A Fundamental Overview of Heating by Induction

Nathan Rhoades
April 22, 2006

1. What is Induction Heating?

Induction heating is a method of heating conductive objects by means of electromagnetic induction. This method of heating is of great interest to materials and manufacturing industries as it is fast, precise, and controllable. Though an induction heating system may be more expensive, it is usually preferable to other types of processing methods such as open flame heating or chemical processes. In most cases it also is the most efficient and precise heating method in practice today.

1.1 Heat treatment

Heat treatment is a group of manufacturing techniques used to alter the hardness and toughness of a material. Heat treatment includes, but is not limited to annealing, case hardening, induction hardening, precipitation strengthening, tempering and quenching. A metal that has been heat hardened can be too brittle for a final product unless it is further conditioned with heat. Usually the metal is held at a temperature for a set amount of time, and then cooled slowly over a time period. The heating can be cycled and the cooling of each cycle forms crystals within the metal. The exact heats depends of the type of metal or alloy being treated; the final character may have a different hardness or toughness depending on the source material. Annealing in metallurgy refers to a heat treatment method wherein the microscopic structure of the material is altered which directly change properties of the metal, such as strength and hardness. Annealing has several phases; the first of which involves softening the metal by removing crystal defects and internal stresses caused by them. Grain growth is the progression of degradation to common order in a crystal and the annealing process works to eliminate these defects. Tempering involves heating a metal object to a high temperature (austenizing), and then quickly and sharply lowering the temperature (quenching). These two processes together form an extremely hard microstructure in materials such as medium-carbon and highcarbon steels. Though carbon has a very strong atomic structure, the quenching effect usually must be reduced to avoid brittleness. In metallurgy, there is usually a trade off between toughness and hardness. A tough state of a metal usually is more malleable and soft, but more durable. As the dual, a harder metal is less yielding but is also more brittle. Case hardening (or surface hardening) is the process of hardening the surface of steel while leaving the interior unchanged. This idea creates two stages of steel in the same item, leading to properties ideal for certain applications. Case hardening increases the wear resistance of mechanical parts without compromising the toughness of the interior. A common example are gears, springs, and machine parts (Figure 1.1).

Figure 1.1: Case hardening of a gear

Precipitation hardening (age hardening) is a heat treatment technique used to strengthening malleable materials such as aluminum and titanium. The idea is to create an impurity of fine particles within the material that impede the movement of dislocations. Dislocations are the major carrier of plasticity, or, the property of a material to undergo permanent deformation under a load. Precipitation hardening in effect reduces a materials plasticity.

1.2 Soldering and Welding

Soldering is the processing of bonding two metals together by melting an alloy into a liquid, allowing it to flux, and allowing it to cool back into a solid. The alloys used usually have a melting point between 350 to 750 degrees F. Common metals that can be soldered upon include iron, nickel, copper, lead, tin, zinc, and aluminum, and the solder is usually a lead or tin alloy. The process produces liquid-tight and gas-tight seals quickly, and is commonly used for plumbing and electronics. The solder acts as a barrier to prevent oxidization which improves the seal thermally, conductively, and mechanically. Induction heating can be used to precisely heat solder or soldering areas of interest with a high rate of repeatability. This can be used to great advantage in industry where other methods (such as costly solder robots or torches) may not be an economic possibility. Stick-feeding solder does not create joints as strong as if the solder were predisposed in the area in a paste form, and this method can only be performed with areaheating mechanisms. Figure 1.2 illustrates an induction soldering apparatus used to seal a conduit metal tube.

Figure 1.2: Induction soldering apparatus with weld rolls.

1.2 Induction Cooking

Cooking by means of induction heating is a technology where cookware is heated by means of electromagnetic induction. The cookware is placed on top of a stovetop wherein directly beneath lies a coil. The effort is to create heating within the cookware itself and not within the stovetop. This is a more economical way of heating as it does not generate as much wasted heat through transfer of the stovetop. Because the heating is so evenly distributed This method gives the cook incredible control over the heat. Most of the heat comes from hysteric losses due to magnetic materials, so cookware that contains ferric materials such as iron or stainless steel work best. Induction cooking is about 90% efficient compared to gas (55%) and standard electric cooking (65%).

2. Generation of Eddy Currents

The heating of the workpiece arises from the I-squared-R law, Ohms Law, commonly referred to as ohmic heating. As a current passes through a resistance, the power dissipated by the resistance is directly proportional to the square of the current times the resistance. Therefore a larger current and a larger resistance will dissipate more heat. Induction heating uses high oscillations of magnetic fields to induce a very large current into the workpiece. The magnetic oscillations are sourced by a coil in which a large current passes with the same frequency. Assuming that there is an oscillation, we can view the current through a loop of wire as the phasor I. Figure 2.1 shows a FEMM cross-sectional simulation of magnetic field densities as I passes through the relative loops of wire. As the number of loops increase, the intensity magnetic field localizes to the axis of the coil. The rightmost picture shows the highest magnetic field B in the very NI z center, which can be estimated by the equation B where is the magnetic l

permeability of the interior of the coil, N is the number of loops (or turns), l is the length of the solenoid.

Figure 2.1: FEMM simulations of loops of wire. The number of loops increase in number and in density from left to right. The rightmost illustration estimates infinitely dense windings. When this oscillating magnetic field intercepts a conductive object, it will induce a current in it. The direction and velocity of the induced current will oppose that of the current of the inducing coil (as to satisfy the conservation of energy). Figure 2.2a shows a cross-sectional FEMM simulation of a coil resting on top of a block of steel. The magnetic field exists vertically, and the current density is shown in color. Notice that the current density decreases exponentially as the distance from the surface of the steel 2 increases. This is known as the skin effect, and is defined as = . The skin

depth is related to the frequency, conductivity, and permeability of the material. A graph of the skin depth of a cylindrical bar of steel is shown in Figure 2.2b.

Figure 2.2: A) Current density of induced eddy currents in a block of steel. B) Skin depth of a cylindrical bar of steel at various frequencies.

3. Relevant Material Properties

3.1 Resistivity
The resistivity of materials is a direct contributor to current flow and power dissipation through the equation P = I 2 R . In general the work coil material should have a very low resistance as to avoid heat losses through conduction. The work piece will generate more heat if it has a larger resistance, however this parameter may not be available for modification if one does not have the luxury of choosing the work piece. It is also important to note that the resistance of a material tends to increase with temperature in a linear fashion (Figure 3.1).

Figure 3.1: Resistivity vs. temperature for various materials. (Notice how little NiCr wire changes with temperature; this is why it makes an ideal heating element.)

3.2 Specific Heat

The amount of heat that a material can absorb changes with temperature. This is referred to as specific heat and is related by Q = cmT where T is the change in temperature, m is the mass, c is the specific heat, and Q is the heat added to the object. The specific heat is the amount of heat per unit mass required to raise the temperature by one degree Celsius. Some materials may absorb more heat at different temperatures. For example; steel absorbs more heat when its temperature increases (Figure 3.2). In other words, it takes more energy to heat steel when it is hot then when it is cold. Knowing the specific heat of the workpiece allows for calculations of required power.

Figure 3.2: Change in specific heat with temperature for various materials.

3.3 Hysteresis
Magnetic materials, such as nickel, iron and steel, undergo what is referred to as hysteresis. As the magnetic field oscillates, it exerts work upon the magnetic domains within the material. The domains flip polarities and create friction which produces heat. The energy lost through hysteresis depends on the strength of the magnetism in the material and the area of the hysteresis loop. The hysteresis loop is a plot of the magnetic field versus the magnetic energy density for a material. An illustration of the flipping of magnetic domains is in Figure 3.3 below. Hysteresis is important for induction cooking as it is the dominant source of heating. The losses due to hysteresis are usually a secondary effect in most industrial applications because ohmic heating is dominant. High heating tends to eliminate this problem anyway; when the material heats up to its Curie temperature, it looses its magnetization and hysteresis losses do not occur.

Figure 3.3: Hysteresis losses due to magnetic domains of ferromagnetic materials.

3.4 Reference Depth

For efficient heating to occur, the current through the workpiece and the resistance of the workpiece must both be as high as possible. Usually metals are good conductors of electricity, but they also exhibit the skin effect at high frequencies. As was explained earlier, the current density decreases exponentially as the distance from the surface increases towards the center. A higher frequency will keep the current density concentrated closer to the surface. This in turn will drastically decrease the crosssectional area of the active current flow, thus drastically increasing the resistance. The reference depth is the theoretical minimum depth of heating that a frequency will produce at a given power and workpiece temperature. The cross-sectional size of the workpiece being heated must be at least 4 times the reference depth, or current cancellation will occur. This comes from manipulation of the skin depth equation 2 = which will not be discussed here. As a rule of thumb, the reference depth is

the depth where 86% of heating occurs from eddy currents and resistivity. The reference depths decrease with frequency and increase with temperature as shown in Figure 3.4. Figure 3.5 shows the heat distribution and current distributions of a cylindrical work piece with diameter a.

Figure 3.4: Reference depths for change in frequency of various materials.

Figure 3.5: Heat and current distributions in a cylindrical workpiece.

3.5 Heating Efficiency

As the ratio of the workpiece diameter to the reference depth drops below 4, the efficiency of heating decreases. This is an area of interest if one wishes to perform case hardening or complete through heating (heating of the entire workpiece). Figure 3.6 shows that relative efficiency does not increase significantly as the frequency is driven past the resonant frequency of the system. The relative efficiency does start to decline drastically as the frequency is driven below resonance.

Figure 3.6: Efficiency changes with driving frequency relative to resonance.

4. Modeling
Induction heating is caused by high frequency oscillations of a magnetic field. The magnetic field is produced by a solenoid with an oscillating current passing through it. The most efficient type of oscillating signal is sinusoidal in nature, and therefore the driving current must also be sinusoidal. The system must also include an inductor (being the work coil) as a passive component of interest. For these reasons, resonant converters become the most practical implementation.

4.1 Voltage-Source Series Resonant Converter

The voltage-source series resonant converter uses the natural resonance of an LCR network to generate high voltages across the reactive components. As shown in Figure 4.1, it consists of a series combination of an inductor (work coil), capacitor, and a lossy resistance. The resistance is the combination of losses from the work piece, resistance of the work coil, internal ESR of the capacitor, and any system losses. This is the simplest model used to represent induction heating, although more complicated analysis will assign specific losses to discrete resistor elements. The voltage source v a is pulsed at some frequency as a square wave. Charge and magnetic energy are interchangeable stored in the capacitor and inductor respectively, and they act together to exchange voltages and currents. The result from this second order differential circuits is a sinusoidal circuit. Figure 4.1 shows the input to the circuit as the voltage Vdc with an input current as a sinusoidal of the same frequency with a peak of 4V iaPEAK = dc . R

Figure 4.1: Voltage-Source Series Resonant Converter

The series resonant converter has a low input impedance, meaning that all of the current ia through the work coil must be supplied by the source. The voltage across the reactive components is directly related to the quality factor Q, through the equation VC 0 = = Q . Therefore if (convolving to the time constant of an RL circuit) is very Va 2 small, then the voltage across the capacitor (or inductor) will be very large.

4.2 Current-Source Parallel Resonant Converter

As the dual to the voltage-source series resonant converter, the current-source parallel resonant converter has the same components connected in parallel branches. An input current source ia supplies a square wave of current at a frequency. The energy storage elements transform the voltage across them into a sinusoidal voltage with a peak of 4 v aPEAK = I dc R as seen in Figure 4.2. The parallel resonant converter has a high input

impedance, meaning that all of the voltage v a across the work coil must be supplied by the source. The current through the reactive components is directly related to the quality I factor Q, through the equation C = 0 RC = Q . Therefore if RC (convolving to the time Ia constant of an RC circuit) is very large, then the current through the capacitor (or inductor) will be very large.

Figure 4.2: Current-Source Parallel Resonant Converter

4.3 Selecting L and C

Selecting the capacitance and the inductance to use in an induction heating system is critical. A specific frequency may be required for case hardening or optimal heating. One may have the luxury to choose the power source based on their application, but other cases may require the use of one specific resonant converter. The issue here is whether induction heating application should receive a high voltage or a high current. This also depends on the power electronics ability to supply high currents or voltages. It is common to find work coils in voltage-source series induction heating systems to have a large number of turns. The voltage across the capacitor will be very high, suggesting that the voltage rating needs to be high as well. A large magnetic field is generated from the many number of turns of wire, though there may be less current traveling through it then in the parallel converter. Series systems are common in induction cooking where a household current is sufficient. Current-sourced parallel induction heating systems will have a thick work coil capable of carrying huge currents. The magnetic field is generated mostly from the intense current density present in the work coil. Cooling may be required due to ohmic heating the work coil itself. Parallel systems are most commonly found in industry because it is acceptable to generate very high voltages to complement the current source (that would otherwise be dangerous for consumers). It is most often desirable to choose a capacitance for a work coil. In the simplest form,
2 the following relation exists for the driving frequency: d = 0 2 . This can be

expanded to d = resonant system.

1 R2 2 . Figure 4.3 shows common work coils for each type of LC 4 L

Figure 4.3: Simple induction heater coils.

5. My induction heater
I attempted to design and build an induction heater with the materials I had available to me. I used a standard 120VAC 60Hz source from a wall outlet which was fed into a 120VAC to 12VAC transformer. The transformer could only source up to 3A, so the output power was already limited. I chose to use a voltage-source series resonant converter as I was hoping to take advantage of the voltage (as it would be easier to step up the voltage by replacing the transformer in the future). The source was rectified using two capable diodes and a center tap, and this was feed into a small capacitor. I then used a function generator to drive a MOSFET, which in turn drove the base of a power BJT. The BJT was the only solid-state switch I could find for free. After a considerable number of trial configurations, I was able to get the system to switch at frequencies up to 100kHz. I designed a small work coil by wrapping magnetic wire in a tape dispenser cartridge, and I soldered the rest of the circuit together (Figure 5.2). The circuit successfully acted as a 120VAC/60Hz to 87VAC/45KHz converter (with an ugly ripple) but it was good enough for a proof of concept (Figure 5.3). It really didnt heat anything well because of the small amount of power it used. This was due to underrated components and the fact that I did not have enough money to spend on better ones. I plan to attempt to make a much more powerful induction heater in the future.

Figure 3.1: Circuit schematic

Figure 5.2: Picture of the circuit

Figure 5.3: Voltage output across capacitor

References: 1. Heat Treating, Vol 4, Metals Handbook, 9th ed., American Society for Metals, 1982 2. R.F. Haimbaugh, Induction Heat Treating, ASM International, 2006 3. Induction Heating Guide, Inductoheat Banyard (Pres.) 2003 4. J. Kassakian, M. Schlecht, G. Verghese, Principles of Power Electronics, AddisonWesley, 2001 5. http://www.ee.surrey.ac.uk/Workshop/advice/coils 6. http://www.richieburnett.co.uk Images: http://www.inductionheating.com/images/ph_front_coil.jpg http://www.ee.surrey.ac.uk/Workshop/advice/coils/laminations.png http://www.richieburnett.co.uk/indheat.html http://www.comsol.com/showroom/gallery/images/79.jpg http://www.brooks.af.mil/AFRL/HED/hedr/reports/handbook/362.jpg http://www.scopeboy.com/elec/induction/ih_schem.gif http://www.ckd.cz/img/novinky/n_24092005_01_02.gif http://webpages.charter.net/dawill/Images/Induction_Heater_Draft1.gif