Lecturer 11

P V diagram (Applied Thermodynamics)

When a liquid is heated at a constant pressure, it starts boiling at a certain temperature. For example, at the pressure of 1 atm = 1.01325 bar = 1.01325 105 Pa which is the standard atmospheric pressure, the boiling temperature of water is 100 oC. As the pressure increases, the boiling temperature increases, and as the pressure decreases, the boiling or vaporization temperature decreases, as shown in the following table:

Definition 1
The term saturation temperature at a given pressure designates the boiling temperature at that pressure; and the term saturation pressure for a given temperature designates the pressure at which the liquid will start boiling at that temperature.
For example, from the above table, the saturation temperature at 0.1 bar is 45.8C, and the saturation pressure at 45.8C is 0.1 bar.

Definition 2
We define the specific volume as the ratio of the total volume to the total mass of a substance:

Please note that by this definition, the specific volume is the inverse of the density.

It is found that the volume occupied by 1 kg of a boiling liquid at a higher pressure is slightly larger than the volume occupied by 1 kg of the same liquid when it is boiling at a low pressure. For instance, we find the following values:

Compressed liquid region

A series of boiling points plotted on a pv diagram will appear as a sloping line as shown in the figure.
Saturated liquid line Super heated region (steam)

Saturated vapor line

P3
P2 P1

R S

T3 T2 T1

R
S Q

Mixture region
Vf

Vg

The boiling points S, Q and R represent the boiling points of a liquid at pressures p1, p2 and p3 respectively. When the liquid is heated at constant pressure at its boiling temperature, the phase of the liquid changes to the gaseous phase at constant temperature. The specific volume increases during vaporization. The points S, Q and R represent the states where the vaporization process is completed.

Definition 3
If a substance exists as liquid at the saturation temperature and pressure, it is called saturated liquid. This means that the points S, Q and R represent saturated liquid. If the temperature of the liquid is lower than the saturation temperature for the existing pressure, it is called a compressed liquid (implying that the pressure is greater than the saturation pressure for the given temperature). If a substance exists as vapor at the saturation temperature, it is called saturated vapor. This means that the points S, Q and R represent saturated vapor. When the vapor is at a temperature greater than the saturation temperature, it is said to exist as superheated vapor.

The specific volume of saturated liquid is denoted by vf (f for fluid), and the specific volume of saturated vapor is denoted by vg. The above table can be completed with the values of vg as follows:

Between the points S and S, Q and Q, R and R, a mixture of liquid and vapor are in equilibrium.

Definition 4
The dryness fraction of a liquid-vapor mixture is defined as the ratio of the mass of vapor to the total mass of the mixture:

The total volume is the sum of the volumes of the gas and the fluid:

Definition 5
We note that for a mixture with a dryness fraction x, the internal energy and enthalpy are given by:

Example Water at 2 bar and 110C is a compressed liquid.

Water at 0.3 bar and 4m3/kg is a mixture of saturated liquid and vapor

Water at 0.1 bar and 50C is a superheated vapor.

Note: We can find the specific volume of the superheated vapor from the Superheated
Steam table (page 6) as v = 14.87m3/kg

Example 1.
A vessel having a volume of 0.4m3 contains 2.0 kg of a liquid water and water vapor mixture in equilibrium at a pressure of 2 bar. Calculate: 1. The volume and mass of liquid. 2. The volume and mass of vapor.

Answer

At 2 bar, vg =0.8856

and vf =0.001061

The specific volume is given by:

We have:

Example 2 Use the following table:

1. What is the saturation temperature corresponding to a pressure of 13.7 bar? 2. What is the state of water (compressed liquid, or mixture of liquid and vapor, or superheated vapor) under the following conditions: (a) 1.2MPa, 184.1C. (b) 195.0C, 0.15m3/kg. 3. A vessel having a volume of 0.5m3 contains 5 kg of liquid water and water vapor mixture in equilibrium at a pressure of 14 bar. (a) What is the temperature of the liquid ? (b) What is the mass and volume of the vapor, mass and volume of the fluid ? (c) Calculate the enthalpy and the internal energy of the mixture.

1. What is the saturation temperature corresponding to a pressure of 13.7 bar?

we use linear interpolation:

2. What is the state of water (compressed liquid, or mixture of liquid and vapor, or superheated vapor) under the following conditions: (a) 1.2MPa, 184.1C. (b) 195.0C, 0.15m3/kg.

(a) At 1.2MPa (12 bar), Ts = 188.0C. Since the temperature is 184.1C< Ts, the state is compressed liquid. (b) At Ts = 195C, vg = 0.1408m3/kg < 0.15m3/kg, thus, the state is superheated vapor.

3. A vessel having a volume of 0.5m3 contains 5 kg of liquid water and water vapor mixture in equilibrium at a pressure of 14 bar. (a) What is the temperature of the liquid ? (b) What is the mass and volume of the vapor, mass and volume of the fluid ? (c) Calculate the enthalpy and the internal energy of the mixture.

(a) The temperature of the liquid is Ts (at 14 bar) = 195.0C.

(b) The specific volume of the mixture is:

(c) the enthalpy and the internal energy of the mixture.

Note that: