce in
movimento, olograficamente. Naturalmente,
questi avranno il loro schema tri-dimensionale
(3D) spaziale (traiettoria 3D) e saranno senza
tempo. Non ci sarà modo di dare una traiettoria
del tempo e tutto quello che sappiamo è che gli
eventi (posizioni 3D) sono i vicini del tempo
di altri.
Questo sforzo illumina sulla relatività o la
rende più semplice da capire ? Probabilmente
no. L’olografia ci può aiutare a capire la relativ-
ità ma questo lavoro appartiene a Abramson,
non a noi. Sorprendentemente, i nostri sforzi ci
hanno portato a meglio capire la relatività. In
questo lavoro abbiamo discusso registrazioni
olografiche di punti in movimento e comparato
i risultati con vari aspetti di altri modi di regis-
trare una linea nello spazio 3D, come registrare
una linea di luce, registrare sequenze di punti e
linee generate dal computer.
2.2 Lavori Precedenti
Il nostro interesse nasce con gli sforzi di gener-
are immagini olografiche di scene sintetiche in
3D. Perchè non disegnare la scena con un punto
di luce usando l’olografia con un raggio di ref-
erenza fissato per registrare un oggetto in 3D ?
Teoricamente, abbiamo mostrato che medi-
ando coerentemente il tempo, uno schema
Airy (il campo lontano complesso dell onda
frontale di un punto fonte) porta a una sin
x\x (il campo lontano complesso dell onda
frontale di un punto fonte che sarebbe stato
prodotto aveva l’intera linea formanta in una
volta). Questo sembrava ben profondo a quel
tempo. L’integrazione coerente obliterava la
dimensione del tempo. Potrebbe essere ancora
profondo. Sappiamo che fisica basata su istanti
e punti infinitesimali fallisce profondamente ai
livelli dei quanti. Manca l’integrazione coerente
nell’intero. Sperimentalmente, abbiamo trovato
che l’immagine di una linea pulita e luminosa
è stata prodotta. Senza quel successo non
avremmo persitito attraverso i decenni bui della
delusione e il successo parziale che ha seguito.
Il progresso dei fisici salta su una non giustifi-
cata generalizzazione e esaminando i risultati
in seguito. Questo non è tanto un metodo
quando una predisposizione. La cosa ovvia
da fare dopo un primo successo era muovere
schemi spazio temporali più complessi. Ci
aspettavamo, adesso sembra incoscentemente,
nessun problema nel registrare arbitrariamente
scene complesse in questa maniera. Invece
incontrammo due grandi problemi. Il primo lo
capimmo quasi immediatamente e in seguito
eravamo in grado di lavorare su alcune esten-
sioni. L’altro problema non lo avevamo capito
anche se avevamo immediatamente inventato
una maniera per lavorarci intorno. Trattiamo
questi due problemi di seguito.

SAD YOUNG MAN ON A TRAIN
UOMO GIOVANE E TRISTE SU UN TRENO
8 9
Vol.6. 1920 PSYCHOLOGY: A. C. HARDY 221
it should be noted that in this material there is no further formation of rods. The coarse-
ly granular precipitate is well marked in the second and third divisions, but no rods are
formed.
It is evident that my conclusion from a study of the material described is that
the basophilic bodies found are not in the nature of chromidia, but are the result of indi-
rect nuclear activity. As to the applicability of these results to cases in which basophilic
inclusions occur normally, it is impossible to say more than that such cases should be con-
sidered in the light of the evidence here given. The explanation offered for the formation
of the basophilic extra nuclear bodies described is intended to be suggestive rather than
conclusive. It brings together facts which have not hitherto been associated.
A more detailed paper with illustrations is forthcoming.
Beckwith, Cora J., The Genesis of the plasma-structure in the egg of Hydractinia echinata. J. Morph., 25,
1914.
Chambers, Robert. Microdissection Studies I. Amer. J. Physiol., 43, 1917; and Microdissection Studies II,
Exper. Zool., 23, 1917.
Dantchakoff, Vera. Studies in cell division and cell differentiation I, J. Morph., 27, 1916.
Gatenby. J. Brouté. The Cytoplasmic Inclusions of the Germ Cells. Part V, Quar. Jour. Mic. Sci., 63, 1919.
Schaxel, Julius, Das Zusammenwirken der ZelIbestandteile bei Eireifung. Furchung, und ersten Organ-
bilung der Echinodermen. Arch. Micr. Anat. 76, 1911; Plasmastructuren, Chondriosomen und Chromidien. Anat.
Anz., 39, 1911.
Wilson. E B., Archoplasm, Centrosome, and Chromatin in the Sea-Urchin Egg, J. Morph., II, 1895.
A S T U DY O F T HE P E R S IS T E NC E O F V IS IO N
By Arthur C. Hardy
Department of Physics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Communicated by Edwin II, Wilson,
February 20. 1920
Introduction.—It was observed by Allen,1 while investigating the effect of the
color of the light on the persistence of vision, that there seemed to be portions of the retina
where the persistence of the retinal impression was less than on the fovea. That is, when
no flickering of the color under observation was perceptible in the center of the retina, a
slight movement of the eye in any direction which allowed the light to fall upon the periph-
eral portions of the retina was sufficient to destroy the apparent continuity of the light.
Allen attempted to measure the persistence for regions on the temperal side of the retina
at 10 and 20 degrees from the axis of the eye but found that the results were “too uncer-
tain to be of any use.” The writer has measured the persistence of vision for several colors
within the cone whose semi-vertical angle is nearly 40 degrees. More than one hundred
points on the retina within this area were observed for each color used. From these data,
it is possible to construct a map of the retina showing the persistence of vision for each
portion.
222 PSYCHOLOGY: A. C. HARDY Proc. N. A. S.
Results of this sort should be of interest, not only to the illumination engineer,
but to the physiologist and the psychologist as well. If the number of observers were large
to insure that the results represent the average eye, it would be possible to construct a map
of the retina with “contour lines” to show equal values of the persistence of vision. This
was done by the author using the values obtained for his own eyes. The general shape of
the lines was found to coincide more or less with the shape of the color fields given by Ab-
ney.2 The extent of the color fields is, of course, dependent upon the intensity of the light.
It was not possible to show that the area of the retina covered in this investigation was
greater than the color field for the blue for the intensity used. As the color field for the blue
is larger in area than for any other color, it seems natural to suppose that the persistence of
vision should depend only upon the intensity of the light on portions of the retina outside
this area and should be independent of the wave-length.
Description of apparatus.—The persistence of vision was measured by observ-
ing the minimum speed at which a sectored disk could be driven without destroying the
apparent continuity of the light. The source of light was a concentrated filament incandes-
cent lamp operated at constant voltage. A lens system was used to bring the rays to focus
on the sectored disk. When the position of the disk is such that the rays do not strike it,
they diverge until they strike a ground-glass screen about 6 centimeters square. An iris
diaphragm placed just in front of it makes the size of the illuminated area on the ground-
glass adjustable without altering the brightness. The sectored disk, the necessary electric
motor to drive it, the incandescent lamp and the lens system are all placed in a light tight
box. The eye was then placed 1 meter in front of the ground-glass and a chin rest was pro-
vided to insure steady conditions of the retina while making the observations. Needless to
say, the investigation was carried on in total darkness. A small electric lamp operated on
the storage battery current and carefully shielded was used to read the instruments when
necessary. The time for the recovery of the retina after this stimulus was less than the time
required to place the apparatus in adjustment for the next reading.
The speed of the disk was measured by means of a small magneto and a volt-
meter calibrated to read the speed directly in revolutions per minute. The persistence of
vision was first determined for the fovea by causing the disk to rotate at sufficient speed
so that no flicker was apparent and then slowly to lose velocity until the first flicker was
observed. On the average, it was found possible to determine the critical speed so that
subsequent readings would not differ by more than 2 percent. Observations were also
made with the speed of the disk increasing and the average was taken as the persistence
measure. A set of filters made by the Wratten and Wainwright Company was used one at
a time when it was desired to use light of a particular color. These filters were found to be
very nearly monochromatic. The use of spectrum colors would be more accurate but the
intensity of the light cannot be adjusted within as wide limits.
To determine the persistence of vision for off center portions of the retina, a
small radiolight sight was used. This was mounted on a slider attached to a long rod and so
constructed as to revolve about the center of the diaphragm. In this way it was possible to
10
Vol.6. 1920 PSYCHOLOGY: A. C. HARDY 223
place the sight in any desired position with respect to the center of the diaphragm. Shallow
grooves were placed at intervals along the rod so that it was possible to read the position of
the slider in the dark. In the experimental work, readings were taken about every 3 degrees
from the center and along directions which made angles with the horizontal of 45, 90, 135,
ISO, 225, 270 and 315 degrees. The manipulation was the same as before except that the
attention was directed toward the radiolight sight and the persistence of vision measured
with the light from the ground-glass screen falling on some other portion of the retina. It
was, of course, necessary to cover one eye during all of the experimental work.
Experimental results.—Before results could be obtained which were consistent
with themselves, it was found necessary to take several precautions. For example, time
was given for the eye to become accustomed to the darkness. Results were obtained which
showed that 5 minutes in total darkness was sufficient. It was also found that any motion
of the body, however slight, would cause the interest to flag. For this reason, the motor
controls had to be adjusted so that the motor would change its speed slowly as it was im-
possible to operate a rheostat by hand. One hand was held on a key which was pressed at
the instant that the flicker was seen to appear or disappear and the critical speed noted.
The size of the diaphragm which seemed to give the best results was a circle of
diameter 5.84 mm. The persistence of vision is dependent upon the size of the retinal area
stimulated and also the scintillation of the light from a small aperture caused more or less
uncertainty.3 The above aperture was chosen as being the smallest that it was practicable
to use. With the diaphragm placed at a distance of 1 meter from the eye, the angle sub-
tended by the diaphragm at the eye is 3-30°.
As has already been said, the persistence of vision was determined for several
colors and in each case the persistence was measured for about one hundred points on the
retina lying inside a circle which is the base of a cone whose semivertical angle is 38.7°.
No attempt will be made to give the results in full. They represent the persistence of an
impression on the retina of the eye of the author. The eye is known to be normal for color
perception but has a moderate amount of astigmatism which should not affect the persis-
tence of vision. A few results will be given to show the nature of the inferences which have
be drawn from the investigation.
For red light (6776 A°) the persistence of vision in the fovea was 0.0209 second.
The persistence for points lying at equal distances from the fovea was found to be very
nearly the same. That is, if lines are drawn showing equal values of the persistence of vi-
sion, they appear to approximate circles with the fovea at the center. The deviation from
the circle is enough to make them resemble the limits of the color fields for the retina. The
circles are in every case flattened so that the major axis of the resulting ellipse is horizon-
tal. The persistence is less for the fovea than for any other part of the retina, and there is
a steady increase in the persistence nearly proportional to the distance from the fovea.
The maximum value observed occurs on the nasal side of the retina at about 88° from
the fovea. The persistence is slightly greater on the nasal side than on the temporal. The
maximum value is 0.109 second.
11
224 PSYCHOLOGY: A. C. HARDY Proc. N. A. S.
For the yellow-green (3310 A°) very similar results were obtained. The persis-
tence of vision for the fovea is 0.0179 second and is less than any other portion of the reti-
na. The lines of equal values of the persistence are ellipses with the major axes horizontal.
The persistence is still slightly greater on the nasal side. The maximum value is observed
to occur for the same region as for the red light but the maximum in this case is 0.0339
second showing that the persistence is more nearly constant over the whole retina.
For the blue-violet (4631 A°) the persistence of the fovea is 0.0346 second. There
is little change in the persistence for different portions of the retina. The region which
gave a maximum value for the red and the yellow-green, now gives a value of 0.0339 sec-
ond or slightly less than the fovea. The maximum occurs about 7° from the fovea on the
nasal side and is 0.0401 second. The minimum of 0.0305 second occurs on the temporal
side at an angle of 35° from the fovea. The change between the maximum and minimum
amounts only to the difference between 1/25 second and 1/35 second. For the blue-violet
light used, the persistence is very nearly constant over the whole retina.
It will be noticed that these values for the persistence are smaller than those
which are sometimes quoted. The values given here represent the time required for the im-
pression on the retina to fade sufficiently to be noticed when compared to a fresh stimulus.
They do not represent the time for the total extinction of the retinal image.
The above results were obtained at the laboratories of the Department of Phys-
ics at the University of California.
1
Physic. Rev., 28, 1909 (48).
2
Sir William Abncy, Researches in Color Vision, p. 190, et. seq.
3
See Almey, loc. cit., p. 181.
12
U NO S T U D IO S U L L A P E R S IS T E NZ A D E L L A V IS IO NE
Di Arthur C. Hardy
Dipartimento di Fisica, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Comunicato by Edwin II, Wilson, 20 Feb-
braio 1920; (estratto)
Per la luce rossa (6776 A°) la persistenza della visione nella fovea era 0,0209
sec. Fu scoperto che la persistenza per i punti disposti a distanze uguali dalla fovea era
quasi la stessa. Se linee sono tracciate mostrando valori uguali della persistenza della vi-
sione, sembrano approssimare cerchi con la fovea al centro. La deviazione dal cerchio è
sufficiente per farli assomigliare ai limiti del colore dei campi per la retina. I cerchi sono
schiacciati in tutti i casi così che l’asse maggiore della risultante ellisse è orizzontale. La
persistenza è minore sulla fovea che in ogni altra parte della retina e si nota un costante
aumento quasi proporzionale alla distanza dalla stessa. Il valore massimo osservato è vi-
cino al lato nasale della retina a circa 88° dalla fovea. La persistenza e leggermente mag-
giore sul lato nasale che su quello della temperal. Il valore massio è 0.109 secondi.
Per la luce giallo-verde (3310 A°) sono stati ottenuti risultati molti simili. La
persistenza della luce nella fovea è 0,0179 secondi ed è inferiore che in ogni altra porzione
della retina. Le linee di valori uguali della persistenza sono ellissi con l’asse maggiore oriz-
zontale. La persistenza è ancora leggermente più alta sul lato nasale. Il valore massimo
accade per la stessa regione della luce rossa ma in questo caso il massimo è 0,0339 secondi
mostrando che la persistenza è più costante su tutta la retina.
Per il blu-viola (4631 A°) la persistenza nella fovea è (0,0346 secondi) C’è un pic-
colo cambio nella persistenza per porzioni differenti della retina. La regione che ha dato
un valore massimo per il rosso e giallo-verde adesso dà un valore di 0,0339 secondi o poco
meno della fovea. Il massimo si registra circa a 7° dalla fovea sul lato nasale ed è 0,0401
secondi. Il minimo 0,0305 secondi, si mostra sul lato temporale ad un angolo di 35° dalla
fovea. Il cambio trà il massimo e il minimo ammonta solo alla differenza trà 1\25 secondi e
1\35 secondi. Per la luce blu-viola usata la persistenza è molto vicina alla costanza su tutta
la retina.
Sarà notificato che questi valori per la persistenza sono minori di quelli che a
volte sono quotati. I valori quì dati rappresentano il tempo richiesto per l’impressione
sulla retina di sfumare sufficientemente forti per essere registrate quando comparate ad
uno stimolo fresco.
I risultati di sopra sono stati ottenuti nei laboratori del Dipartimento di Fisica
dell’ Università della California
13
14 15
16 17
 83. Fotografia di Duchamp usando uno specchio movibile, 1917.

Il piacere di Duchamp per le nuove maniere popolari e oggetti tecnologici si estende naturalmente
alla fotografia, di cui ha esplorato le varie dimensioni durante tutta la vita. Quì, il ripetuto ‘uomo
di fronte allo specchio’ sembra essere prodotto senza il fotografo, una specie di autoritratto
automatico che lascia la domanda dell’ autorietà irrisolta. Gli amici di Duchamp, Francis Picabia
e Henri-Pierre Rochè avevano scattoto fotografie simili, probabilmente nella stessa occasione: 10
otobre 1917 al Broadway Photo Shop di New York.
LA VERITÀ STÀ LA FUORI
Se richiamiamo il commento di Duchamp a Pierre Cabanne riguardo le altre funzioni che la pittura
aveva ricoperto in passato: ‘religiosa, filosofica, morale’, in quale dimensione ha inteso Duchamp
il Grande Vetro per avere una visione concettuale che poteva riformare la funzione dell arte ? O,
per dirlo in altre parole, che funzione hanno nel Grande Vetro le diverse referenze alla religione,
mitologia e letteratura ? Abbiamo visto come scienza e prospettiva come modi di descrivere il
‘reale’ avevano una ruolo nella genesi della sua immagineria. Cosa diciamo di sistemi di credenze o
miti di tipo differente ?

18 19
94. 16. Review and Self-Criticism. 16. Review and Self-Criticism. 95.

MAKER, BETWEEN ABOVE AND BELOW

Two or three points of departure Volumes exchanged, a speed of shifting

Where edge blank eddies
The texure of receivability Place for construction of a core of flexibility only
By
Vectors may saturate Diffuse receding which parallels and contours
Pieces of layered approximations received waiting texture

The surfacing of a parallel drift, The unique range of elasticities of

generating a sense of out and in impressionable stretching, not yet texture

Angular spin, the depth-maker of a surface The regulating of reflection, deflection, inflection
Distance of time, pre-hole Coalescence of sound joints, guides
Tunneling volumes of degrees, as if Realization of mounting and push of duration (instant group)
broken tubes Both senders and receivers, configurational coverings on
Within but between the numbers being counted all and any scale
Pull of breath
The setting of a broken rail To keep the end in sight
The enormous movability of a sucking passage (omnidirectional) As always the necessity of out of the blue, “to” and “from”
Random, partial shrinking A sudden drop into a scale of action

Appearance of some profile junctures, some linear burps, many The call of continuity

20 21
 A LIST OF BLENDING MODES
Normal
Edits or paints each pixel to make it the result
color. This is the default mode. (Normal mode
is called Threshold when you’re working with a
bitmapped or indexed-color image.)
Dissolve
Edits or paints each pixel to make it the result
color. However, the result color is a random
replacement of the pixels with the base color or
the blend color, depending on the opacity at any
pixel location.
Darken
Looks at the color information in each channel
and selects the base or blend color—whichever
is darker—as the result color. Pixels lighter
than the blend color are replaced, and pixels
darker than the blend color do not change.
Multiply
Looks at the color information in each channel
and multiplies the base color by the blend color.
The result color is always a darker color. Mul-
tiplying any color with black produces black.
Multiplying any color with white leaves the
color unchanged. When you’re painting with
a color other than black or white, successive
strokes with a painting tool produce progres-
sively darker colors. The effect is similar to
drawing on the image with multiple marking
pens.
Color Burn
Looks at the color information in each channel
and darkens the base color to reflect the blend
color by increasing the contrast. Blending with
white produces no change.
22
Linear Burn
Looks at the color information in each channel
and darkens the base color to reflect the blend
color by decreasing the brightness. Blending
with white produces no change.
Lighten
Looks at the color information in each channel
and selects the base or blend color—whichever
is lighter—as the result color. Pixels darker
than the blend color are replaced, and pixels
lighter than the blend color do not change.
Screen
Looks at each channel’s color information
and multiplies the inverse of the blend and
base colors. The result color is always a lighter
color. Screening with black leaves the color un-
changed. Screening with white produces white.
The effect is similar to projecting multiple
photographic slides on top of each other.
Color Dodge
Looks at the color information in each channel
and brightens the base color to reflect the blend
color by decreasing the contrast. Blending with
black produces no change.
Overlay
Multiplies or screens the colors, depending on
the base color. Patterns or colors overlay the
existing pixels while preserving the highlights
and shadows of the base color. The base color is
not replaced, but mixed with the blend color to
reflect the lightness or darkness of the original
color.
Soft Light
Darkens or lightens the colors, depending on
the blend color. The effect is similar to shining
a diffused spotlight on the image. If the blend
color (light source) is lighter than 50% gray, the
image is lightened as if it were dodged. If the
blend color is darker than 50% gray, the image
is darkened as if it were burned in. Painting
with pure black or white produces a distinctly
darker or lighter area, but does not result in
pure black or white.
Linear Dodge (Add)
Looks at the color information in each channel
and brightens the base color to reflect the blend
color by increasing the brightness. Blending
with black produces no change.
Hard Light
Multiplies or screens the colors, depending on
the blend color. The effect is similar to shining
a harsh spotlight on the image. If the blend
color (light source) is lighter than 50% gray,
the image is lightened, as if it were screened.
This is useful for adding highlights to an image.
If the blend color is darker than 50% gray, the
image is darkened, as if it were multiplied. This
is useful for adding shadows to an image. Paint-
ing with pure black or white results in pure
black or white.
Vivid Light
Burns or dodges the colors by increasing or
decreasing the contrast, depending on the
blend color. If the blend color (light source) is
lighter than 50% gray, the image is lightened
by decreasing the contrast. If the blend color is
darker than 50% gray, the image is darkened by
increasing the contrast.
Linear Light
Burns or dodges the colors by decreasing or
increasing the brightness, depending on the
blend color. If the blend color (light source) is
lighter than 50% gray, the image is lightened by
23
increasing the brightness. If the blend color is
darker than 50% gray, the image is darkened by
decreasing the brightness.
Pin Light
Replaces the colors, depending on the blend
color. If the blend color (light source) is lighter
than 50% gray, pixels darker than the blend
color are replaced, and pixels lighter than the
blend color do not change. If the blend color is
darker than 50% gray, pixels lighter than the
blend color are replaced, and pixels darker than
the blend color do not change. This is useful for
adding special effects to an image.
Hard Mix
Adds the red, green and blue channel values of
the blend color to the RGB values of the base
color. If the resulting sum for a channel is 255
or greater, it receives a value of 255; if less than
255, a value of 0. Therefore, all blended pixels
have red, green, and blue channel values of ei-
ther 0 or 255. This changes all pixels to primary
colors: red, green, blue, cyan, yellow, magenta,
white, or black.
Difference
Looks at the color information in each channel
and subtracts either the blend color from the
base color or the base color from the blend
color, depending on which has the greater
brightness value. Blending with white inverts
the base color values; blending with black
produces no change.
Exclusion
Creates an effect similar to but lower in con-
trast than the Difference mode. Blending with
white inverts the base color values. Blending
with black produces no change.
 Hue
Creates a result color with the luminance and
saturation of the base color and the hue of the
blend color.
Saturation
Creates a result color with the luminance and
hue of the base color and the saturation of the
blend color. Painting with this mode in an area
with no (0) saturation (gray) causes no change.
Color
Creates a result color with the luminance of the
base color and the hue and saturation of the
blend color. This preserves the gray levels in the
image and is useful for coloring monochrome
images and for tinting color images.
Luminosity
Creates a result color with the hue and satura-
tion of the base color and the luminance of
the blend color. This mode creates the inverse
effect of Color mode.
Lighter Color
Compares the total of all channel values for the
blend and base color and displays the higher
value color. Lighter Color does not produce a
third color, which can result from the Lighten
blend, because it chooses the highest channel
values from both the base and blend color to
create the result color.
Darker Color
Compares the total of all channel values for
the blend and base color and displays the lower
value color. Darker Color does not produce a
third color, which can result from the Darken
blend, because it chooses the lowest channel
values from both the base and the blend color to
create the result color.
24
ELENCO DEI METODI DI FUSIONE
Normale
Modifica o colora ciascun pixel per trasfor-
marlo nel colore risultante. Questo è il metodo
predefinito. Il metodo normale si chiama Soglia
quando si lavora con un’immagine bitmap o in
scala di colore.
Dissolvi
Modifica o colora ciascun pixel per trasformar-
lo nel colore risultante. Il colore risultante, tut-
tavia, viene creato sostituendo in modo casuale
i pixel con il colore di base o quello applicato,
secondo l’opacità in ogni posizione dei pixel.
Scurisci
Esamina le informazioni cromatiche in ciascun
canale e seleziona il colore di base o il colore
applicato, il più scuro dei due, come colore
risultante. I pixel più chiari del colore ap-
plicato vengono sostituiti, quelli più scuri non
cambiano.
Moltiplica
Esamina le informazioni cromatiche in ciascun
canale e moltiplica il colore di base per quello
applicato. Il colore risultante è sempre più
scuro. La moltiplicazione di un colore con nero
produce nero; la moltiplicazione di un colore
con bianco non cambia il colore. Se state appli-
cando un colore diverso dal nero o dal bianco,
i tratti sovrapposti creati con uno strumento
di pittura producono colori gradualmente più
scuri. L’effetto è simile a quello ottenuto diseg-
nando sull’immagine con più evidenziatori.
Colore brucia
Esamina le informazioni cromatiche in ciascun
canale e scurisce il colore di base per riflettere
quello applicato aumentando il contrasto. L’uso
del colore bianco non produce alcun cambia-
mento.
Brucia lineare
Esamina le informazioni cromatiche in ciascun
canale e scurisce il colore di base per riflettere
quello applicato diminuendo la luminosità.
L’uso del colore bianco non produce alcun
cambiamento.
Schiarisci
Esamina il colore in ciascun canale e seleziona
il colore di base o il colore applicato, il più
chiaro dei due, come colore risultante. I pixel
più scuri del colore applicato vengono sostituiti
e quelli più chiari non cambiano.
Scolora
Esamina le informazioni cromatiche in ciascun
canale e moltiplica l’inverso del colore applicato
e del colore di base. Il colore risultante è sempre
più chiaro. Scolorando con il nero, il colore
resta invariato. Scolorando con il bianco, si
ottiene il bianco. L’effetto è simile a quello otte-
nuto proiettando più diapositive l’una sull’altra.
Colore scherma
Esamina le informazioni cromatiche in ciascun
canale e schiarisce il colore di base per riflettere
il colore applicato diminuendo il contrasto. La
fusione con nero non produce alcun cambia-
mento.
Scherma lineare (Aggiungi)
Esamina le informazioni cromatiche in ciascun
canale e schiarisce il colore di base per riflettere
il colore applicato aumentando la luminosità.
La fusione con nero non produce alcun cam-
biamento.
25
Sovrapponi
Moltiplica o scolora i colori, a seconda del
colore di base. I pattern o i colori si sovrappon-
gono ai pixel esistenti mantenendo le luci e le
ombre del colore di base. Il colore di base non
viene sostituito ma viene miscelato con il colore
applicato per riflettere la luminosità o l’oscurità
del colore originale.
Luce soffusa
Scurisce o schiarisce i colori, a seconda del
colore applicato. L’effetto è simile a quello ot-
tenuto illuminando l’immagine con un faretto
a luce diffusa. Se il colore applicato (sorgente
luminosa) è più chiaro del grigio al 50%,
l’immagine viene schiarita, come se venisse
schermata; se è più scuro del grigio al 50%,
l’immagine viene scurita, come se venisse bru-
ciata. L’uso del nero o del bianco puro produce
un’area chiaramente più scura o più chiara, ma
non produce il nero o il bianco puro.
Luce intensa
Moltiplica o scolora i colori, a seconda del
colore applicato. L’effetto è simile a quello ot-
tenuto illuminando l’immagine con un faretto
intenso. Se il colore applicato (sorgente lumi-
nosa) è più chiaro del grigio al 50%, l’immagine
viene schiarita come se fosse scolorata. Ciò è
utile per aggiungere zone di luce all’immagine.
Se il colore applicato è più scuro del grigio al
50%, l’immagine viene scurita come se fosse
moltiplicata. Ciò è utile per aggiungere le
ombre all’immagine. L’uso del nero o del bianco
puro produce il nero o il bianco puro.
Luce vivida
Brucia o scherma i colori aumentando o
diminuendo il contrasto, a seconda del colore
applicato. Se il colore applicato (sorgente lumi-
nosa) è più chiaro del grigio al 50%, l’immagine
viene schiarita diminuendo il contrasto; se è
più scuro del grigio al 50%, l’immagine viene
scurita aumentando il contrasto.
Luce lineare
Brucia o scherma i colori diminuendo o
aumentando la luminosità, a seconda del colore
applicato. Se il colore applicato (sorgente lumi-
nosa) è più chiaro del grigio al 50%, l’immagine
viene schiarita aumentando la luminosità; se è
più scuro del grigio al 50%, l’immagine viene
scurita diminuendo la luminosità.
Luce puntiforme
Sostituisce i colori, a seconda del colore appli-
cato. Se il colore applicato (sorgente luminosa)
è più chiaro del grigio al 50%, i pixel più scuri
rispetto al colore applicato vengono sostituiti
mentre quelli più chiari restano inalterati. Se il
colore applicato è più scuro del grigio al 50%, i
pixel più chiari rispetto al colore applicato ven-
gono sostituiti mentre quelli più scuri restano
inalterati. Questa opzione è utile per aggiun-
gere effetti speciali a un’immagine.
Miscela dura
Aggiunge i valori dei canali rosso, verde e blu
del colore di fusione ai valori RGB del colore
base. Se la somma risultante per un canale è
maggiore o uguale a 255, il valore ricevuto è
255; se è minore di 255, il valore è 0. Pertanto
tutti i pixel fusi hanno valori dei canali rosso,
verde e blu pari a 0 o 255. Tutti i pixel vengono
quindi trasformati nei rispettivi colori primari:
rosso, verde, blu, cyan, giallo, magenta, bianco
o nero.
Differenza
Esamina le informazioni cromatiche in ciascun
canale e sottrae il colore applicato da quello
di base oppure il colore di base da quello ap-
plicato, a seconda di quale dei due ha il valore
26
di luminosità maggiore. La fusione con bianco colore con valore più alto. Colore più chiaro non
inverte i valori del colore di base; la fusione con genera un terzo colore, che può essere ottenuto
nero non produce alcun cambiamento. tramite la fusione Schiarisci, ma crea il colore
risultante scegliendo i valori dei canali più alti
Esclusione dal colore base e dal colore di fusione.
Crea un effetto simile al metodo Differenza
ma con un contrasto minore. La fusione con Colore più scuro
il bianco inverte i valori del colore di base; La Confronta il totale di tutti i valori dei canali per
fusione con nero non produce alcun cambia- il colore di fusione e di base, e visualizza il col-
mento. ore con valore più basso. Colore più scuro non
genera un terzo colore, che può essere ottenuto
Tonalità tramite la fusione Scurisci, ma crea il colore
Crea un colore risultante con la luminanza e la risultante scegliendo i valori dei canali più bassi
saturazione del colore di base e la tonalità del dal colore base e dal colore di fusione.
colore applicato.
Saturazione
Crea un colore risultante con la luminosità e la
tonalità del colore di base e la saturazione del
colore applicato. Applicando questo metodo
a un’area con saturazione pari a zero (grigia),
non viene prodotto alcun cambiamento.
Colore
Crea un colore risultante con la luminosità
del colore di base e la tonalità e la saturazione
del colore applicato. In questo modo vengono
mantenuti i livelli di grigio nell’immagine; ciò
risulta utile per la colorazione di immagini
monocromatiche e per tingere immagini a
colori.
Luminosità
Crea un colore risultante con la tonalità e la
saturazione del colore di base e la luminosità
del colore applicato. Questo metodo crea un
effetto opposto a quello del metodo Colore.
Colore più chiaro
Confronta il totale di tutti i valori dei canali
per il colore di fusione e di base, e visualizza il
27
28 29
 Finding and Keeping the Time / Trovando e Mantenendo il Tempo - National Institute of Standards and Technology - 1977
Holograms of Real and Virtual Point Trajectories / Ologrammi del Reale e Traitettorie del Punto Virtuale - Three-dimensional
Holographic Imaging - Chung J. Kuo & Meng Hua Tsai - 2002
Sad Young Man on a Train / Uomo Giovane e Triste su un Treno - Marcel Duchamp - 1911-12
A Study of the Persistence of Vision / Uno Studio Sulla Persistenza Della Visione - Proceedings of the National Academy of Sci-
ences of the United States of America - A. C. Hardy - Communicated by Edwin B. Wilson - 1920
A Photograph of Duchamp Using a Hinged Mirror / Fotografia di Duchamp Usando uno Specchio Movibile - 1917
Maker, Above Below and Between - The Mechanism of Meaning . Arakawa & Gins - 1978
A List of Blending Modes / Elenco Dei Met Odi di Fusione - Adobe Photoshop CS3 User Guide - Adobe Systems Incorporated - 2007
An Event Over the Skies of France / Un Evento sui Cieli della Francia - Rouen, France - March 1954

30 31
 Pubblicato da Project Gentili in occasione del mostra
Published by Project Gentili on the occasion of the exhibition

Presented as the Problem, Damon Zucconi, 2009

Some Rights Reserved, 2009, Project Gentili

ISSN 1973-2163

www.damonzucconi.com
mail@damonzucconi.com

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T: +39 0574 400445
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