1

Adiabatic quantum machine learning

Sergio Boixo
Information Sciences Institute
USC Viterbi School of Engineering
Harvard Associate
People at USC / ISI
Federico Spedalieri Greg Ver Steeg Kristen Pudenz
Stephan Haas
Paolo Zanardi
Todd Brun
Lorenzo Campos
Tony Levi
Edmun Jonckheere
Massoud Pedram
Susumu Takahashi

Bob Lucas
John Damoulakis
Daniel Lidar
qubit system will be the topic of a separate publication. To
clearly establish the lingua franca of our work, we have
depicted a portion of the multiqubit circuit in Fig. 5a. Ca-
nonical representations of the external ux biases needed to
operate a qubit, a coupler, and a QFP-enabled readout are
labeled on the diagram. The uxes
L
x
,
R
x
,
LT
x
, and
co
x
were only ever subjected to dc levels in our experiments that
were controlled by PMM. The remaining uxes and readout
current biases were driven by a custom-built 128-channel
room-temperature current source. The mutual inductances
between qubit and QFP M
qqfp
, between QFP and dc
SQUID M
qfpro
, qubit and coupler M
co,i
, and

co
x
-dependent interqubit mutual inductance M
eff
have also
been indicated. Further details concerning cryogenics, mag-
netic shielding, and signal ltering have been discussed in
previous publications.
4447
We have calibrated the relevant
mutual inductances between devices in situ and have at-
tempted to measure a signicant portion of the parasitic cross
couplings between bias controls both analog lines and PMM
elements into unintended devices. These cross couplings
were typically below our measurement threshold 0.1 fH
while designed mutual inductances between bias controls
and intended devices were typically O1 pH. Much of the 4
orders in magnitude separation between intended versus un-
intended mutual inductances can be attributed to the exten-
sive use of ground planes and the encapsulation of trans-
formers described above. Such careful shielding is critical
for producing high-density and scalable superconducting de-
vice architectures.
Since much of what follows depends on a clear under-
standing of our QFP-enabled readout mechanism, we present
a brief review of its operation herein. The ux and readout
current wave form sequence involved in a single-shot read-
out is depicted in Fig. 5b. Much like the CJJ qubit,
47
the
QFP can be adiabatically annealed from a state with a
monostable potential
latch
x
=
0
/ 2 to a state with a
bistable potential
latch
x
=
0
that supports two countercir-
culating persistent current states. The matter of which persis-
tent current state prevails at the end of an annealing cycle
depends on the sum of
qfp
x
and any signal from the qubit
mediated via M
qqfp
. The state of the QFP is then determined
with high delity using a synchronized ux pulse and current
bias ramp applied to the dc SQUID. The readout process was
typically completed within a repetition time t
rep
50 s.
An example trace of the population of one of the QFP
persistent current states P
qfp
versus
qfp
x
, obtained using the
latching sequence depicted in Fig. 5b, is shown in Fig. 5c.
This trace was obtained with the qubit potential held
monostable
ccjj
x
=
0
/ 2 such that it presented minimal
ux to the QFP and would therefore not inuence P
qfp
. The
data have been t to the phenomenological form
P
qfp
=
1
2
1 tanh

qfp
x

qfp
0
w
, 8
with width w0.18 m
0
for the trace shown therein. When
biased with constant
qfp
x
=
qfp
0
, which we refer to as the
QFP degeneracy point, this transition in the population sta-
tistics can be used as a highly nonlinear ux amplier for
sensing the state of the qubit. Given that M
qqfp
=6.280.01 pH for the devices reported upon herein and
that typical qubit persistent currents in the presence of neg-
ligible tunneling I
q
p
1 A, then the net ux presented by a
qubit was 2M
qqfp
I
q
p
6 m
0
, which far exceeded w. By
this means, one can achieve the very high qubit state readout
delity reported in Ref. 46. On the other hand, the QFP can
be used as a linearized ux sensor by engaging
qfp
x
in a
feedback loop and actively tracking
qfp
0
. This latter mode of
operation has been used extensively in obtaining many of the
results presented herein.
IV. CCJJ RF-SQUID CHARACTERIZATION
The purpose of this section is to present measurements
that characterize the CCJJ, L tuner, and capacitance of a
CCJJ rf SQUID. All measurements shown herein have been
made with a set of standard bias conditions given by
L
x
=98.4 m
0
,
R
x
=89.3 m
0
,
LT
x
=0.344
0
, and all in-
terqubit couplers tuned to provide M
eff
=0, unless indicated
otherwise. The logic behind this particular choice of bias
conditions will be explained in what follows. This section
will begin with a description of the experimental methods for
extracting L
q
and I
q
c
from persistent current measurements.
Thereafter, data that demonstrate the performance of the
CCJJ and L tuner will be presented. Finally, this section will
conclude with the determination of C
q
from macroscopic
resonant tunneling data.
0
0
-0/2
~0/3
i
ro
(t)

ro
(t)
x

qfp
(t)
x
x

latch
(t)
t=0 t
rep
0
(b)
-
0
}
}
Q
F
P
(a)
Qubit
M
eff
Coupler
{
QFP

co
x
i
ro

qfp
x

q
x

latch
x

ccjj
x

ro
x

L
x

R
x
M
q-qfp
M
qfp-ro
M
co,i

LT
x
1 0.5 0 0.5 1
0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
(c)

qfp
x
(m
0
)
P
q
f
p
dc SQUID
d
c
S
Q
U
I
D
FIG. 5. Color online a Schematic representation of a portion
of the circuit reported upon herein. Canonical representations of all
externally controlled ux biases

x
, readout current bias i
ro
, and
key mutual inductances M

are indicated. b Depiction of latching

readout wave form sequence. c Example QFP state population
measurement as a function of the dc level
qfp
x
with no qubit signal.
Data have been t to Eq. 8.
EXPERIMENTAL DEMONSTRATION OF A ROBUST AND PHYSICAL REVIEW B 81, 134510 2010
134510-7
Adiabatic quantum
machine learning
H. Neven, V. S. Denchev, M. Drew-Brook, J. Zhang, W. G. Macready,
and G. Rose, NIPS 2009 Demonstration: Binary Classification using
Hardware Implementation of Quantum Annealing, 2009.
H. Neven, V. S. Denchev, G. Rose, and W. G. Macready, Training a
Binary Classifier with the Quantum Adiabatic Algorithm, 0811.0416,
Nov. 2008.
H. Neven, V. S. Denchev, G. Rose, and W. G. Macready, Training a
Large Scale Classifier with the Quantum Adiabatic Algorithm,
0912.0779, Dec. 2009.
H. Neven, G. Rose, and W. G. Macready, Image recognition with an
adiabatic quantum computer I. Mapping to quadratic unconstrained
binary optimization, 0804.4457, Apr. 2008.
K. L. Pudenz and D. A. Lidar, Quantum adiabatic machine learning,
1109.0325, Sep. 2011.
Aspuru-Guzik group
!! [ Parvard:
!! !"#$%&'()%&*+,",-.,/01 %%
!! ur !ohannes Pachmann
!! ur 5ule ALahan-Lvrenk
!! 234%5#67"8#%9'0:;"7*-&<;=;%
!! rof Carlos Amador-8edolla (unAM, Mexlco)
!! former: ur 8oel S. Snchez-Carrera (now 8osch)
!! [ SLanford:
!! rof Zhenan 8ao
!! ur 8a[lb Mondal
!! ur. 1ony Sokolow
!! [ C-Chem lnc.:
!! ur ?lhan Shao
!! ur Alex SodL
!! ur Zhenung Can
!! ur !lng kong
!! MSc Leslle vogL
!! Aryeh Cold-arker
!! Anna 8rockway (8Lu)
!! &0>;)%?;'=%
!! [ l8M WCC:
!! 8lll 8overmann
!! !onaLhan ArmsLrong
!! kevln 8eed
!! kelLh upllnger
!! [ uSC - lSl:
!! 37"@0#%A#0B#%
Clean Energy Project
Clean Energy Project
Organic photovoltaics 101
CEP Steps
%Power Conv. Effic.
Jsc Short-circuit current
Voc Open-circuit voltage
FF Fill factor
For different families:
3.3% -> 7.7%
CEP Machine Learning
!"#$%&'()*(+,#-.-./(0'+($)&'12&'0(
Results with lin. reg.
Olivares-Amaya, Amador-Bedolla, Hachmann, Atahan-Evrenk, et al.. Energy Environ. Sci. (2011)
Gaussian Processes
Gaussian Processes
High-level Gaussian distribution over functions
Gray area defines where the function could be - defined entirely
by mean and standard deviation
As you add data points, you become more certain of the
behavior of the function near those points

Binary Classification
Binary classication

Rather than predicting numerical value for efciency,

predicts whether or not it will be over a certain threshold
MW Amw Me Mp Mi nBP
0 0 1 0 1 0
PCE ! 6.5
!
< 0 0 1 0 1 0 >
Rather than predicting numerical value for efficiency, predicts whether
or not it will be over a certain threshold
Solution is a binary vector marking each descriptor as a good
predictor or bad predictor
Reduces descriptor space at expense of complexity of output

Feature Selection
Burden Matrix
Structural information
Burden matrix
Symmetric matrix of atomic entries with:

Atomic number in the diagonal

Off-diagonal:

Conventional bond order / 10. (Conventional bond

order is 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 and 0.15 for single, double, triple
and aromatic bonds).

Terminal bonds: + 0.01

Other entries: +0.001

Structural information
Typical descriptor: SpMax_Bh(m), second largest
eigenvalue.
Moran Autocorrelation
1

j
(w
i
w) (w
j
w) (d
ij
, k)
1
A

i
(w
i
w)
2
Moran autocorrelation
Typical descriptor: MATS5m, Moran autocorrelation of lag
5 weighted by mass.
Machine learning
Boosting
We start with weak classifiers that are correct with
some probability:
h
j
(x) =

1 if x seems of type 1
0 if x seems of type 0
We find a strong classifier:
H. Neven, V. S. Denchev, G. Rose, W. G. Macready 2008, 2008, 2009, 2009. K. Pudenz, D. Lidar 2011
H(x) =

j
h
j
(x) > T

One classifier for each descriptor

Exhaustive Search for
Strong Classifier
Exhaustive search for Strong Class.
Even with two descriptor models, weighted errors lower than
10% have been achieved
Recurring descriptors:
Burden matrix - eigenvalues and spectral diameter
Moran autocorrelations

! !"#$%&''#!(#)*#$**#"+*#
$),"-+#./0%#10#
/*23'&/,4&501#6788#
9*$-/,:"0/$;#"0#&/0319#<8#
! =+*#>/$"#:0,1"$#+&?*#$&%*#
*//0/#&19#10@#0.#
9*$-/,:"0/$@#!A*/)&/9$(#
"+*#$0'3501#,$#?*/B#
9*2*1*/&"*#
S

s=1
H[y
s
Q
w
(x
s
)] +w
0
CEP ML Tests
CEP ML Tests
Lambda No. descriptors Wrong Error
0 247 3 0.034847
4.85E-07 29 3 0.008152
9.70E-07 29 3 0.008152
1.46E-06 29 3 0.008152
1.94E-06 29 3 0.008152
2.43E-06 29 3 0.008152
2.91E-06 29 3 0.008152
3.40E-06 29 3 0.008152
3.88E-06 29 3 0.008152
4.37E-06 29 3 0.008152
Starting from ~600 Dragon descriptors
Adding regularization decreases no. of descriptors dramatically
First few set of lambda values give a similar set of solutions
CEP ML Tests
Test with
(mostly) random noise
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
N
o
.

o
f

v
a
r
i
a
b
l
e
s

s
e
l
e
c
t
e
d

(
s
h
o
u
l
d

b
e

1
)
Random variables used
Population
2E3
2E4
2E5
2E6
QUBO
Weak class. score Regularization Avoid similar class.
QUBO and Boosting
H(x) =

j
h
j
(x) > T

QUBO = 2D Random Ising

H
Ising
= Q
jj
Z
j
+Q
jk
Z
j
Z
k
H(s) = (1 s)
X
X
j
+sH
Ising
Can be implemented with D-Waves chip
Fairly complicated problems can be addressed
Approximate solutions are OK (embedding)
Better solutions or potential speedup?
The final result gives a classical function (Gaussian
process)
CEP
Harvard Clean Energy Project (Aln Aspuru-Guzik et. al.)
Distributed computing project ("screensaver")
IBM World Community Grid
Approximately three years in the making: June 2010 Linux
code, November 2010 Windows and Mac codes
Preliminary results first published: August 2011
25
Entanglement with fast
dephasing adiabatic computation
D-Wave Qubits
qubit system will be the topic of a separate publication. To
clearly establish the lingua franca of our work, we have
depicted a portion of the multiqubit circuit in Fig. 5a. Ca-
nonical representations of the external ux biases needed to
operate a qubit, a coupler, and a QFP-enabled readout are
labeled on the diagram. The uxes
L
x
,
R
x
,
LT
x
, and
co
x
were only ever subjected to dc levels in our experiments that
were controlled by PMM. The remaining uxes and readout
current biases were driven by a custom-built 128-channel
room-temperature current source. The mutual inductances
between qubit and QFP M
qqfp
, between QFP and dc
SQUID M
qfpro
, qubit and coupler M
co,i
, and

co
x
-dependent interqubit mutual inductance M
eff
have also
been indicated. Further details concerning cryogenics, mag-
netic shielding, and signal ltering have been discussed in
previous publications.
4447
We have calibrated the relevant
mutual inductances between devices in situ and have at-
tempted to measure a signicant portion of the parasitic cross
couplings between bias controls both analog lines and PMM
elements into unintended devices. These cross couplings
were typically below our measurement threshold 0.1 fH
while designed mutual inductances between bias controls
and intended devices were typically O1 pH. Much of the 4
orders in magnitude separation between intended versus un-
intended mutual inductances can be attributed to the exten-
sive use of ground planes and the encapsulation of trans-
formers described above. Such careful shielding is critical
for producing high-density and scalable superconducting de-
vice architectures.
Since much of what follows depends on a clear under-
standing of our QFP-enabled readout mechanism, we present
a brief review of its operation herein. The ux and readout
current wave form sequence involved in a single-shot read-
out is depicted in Fig. 5b. Much like the CJJ qubit,
47
the
QFP can be adiabatically annealed from a state with a
monostable potential
latch
x
=
0
/ 2 to a state with a
bistable potential
latch
x
=
0
that supports two countercir-
culating persistent current states. The matter of which persis-
tent current state prevails at the end of an annealing cycle
depends on the sum of
qfp
x
and any signal from the qubit
mediated via M
qqfp
. The state of the QFP is then determined
with high delity using a synchronized ux pulse and current
bias ramp applied to the dc SQUID. The readout process was
typically completed within a repetition time t
rep
50 s.
An example trace of the population of one of the QFP
persistent current states P
qfp
versus
qfp
x
, obtained using the
latching sequence depicted in Fig. 5b, is shown in Fig. 5c.
This trace was obtained with the qubit potential held
monostable
ccjj
x
=
0
/ 2 such that it presented minimal
ux to the QFP and would therefore not inuence P
qfp
. The
data have been t to the phenomenological form
P
qfp
=
1
2

1 tanh

qfp
x

qfp
0
w

, 8
with width w0.18 m
0
for the trace shown therein. When
biased with constant
qfp
x
=
qfp
0
, which we refer to as the
QFP degeneracy point, this transition in the population sta-
tistics can be used as a highly nonlinear ux amplier for
sensing the state of the qubit. Given that M
qqfp
=6.280.01 pH for the devices reported upon herein and
that typical qubit persistent currents in the presence of neg-
ligible tunneling I
q
p
1 A, then the net ux presented by a
qubit was 2M
qqfp
I
q
p
6 m
0
, which far exceeded w. By
this means, one can achieve the very high qubit state readout
delity reported in Ref. 46. On the other hand, the QFP can
be used as a linearized ux sensor by engaging
qfp
x
in a
feedback loop and actively tracking
qfp
0
. This latter mode of
operation has been used extensively in obtaining many of the
results presented herein.
IV. CCJJ RF-SQUID CHARACTERIZATION
The purpose of this section is to present measurements
that characterize the CCJJ, L tuner, and capacitance of a
CCJJ rf SQUID. All measurements shown herein have been
made with a set of standard bias conditions given by
L
x
=98.4 m
0
,
R
x
=89.3 m
0
,
LT
x
=0.344
0
, and all in-
terqubit couplers tuned to provide M
eff
=0, unless indicated
otherwise. The logic behind this particular choice of bias
conditions will be explained in what follows. This section
will begin with a description of the experimental methods for
extracting L
q
and I
q
c
from persistent current measurements.
Thereafter, data that demonstrate the performance of the
CCJJ and L tuner will be presented. Finally, this section will
conclude with the determination of C
q
from macroscopic
resonant tunneling data.
0
0
-
0
/2
~
0
/3
i
ro
(t)

ro
(t)
x

qfp
(t)
x
x

latch
(t)
t=0 t
rep
0
(b)
-
0
}
}
Q
F
P
(a)
Qubit
M
eff
Coupler
{
QFP

co
x
i
ro

qfp
x

q
x

latch
x

ccjj
x

ro
x

L
x

R
x
M
q-qfp
M
qfp-ro
M
co,i

LT
x
1 0.5 0 0.5 1
0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
(c)

qfp
x
(m
0
)
P
q
f
p
dc SQUID
d
c
S
Q
U
I
D
FIG. 5. Color online a Schematic representation of a portion
of the circuit reported upon herein. Canonical representations of all
externally controlled ux biases

x
, readout current bias i
ro
, and
key mutual inductances M

are indicated. b Depiction of latching

readout wave form sequence. c Example QFP state population
measurement as a function of the dc level
qfp
x
with no qubit signal.
Data have been t to Eq. 8.
EXPERIMENTAL DEMONSTRATION OF A ROBUST AND PHYSICAL REVIEW B 81, 134510 2010
134510-7
R. Harris et al., Experimental demonstration of a robust and scalable flux qubit,
Physical Review B, vol. 81, Apr. 2010.
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
t/t
f
E
n
e
r
g
y

(
G
H
z
)
A(t/t
f
)
B(t/t
f
)
Redfield Simulation
Energies in GHz range (ns)
Dephasing (in instantaneous eigenbasis) of around 10ns
Fast thermalization
Redfield simulation code provided by M. Amin (R. Harris)
No concurrence between pairs of qubits (?)
PPT Symmetric Extensions

All separable states have a PPTSE for any k
F. Spedalieri et. al.
Witness entanglement
Temperature
(mK)
Adiabatic time
(microseconds)
30
Questions?