Vitamin A (Retinol)

Chemical structure of Vitamin A or Retinol

Vitamin B1 (Thiamine Chloride)

Vitamin B1 (Thiamine Chloride)

Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)

Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)

Vitamin B3 (Niacinamide)

Vitamin B3 (Niacinamide)

Vitamin B4 (Adenine)

Vitamin B4 (Adenine)

Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid)

Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid)

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxal) Chemical Structure

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxal) Chemical Structure

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxal) Chemical Structure

Vitamin B7 (Biotin)

Vitamin B7 (Biotin)

Vitamin B12

Vitamin B12

Vitamin C - Ascorbic Acid

Vitamin C - Ascorbic Acid

Vitamin C - Ascorbic Acid

Vitamin C - Ascorbic Acid

Vitamin D2

Vitamin D2

Vitamin D3

Vitamin D3

Vitamin K3 (Menadione)

Vitamin K3 (Menadione)

Vitamin E or Tocopherol

Vitamin E or Tocopherol

Vitamin K1 - Phylloquinone

This is the chemical structure of phylloquinone.

Vitamin M (Folic Acid)

Vitamin M (Folic Acid)

Vitamin M or Folic Acid

Molecular Structure of Vitamin M or Folic Acid

Vitamin U

Vitamin U

Vitamin H

Vitamin B7 (Biotin)

Racemic Mixture
By Daniel More, MD, About.com Guide Updated January 19, 2011

Definition: A racemic mixture is the mixture of two isomers of a chemical structure in equal amounts. In pharmacology, chemical structures of medications exist in non-superimposable mirror images of one another. These are termed to be isomers, one of which has a left-handed configuration around the central carbon atom (referred to as the L-isomer), and the other having a right-handed configuration around the central carbon atom (referred to as the R-isomer). Examples: Racemic epinephrine, in nebulized form, is a common treatment for croup in young children

Vitamin
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search

A bottle of high potency B-complex vitamin supplement pills.

A vitamin (US /vatmn/ or UK /vtmn/) is an organic compound required by an organism as a vital nutrient in limited amounts.[1] An organic chemical compound (or related set of compounds) is called a vitamin when it cannot be synthesized in sufficient quantities by an organism, and must be obtained from the diet. Thus, the term is conditional both on the circumstances and on the particular organism. For example, ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is a vitamin for humans, but not for most other animals, and biotin (vitamin H) and vitamin D are required in the human diet only in certain circumstances. By convention, the term vitamin includes neither other essential nutrients, such as dietary minerals, essential fatty acids, or essential amino acids (which are needed in larger amounts than vitamins) nor the large number of other nutrients that promote health but are otherwise required less often.[2] Thirteen vitamins are universally recognized at present. Vitamins are classified by their biological and chemical activity, not their structure. Thus, each "vitamin" refers to a number of vitamer compounds that all show the biological activity associated with a particular vitamin. Such a set of chemicals is grouped under an alphabetized vitamin "generic descriptor" title, such as "vitamin A", which includes the compounds retinal, retinol, and four known carotenoids. Vitamers by definition are convertible to the active form of the vitamin in the body, and are sometimes inter-convertible to one another, as well. Vitamins have diverse biochemical functions. Some, such as vitamin D, have hormone-like functions as regulators of mineral metabolism, or regulators of cell and tissue growth and differentiation (such as some forms of vitamin A). Others function as antioxidants (e.g., vitamin E and sometimes vitamin C).[3] The largest number of vitamins, the B complex vitamins, function as precursors for enzyme cofactors, that help enzymes in their work as catalysts in metabolism. In this role, vitamins may be tightly bound to enzymes as part of prosthetic groups: For example, biotin is part of enzymes involved in making fatty acids. They may also be less tightly bound to enzyme catalysts as coenzymes, detachable molecules that function to carry

chemical groups or electrons between molecules. For example, folic acid may carry methyl, formyl, and methylene groups in the cell. Although these roles in assisting enzyme-substrate reactions are vitamins' best-known function, the other vitamin functions are equally important.[4] Until the mid-1930s, when the first commercial yeast-extract vitamin B complex and semisynthetic vitamin C supplement tablets were sold, vitamins were obtained solely through food intake, and changes in diet (which, for example, could occur during a particular growing season) usually greatly altered the types and amounts of vitamins ingested. However, vitamins have been produced as commodity chemicals and made widely available as inexpensive semisynthetic and synthetic-source multivitamin dietary and food supplements and additives, since the middle of the 20th century.

Contents
[hide]

1 List of vitamins 2 Etymology 3 History 4 In humans 5 In nutrition and diseases o 5.1 Effect of cooking on vitamin content o 5.2 Deficiencies o 5.3 Side-effects and overdose 6 Supplements o 6.1 Governmental regulation of vitamin supplements 7 Names in current and previous nomenclatures 8 Anti-vitamins 9 See also 10 References 11 External links

List of vitamins[edit source | editbeta]

Each vitamin is typically used in multiple reactions, and, therefore, most have multiple functions.[5]

Recommend Vitamin Vitamer ed dietary generic chemical Solubilit allowances descript name(s) (list not y (male, age or name complete) 1970)[6]

Deficiency disease

Upper Intake Level (UL/day)[

6]

Overdose disease

Food sources

Recommend Vitamin Vitamer ed dietary generic chemical Solubilit allowances descript name(s) (list not y (male, age or name complete) 1970)[6]

Deficiency disease

Upper Intake Level (UL/day)[

6]

Overdose disease

Food sources

Retinol, retinal, and Vitamin four carotenoids Fat A including beta carotene

900 g

Orange, ripe yellow Nightfruits, leafy blindness, vegetables Hyperkeratosi Hypervitamino , carrots, 3,000 g s, and sis A pumpkin, Keratomalacia squash, [7] spinach, liver, soy milk, milk

Vitamin Thiamine B1

Water

1.2 mg

Beriberi, WernickeKorsakoff syndrome

N/D[8]

Pork, oatmeal, Drowsiness or brown muscle rice, relaxation with vegetables large doses.[9] , potatoes, liver, eggs

Vitamin Riboflavin B2

Water

1.3 mg

Ariboflavinosi N/D s

Dairy products, bananas, popcorn, green beans, asparagus

Vitamin Niacin, B3 niacinamide

Water

16.0 mg

Pellagra

Liver damage Meat, fish, (doses > eggs, many 35.0 mg 2g/day)[10] and vegetables other problems ,

Recommend Vitamin Vitamer ed dietary generic chemical Solubilit allowances descript name(s) (list not y (male, age or name complete) 1970)[6]

Deficiency disease

Upper Intake Level (UL/day)[

6]

Overdose disease

Food sources

mushroom s, tree nuts

Vitamin Pantothenic acid Water B5

5.0 mg

[11]

Paresthesia

N/D

Diarrhea; possibly nausea and heartburn.[12]

Meat, broccoli, avocados

Pyridoxine, Vitamin pyridoxamine, B6 pyridoxal

Water

1.31.7 mg

Anemia peripheral neuropathy.

[13]

100 mg

Impairment of proprioception , nerve damage (doses > 100 mg/day)

Meat, vegetables , tree nuts, bananas

Vitamin Biotin B7

Water

30.0 g

Dermatitis, enteritis

N/D

Raw egg yolk, liver, peanuts, certain vegetables

Vitamin Folic acid, folinic Water B9 acid

400 g

Megaloblastic anemia and Deficiency during pregnancy is 1,000 g associated with birth defects, such as neural tube defects

May mask symptoms of vitamin B12 deficiency; other effects.

Leafy vegetables , pasta, bread, cereal, liver

Recommend Vitamin Vitamer ed dietary generic chemical Solubilit allowances descript name(s) (list not y (male, age or name complete) 1970)[6]

Deficiency disease

Upper Intake Level (UL/day)[

6]

Overdose disease

Food sources

Cyanocobalamin , Vitamin hydroxycobalami Water B12 n, methylcobalami n

2.4 g

Megaloblastic N/D anemia[14]

Acne-like rash Meat and [causality is not other conclusively animal established]. products

Vitamin Ascorbic acid C

Water

90.0 mg

Scurvy

Vitamin C 2,000 mg megadosage

Many fruits and vegetables , liver

Vitamin Cholecalciferol D

Fat

10 g[15]

Rickets and 50 g Osteomalacia

Fish, eggs, Hypervitamino liver, sis D mushroom s

Vitamin Tocopherols, E tocotrienols

Fat

15.0 mg

Deficiency is very rare; mild hemolytic anemia in newborn infants.[16]

Increased congestive heart failure 1,000 mg seen in one large randomized study.[17]

Many fruits and vegetables , nuts and seeds

Vitamin phylloquinone, K menaquinones

Fat

120 g

Bleeding diathesis

N/D

Leafy Increases green coagulation in vegetables patients taking such as warfarin.[18] spinach, egg yolks,

Recommend Vitamin Vitamer ed dietary generic chemical Solubilit allowances descript name(s) (list not y (male, age or name complete) 1970)[6]

Deficiency disease

Upper Intake Level (UL/day)[

6]

Overdose disease

Food sources

liver

Etymology[edit source | editbeta]

The term vitamin was derived from "vitamine," a compound word coined in 1912 by the Polish biochemist Kazimierz Funk[19] when working at the Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine. The name is from vital and amine, meaning amine of life, because it was suggested in 1912 that the organic micronutrient food factors that prevent beriberi and perhaps other similar dietarydeficiency diseases might be chemical amines. This proved incorrect for the micronutrient class, and the word was shortened to vitamin.

History[edit source | editbeta]

The discovery dates of the vitamins and their sources Year of discovery 1913 1910 1920 1920 1920 1922 1926 1929 1931 Vitamin Vitamin A (Retinol) Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) Vitamin D (Calciferol) Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) (Vitamin E) (Tocopherol) Vitamin B12 (Cobalamins) Vitamin K1 (Phylloquinone) Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid) Food source Cod liver oil Rice bran Citrus, most fresh foods Cod liver oil Meat, eggs Wheat germ oil, unrefined vegetable oils liver, eggs, animal products Leafy green vegetables Meat, whole grains, in many foods

The discovery dates of the vitamins and their sources Year of discovery 1931 1934 1936 1941 Vitamin Vitamin B7 (Biotin) Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) Vitamin B3 (Niacin) Vitamin B9 (Folic acid) Food source Meat, dairy products, eggs Meat, dairy products Meat, eggs, grains Leafy green vegetables

The value of eating a certain food to maintain health was recognized long before vitamins were identified. The ancient Egyptians knew that feeding liver to a person would help cure night blindness, an illness now known to be caused by a vitamin A deficiency.[20] The advancement of ocean voyages during the Renaissance resulted in prolonged periods without access to fresh fruits and vegetables, and made illnesses from vitamin deficiency common among ships' crews.[21] In 1747, the Scottish surgeon James Lind discovered that citrus foods helped prevent scurvy, a particularly deadly disease in which collagen is not properly formed, causing poor wound healing, bleeding of the gums, severe pain, and death.[20] In 1753, Lind published his Treatise on the Scurvy, which recommended using lemons and limes to avoid scurvy, which was adopted by the British Royal Navy. This led to the nickname Limey for sailors of that organization. Lind's discovery, however, was not widely accepted by individuals in the Royal Navy's Arctic expeditions in the 19th century, where it was widely believed that scurvy could be prevented by practicing good hygiene, regular exercise, and maintaining the morale of the crew while on board, rather than by a diet of fresh food.[20] As a result, Arctic expeditions continued to be plagued by scurvy and other deficiency diseases. In the early 20th century, when Robert Falcon Scott made his two expeditions to the Antarctic, the prevailing medical theory at the time was that scurvy was caused by "tainted" canned food.[20] During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the use of deprivation studies allowed scientists to isolate and identify a number of vitamins. Lipid from fish oil was used to cure rickets in rats, and the fat-soluble nutrient was called "antirachitic A". Thus, the first "vitamin" bioactivity ever isolated, which cured rickets, was initially called "vitamin A"; however, the bioactivity of this compound is now called vitamin D.[22] In 1881, Russian surgeon Nikolai Lunin studied the effects of scurvy while at the University of Tartu in present-day Estonia.[23] He fed mice an artificial mixture of all the separate constituents of milk known at that time, namely the proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and salts. The mice that received only the individual constituents died, while the mice fed by milk itself developed normally. He made a conclusion that "a natural food such as milk must therefore contain, besides these known principal ingredients, small quantities of unknown substances essential to life."[23] However, his conclusions were rejected by other researchers when they were unable to reproduce his results. One difference was that he had used

table sugar (sucrose), while other researchers had used milk sugar (lactose) that still contained small amounts of vitamin B.[citation needed]

The Ancient Egyptians knew that feeding a person liver would help cure night blindness.

In east Asia, where polished white rice was the common staple food of the middle class, beriberi resulting from lack of vitamin B1 was endemic. In 1884, Takaki Kanehiro, a British trained medical doctor of the Imperial Japanese Navy, observed that beriberi was endemic among lowranking crew who often ate nothing but rice, but not among officers who consumed a Westernstyle diet. With the support of the Japanese navy, he experimented using crews of two battleships; one crew was fed only white rice, while the other was fed a diet of meat, fish, barley, rice, and beans. The group that ate only white rice documented 161 crew members with beriberi and 25 deaths, while the latter group had only 14 cases of beriberi and no deaths. This convinced Takaki and the Japanese Navy that diet was the cause of beriberi, but mistakenly believed that sufficient amounts of protein prevented it.[24] That diseases could result from some dietary deficiencies was further investigated by Christiaan Eijkman, who in 1897 discovered that feeding unpolished rice instead of the polished variety to chickens helped to prevent beriberi in the chickens. The following year, Frederick Hopkins postulated that some foods contained "accessory factors" in addition to proteins, carbohydrates, fats etc. that are necessary for the functions of the human body.[20] Hopkins and Eijkman were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1929 for their discovery of several vitamins.[25] In 1910, the first vitamin complex was isolated by Japanese scientist Umetaro Suzuki, who succeeded in extracting a water-soluble complex of micronutrients from rice bran and named it aberic acid (later Orizanin). He published this discovery in a Japanese scientific journal.[26] When the article was translated into German, the translation failed to state that it was a newly discovered nutrient, a claim made in the original Japanese article, and hence his discovery failed to gain publicity. In 1912 Polish biochemist Casimir Funk isolated the same complex of

micronutrients and proposed the complex be named "vitamine" (from "vital amine", reportedly suggested by Max Nierenstein a friend and reader of Biochemistry at Bristol University[27]).[28] The name soon became synonymous with Hopkins' "accessory factors", and, by the time it was shown that not all vitamins are amines, the word was already ubiquitous. In 1920, Jack Cecil Drummond proposed that the final "e" be dropped to deemphasize the "amine" reference, after researchers began to suspect that not all "vitamines" (in particular, vitamin A) have an amine component.[24] In 1930, Paul Karrer elucidated the correct structure for beta-carotene, the main precursor of vitamin A, and identified other carotenoids. Karrer and Norman Haworth confirmed Albert Szent-Gyrgyi's discovery of ascorbic acid and made significant contributions to the chemistry of flavins, which led to the identification of lactoflavin. For their investigations on carotenoids, flavins and vitamins A and B2, they both received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1937.[29] In 1931, Albert Szent-Gyrgyi and a fellow researcher Joseph Svirbely suspected that "hexuronic acid" was actually vitamin C, and gave a sample to Charles Glen King, who proved its antiscorbutic activity in his long-established guinea pig scorbutic assay. In 1937, Szent-Gyrgyi was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discovery. In 1943, Edward Adelbert Doisy and Henrik Dam were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of vitamin K and its chemical structure. In 1967, George Wald was awarded the Nobel Prize (along with Ragnar Granit and Haldan Keffer Hartline) for his discovery that vitamin A could participate directly in a physiological process.[25]

In humans[edit source | editbeta]

Vitamins are classified as either water-soluble or fat-soluble. In humans there are 13 vitamins: 4 fat-soluble (A, D, E, and K) and 9 water-soluble (8 B vitamins and vitamin C). Water-soluble vitamins dissolve easily in water and, in general, are readily excreted from the body, to the degree that urinary output is a strong predictor of vitamin consumption.[30] Because they are not as readily stored, more consistent intake is important.[31] Many types of water-soluble vitamins are synthesized by bacteria.[32] Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed through the intestinal tract with the help of lipids (fats). Because they are more likely to accumulate in the body, they are more likely to lead to hypervitaminosis than are water-soluble vitamins. Fat-soluble vitamin regulation is of particular significance in cystic fibrosis.[33]

In nutrition and diseases[edit source | editbeta]

Vitamins are essential for the normal growth and development of a multicellular organism. Using the genetic blueprint inherited from its parents, a fetus begins to develop, at the moment of conception, from the nutrients it absorbs. It requires certain vitamins and minerals to be present at certain times. These nutrients facilitate the chemical reactions that produce among other things, skin, bone, and muscle. If there is serious deficiency in one or more of these nutrients, a child may develop a deficiency disease. Even minor deficiencies may cause permanent damage.[34]

For the most part, vitamins are obtained with food, but a few are obtained by other means. For example, microorganisms in the intestine commonly known as "gut flora" produce vitamin K and biotin, while one form of vitamin D is synthesized in the skin with the help of the natural ultraviolet wavelength of sunlight. Humans can produce some vitamins from precursors they consume. Examples include vitamin A, produced from beta carotene, and niacin, from the amino acid tryptophan.[6] Once growth and development are completed, vitamins remain essential nutrients for the healthy maintenance of the cells, tissues, and organs that make up a multicellular organism; they also enable a multicellular life form to efficiently use chemical energy provided by food it eats, and to help process the proteins, carbohydrates, and fats required for respiration.[3]

Effect of cooking on vitamin content[edit source | editbeta]

Shown below is percentage loss of vitamins after cooking averaged for common foods such as vegetables, meat or fish.
Vitamin C B1 B2 B3 B5 B6 Folate B12 A E ? 11 11

Average %loss 16 26 3 18 17 3 20

It should be noted however that some vitamins may become more "bio-available" that is, usable by the body when steamed or cooked. [35] Table below shows effects of heat such as heat from boiling, steaming, cooking etc. and other agents on various vitamins. Effect of cutting vegetables can be seen from exposure to air and light. Water soluble vitamins such as B and C seep into the water when a vegetable is boiled.
Vitamin Vitamin A Vitamin C Vitamin D Vitamin E Vitamin K Thiamine (B1) Soluble in Water Exposure to Air Exposure to Light Exposure to Heat no very unstable no no no highly partially yes no yes no no partially yes no yes yes ? relatively stable yes no no no > 100C

Vitamin Riboflavin (B2) Niacin (B3)

Soluble in Water Exposure to Air Exposure to Light Exposure to Heat slightly yes no no ? ? ? ? ? in solution no ? yes ? when dry yes no no yes ? no at high temp no

Pantothenic Acid (B5) quite stable Vitamin B6 Biotin (B7) Folic Acid (B9) Vitamin B12 yes somewhat yes yes

[36]

Deficiencies[edit source | editbeta]

Humans must consume vitamins periodically but with differing schedules, to avoid deficiency. The human body's stores for different vitamins vary widely; vitamins A, D, and B12 are stored in significant amounts in the human body, mainly in the liver,[16] and an adult human's diet may be deficient in vitamins A and D for many months and B12 in some cases for years, before developing a deficiency condition. However, vitamin B3 (niacin and niacinamide) is not stored in the human body in significant amounts, so stores may last only a couple of weeks.[7][16] For vitamin C, the first symptoms of scurvy in experimental studies of complete vitamin C deprivation in humans have varied widely, from a month to more than six months, depending on previous dietary history that determined body stores.[37] Deficiencies of vitamins are classified as either primary or secondary. A primary deficiency occurs when an organism does not get enough of the vitamin in its food. A secondary deficiency may be due to an underlying disorder that prevents or limits the absorption or use of the vitamin, due to a "lifestyle factor", such as smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, or the use of medications that interfere with the absorption or use of the vitamin.[16] People who eat a varied diet are unlikely to develop a severe primary vitamin deficiency. In contrast, restrictive diets have the potential to cause prolonged vitamin deficits, which may result in often painful and potentially deadly diseases. Well-known human vitamin deficiencies involve thiamine (beriberi), niacin (pellagra), vitamin C (scurvy), and vitamin D (rickets). In much of the developed world, such deficiencies are rare; this is due to (1) an adequate supply of food and (2) the addition of vitamins and minerals to common foods, often called fortification.[6][16] In addition to these classical vitamin deficiency

diseases, some evidence has also suggested links between vitamin deficiency and a number of different disorders.[38][39]

Side-effects and overdose[edit source | editbeta]

In large doses, some vitamins have documented side-effects that tend to be more severe with a larger dosage. The likelihood of consuming too much of any vitamin from food is remote, but overdosing (vitamin poisoning) from vitamin supplementation does occur. At high enough dosages, some vitamins cause side-effects such as nausea, diarrhea, and vomiting.[7][40] When side-effects emerge, recovery is often accomplished by reducing the dosage. The doses of vitamins differ because individual tolerances can vary widely and appear to be related to age and state of health.[41] In 2008, overdose exposure to all formulations of vitamins and multivitamin-mineral formulations was reported by 68,911 individuals to the American Association of Poison Control Centers (nearly 80% of these exposures were in children under the age of 6), leading to 8 "major" life-threatening outcomes, but no deaths.[42]

Supplements[edit source | editbeta]

500 mg calcium supplement tablets, with vitamin D, made from calcium carbonate, maltodextrin, mineral oil, hypromellose, glycerin, cholecalciferol, polyethylene glycol, and carnauba wax.

Dietary supplements, often containing vitamins, are used to ensure that adequate amounts of nutrients are obtained on a daily basis, if optimal amounts of the nutrients cannot be obtained through a varied diet. Scientific evidence supporting the benefits of some vitamin supplements is well established for certain health conditions, but others need further study.[43] In some cases, vitamin supplements may have unwanted effects, especially if taken before surgery, with other dietary supplements or medicines, or if the person taking them has certain health conditions.[43] Dietary supplements may also contain levels of vitamins many times higher, and in different forms, than one may ingest through food.[44] There have been mixed studies on the importance and safety of dietary supplementation. A metaanalysis published in 2006 suggested that Vitamin A and E supplements not only provide no

tangible health benefits for generally healthy individuals but may actually increase mortality, although two large studies included in the analysis involved smokers, for whom it was already known that beta-carotene supplements can be harmful.[45][46][47] Another study published in May 2009 found that antioxidants such as vitamins C and E may actually curb some benefits of exercise.[48] While other findings suggest that evidence of Vitamin E toxicity is limited to specific form taken in excess.[49] A double-blind trial published in 2011 found that vitamin E increases the risk of prostate cancer in healthy men.[50] The conflict of interest section of this study reveals that it has ties to the ambitions of the pharmaceutical companies Merck, Pfizer, Sanofi-Aventis, AstraZeneca, Abbott, GlaxoSmithKline, Janssen, Amgen, Firmagon, and Novartis.[51] Other studies without conflicts of interest reported exactly the opposite that Vitamin E supplementation reduced the risk of prostate cancer,[52] and increased overall prostate cancer survival.[53]

Governmental regulation of vitamin supplements[edit source | editbeta]

Most countries place dietary supplements in a special category under the general umbrella of foods, not drugs. This necessitates that the manufacturer, and not the government, be responsible for ensuring that its dietary supplement products are safe before they are marketed. Regulation of supplements varies widely by country. In the United States, a dietary supplement is defined under the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994.[54] In addition, the Food and Drug Administration uses the Adverse Event Reporting System to monitor adverse events that occur with supplements.[55] In the European Union, the Food Supplements Directive requires that only those supplements that have been proven safe can be sold without a prescription.[56]

Names in current and previous nomenclatures[edit source | editbeta]

Nomenclature of reclassified vitamins Previous name Vitamin B4 Vitamin B8 Vitamin F Vitamin G Vitamin H Vitamin J Vitamin L1[58] Chemical name Adenine Adenylic acid Essential fatty acids Riboflavin Biotin Catechol, Flavin Anthranilic acid Reason for name change[57] DNA metabolite; synthesized in body DNA metabolite; synthesized in body Needed in large quantities (does not fit the definition of a vitamin). Reclassified as Vitamin B2 Reclassified as Vitamin B7 Catechol nonessential; flavin reclassified as B2 Non essential

Nomenclature of reclassified vitamins Previous name Vitamin L2[58] Vitamin M Vitamin O Vitamin P Vitamin PP Vitamin S Vitamin U Chemical name Reason for name change[57]

Adenylthiomethylpentose RNA metabolite; synthesized in body Folic acid Carnitine Flavonoids Niacin Salicylic acid S-Methylmethionine Reclassified as Vitamin B9 Synthesized in body No longer classified as a vitamin Reclassified as Vitamin B3 Proposed inclusion[59] of salicylate as an essential micronutrient Protein metabolite; synthesized in body

The reason that the set of vitamins skips directly from E to K is that the vitamins corresponding to letters F-J were either reclassified over time, discarded as false leads, or renamed because of their relationship to vitamin B, which became a complex of vitamins. The German-speaking scientists who isolated and described vitamin K (in addition to naming it as such) did so because the vitamin is intimately involved in the Koagulation of blood following wounding. At the time, most (but not all) of the letters from F through to J were already designated, so the use of the letter K was considered quite reasonable.[57][60] The table on the right lists chemicals that had previously been classified as vitamins, as well as the earlier names of vitamins that later became part of the B-complex.

Anti-vitamins[edit source | editbeta]

Main article: Antinutrient

Anti-vitamins are chemical compounds that inhibit the absorption or actions of vitamins. For example, avidin is a protein in egg whites that inhibits the absorption of biotin.[61] Pyrithiamine is similar to thiamine, vitamin B1, and inhibits the enzymes that use thiamine.[62]
Vitamins (A11)

A -Carotene -Carotene Retinol# Tretinoin

D2 (Ergosterol, Ergocalciferol#) D3 (7-Dehydrocholesterol, Previtamin D3, Cholecalciferol, 25D hydroxycholecalciferol, Calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol), Calcitroic acid) D4 (Dihydroergocalciferol) D5 D analogues (Alfacalcidol, Dihydrotachysterol, Calcipotriol, Tacalcitol, Paricalcitol)

Tocopherol (Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta) Tocotrienol (Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta) Tocofersolan

K Naphthoquinone Phylloquinone (K1) Menaquinones (K2) Menadione (K3) Menadiol (K4)

B1 (Thiamine#) B2 (Riboflavin#) B3 (Niacin, Nicotinamide#) B5 (Pantothenic acid, Dexpanthenol, B Pantethine) B6 (Pyridoxine#, Pyridoxal phosphate, Pyridoxamine) B7 (Biotin) B9 (Folic acid, Dihydrofolic acid, Folinic acid, L-methylfolate) B12 (Cyanocobalamin, Hydroxocobalamin, Methylcobalamin, Cobamamide) Choline C Ascorbic acid# Dehydroascorbic acid

o o

WHO-EM Withdrawn from market

Clinical trials:

Phase III Never to phase III

M: NUT

cof, enz, met

noco, nuvi, sysi/epon, met

drug (A8/11/12)

Nutrition disorders (E40E68, 260269)

Protein-energy Kwashiorkor Marasmus Catabolysis

malnutrition

B1: Beriberi/Wernicke's encephalopathy (Thiamine deficiency) B2: B vitamins Ariboflavinosis B3: Pellagra (Niacin deficiency) B6: Pyridoxine deficiency B7: Biotin deficiency B9: Folate deficiency B12: Vitamin B12 Avitaminosis deficiency

Other vitamins

A: Vitamin A deficiency/Bitot's spots C: Scurvy D: Hypovitaminosis D/Rickets/Osteomalacia E: Vitamin E deficiency K: Vitamin K deficiency

Mineral Sodium Potassium Magnesium Calcium Iron Zinc Manganese Copper deficiency Iodine Chromium Molybdenum Selenium (Keshan disease)

Overweight Obesity Childhood obesity Obesity hypoventilation syndrome Abdominal obesity

Vitamin poisoning Hypervitaminosis A Hypervitaminosis D Hypervitaminosis E

Mineral overload see inborn errors of metal metabolism, toxicity

M: NUT

cof, enz, met

noco, nuvi, sysi/epon, met

drug (A8/11/12)

vitamin
vitamin, any of several organic substances that are necessary in small quantities for normal health and growth in higher forms of animal life. Vitamins are distinct in several ways from other biologically important compounds such as proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids. Although these latter substances also are indispensable for proper bodily functions, almost all of them can be synthesized by animals in adequate quantities. Vitamins, on the other hand, generally cannot be synthesized in amounts

sufficient to meet bodily needs and therefore must be obtained from the diet or from some synthetic source. For this reason, vitamins are called essential nutrients. Vitamins also differ from the other biological compounds in that relatively small quantities are needed to complete their functions. In general these functions are of a catalytic or regulatory nature, facilitating or controlling vital chemical reactions in the bodys cells. If a vitamin is absent from the diet or is not properly absorbed by the body, a specific deficiency disease may develop.

Images Videos

Vitamins are usually designated by selected letters of the alphabet, as in vitamin D or vitamin C, though they are also designated by chemical names, such as niacin and folic acid. Biochemists traditionally separate them into two groups, the water-soluble vitamins and the fat-soluble vitamins. The common and chemical names of vitamins of both groups, along with their main biological functions and deficiency symptoms, are listed in the table.
The vitamins

vitamin

alternative names/forms

biological function

symptoms of deficiency

Water-soluble

component of a coenzyme in impairment of the nerves and thiamin vitamin B1 carbohydrate metabolism; supports heart muscle wasting normal nerve function

component of coenzymes required for energy production and lipid, riboflavin vitamin B2 vitamin, mineral, and drug metabolism; antioxidant

inflammation of the skin, tongue, and lips; ocular disturbances; nervous symptoms

component of coenzymes used skin lesions, gastrointestinal broadly in cellular metabolism, niacin nicotinic acid, nicotinamide oxidation of fuel molecules, and symptoms fatty acid and steroid synthesis disturbances, nervous

component of coenzymes in metabolism of amino acids and dermatitis, mental depression, pyridoxine, pyridoxal, vitamin B6 pyridoxamine compounds; synthesis of anemia hemoglobin, neurotransmitters; regulation of blood glucose levels other nitrogen-containing confusion, convulsions,

impaired formation of red component of coenzymes in DNA folate, folacin, folic acid pteroylglutamic acid acids; required for cell division, maturation of red blood cells palpitations, inflammation of mouth, neural tube defects in fetus synthesis, metabolism of amino blood cells, weakness, irritability, headache,

cofactor for enzymes in metabolism of amino acids (including folic acid) smoothness of the tongue, and fatty acids; required for new vitamin B12 cobalamin, cyanocobalamin cell synthesis, normal blood nervous symptoms formation, and neurological function gastrointestinal disturbances,

as component of coenzyme A, essential for metabolism of pantothenic carbohydrate, protein, and fat; acid cofactor for elongation of fatty acids

weakness, gastrointestinal disturbances, nervous symptoms, fatigue, sleep disturbances, restlessness, nausea

dermatitis, hair loss, cofactor in carbohydrate, fatty acid, biotin and amino acid metabolism symptoms conjunctivitis, neurological

swollen and bleeding gums, antioxidant; synthesis of collagen, soreness and stiffness of the carnitine, amino acids, and joints and lower extremities, vitamin C ascorbic acid hormones; immune function; bleeding under the skin and in enhances absorption of non-heme deep tissues, slow wound iron (from plant foods) healing, anemia

Fat-soluble

normal vision, integrity of epithelial ocular disturbances leading to cells (mucous membranes and retinol, retinal, retinoic acid, vitamin A beta-carotene (plant version) development, growth, immune to infection response skin), reproduction, embryonic dry skin, diarrhea, vulnerability blindness, growth retardation,

calciferol, calatriol (1,25dihydroxy vitamin D1 or maintenance of blood calcium and vitamin D hormone), vitamin D cholecalciferol (D3; plant mineralization of bones version), ergocalciferol (D2; animal version) phosphorus levels, proper children, soft bones in adults defective bone growth in

antioxidant; interruption of free alpha-tocopherol, tocopherol, vitamin E tocotrienol of polyunsaturated fatty acids, cell membranes breakdown of red blood cells radical chain reactions; protection peripheral neuropathy,

synthesis of proteins involved in phylloquinone, menaquinone, vitamin K menadione, naphthoquinone metabolism blood coagulation and bone and internal bleeding impaired clotting of the blood

Biological significance of vitamins

Discovery and original designation

Some of the first evidence for the existence of vitamins emerged in the late 19th century with the work of Dutch physician and pathologist Christiaan Eijkman. In 1890 a nerve disease (polyneuritis) broke out among his laboratory chickens. He noticed that the disease was similar to the polyneuritis associated with the nutritional disorder beriberi. In 1897 he demonstrated that polyneuritis was caused by feeding the chickens a diet of polished white rice but that it disappeared when the animals were fed unpolished rice. In 190607 British biochemist Sir Frederick Gowland Hopkins observed that animals cannot synthesize certain amino acids and concluded that macronutrients and salts could not by themselves support growth. In 1912the same year that Hopkins published his findings about the missing nutrients, which he described as accessory factors or substancesa Polish scientist, Casimir Funk, demonstrated that polyneuritis produced in pigeons fed on polished rice could be cured by supplementing the birds diet with a concentrate made from rice bran, a component of the outer husk that was removed from rice

during polishing. Funk proposed that the polyneuritis arose because of a lack in the birds diet of a vital factor (now known to be thiamin) that could be found in rice bran. Funk believed that some human diseases, particularly beriberi, scurvy, and pellagra, also were caused by deficiencies of factors of the same chemical type. Because each of these factors had a nitrogen-containing component known as an amine, he called the compounds vital amines, a term that he later shortened to vitamines. The final e was dropped later when it was discovered that not all of the vitamins contain nitrogen and, therefore, not all are amines.

People Topics

Lafayette Benedict Mendel (American biochemist)

Richard Kuhn (German scientist)

Sir Frederick Gowland Hopkins (British biochemist) biotin (chemical compound)

carnitine (enzyme) choline (chemical compound) folic acid (vitamin)

niacin (vitamin) organic compound (chemical compound)

pantothenic acid (chemical compound)

para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) (chemical compound) riboflavin (chemical compound) thiamin (chemical compound)

vitamin A (chemical compound) vitamin B complex (chemical compounds) vitamin B12 (chemical compound)

vitamin B6 (chemical compound) vitamin C (chemical compound)

vitamin D (chemical compound) vitamin E (chemical compound)

vitamin K (chemical compound)

In 1913 American researcher Elmer McCollum divided vitamins into two groups: fat-soluble A and water-soluble B. As claims for the discovery of other vitamins multiplied, researchers called the new substances C, D, and so on. Later it was realized that the water-soluble growth factor, vitamin B, was not a single entity but at least twoonly one of which prevented polyneuritis in pigeons. The factor required by pigeons was called vitamin B1, and the other factor, essential for rats, was designated vitamin B2. As chemical structures of the vitamins became known, they were also given chemical names, e.g., thiamin for vitamin B1 and riboflavin for vitamin B2.

Regulatory role
The vitamins regulate reactions that occur in metabolism, in contrast to other dietary components known as macronutrients (e.g., fats, carbohydrates, proteins), which are the compounds utilized in the reactions regulated by the vitamins. Absence of a vitamin blocks one or more specific metabolic reactions in a cell and eventually may disrupt the metabolic balance within a cell and in the entire organism as well. With the exception of vitamin C (ascorbic acid), all of the water-soluble vitamins have a catalytic function; i.e., they act as coenzymes of enzymes that function in energy transfer or in the metabolism of fats, carbohydrates, and proteins. The metabolic importance of the water-soluble vitamins is reflected by their presence in most plant and animal tissues involved in metabolism. Some of the fat-soluble vitamins form part of the structure of biological membranes or assist in maintaining the integrity (and therefore, indirectly, the function) of membranes. Some fat-soluble vitamins also may function at the genetic level by controlling the synthesis of certain enzymes. Unlike the water-soluble ones, fat-soluble vitamins are necessary for specific functions in highly differentiated and specialized tissues; therefore, their distribution in nature tends to be more selective than that of the water-soluble vitamins.

Sources
Vitamins, which are found in all living organisms either because they are synthesized in the organism or are acquired from the environment, are not distributed equally throughout nature. Some are absent from certain tissues or species; for example, beta-carotene, which can be converted to vitamin A, is synthesized in plant tissues but not in animal tissues. On the other hand, vitamins A and D3 (cholecalciferol) occur only in animal tissues. Both plants and animals are important natural

vitamin sources for human beings. Since vitamins are not distributed equally in foodstuffs, the more restricted the diet of an individual, the more likely it is that he will lack adequate amounts of one or more vitamins. Food sources of vitamin D are limited, but it can be synthesized in the skin through ultraviolet radiation (from the Sun); therefore, with adequate exposure to sunlight, the dietary intake of vitamin D is of little significance.

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All vitamins can be either synthesized or produced commercially from food sources and are available for human consumption in pharmaceutical preparations. Commercial processing of food (e.g., milling of grains) frequently destroys or removes considerable amounts of vitamins. In most such instances, however, the vitamins are replaced by chemical methods. Some foods are fortified with vitamins not normally present in them (e.g., vitamin D is added to milk). Loss of vitamins may also occur when food is cooked; for instance, heat destroys vitamin A, and water-soluble vitamins may be extracted from food to water and lost. Certain vitamins (e.g., B vitamins, vitamin K) can be synthesized by

microorganisms normally present in the intestines of some animals; however, the microorganisms usually do not supply the host animal with an adequate quantity of a vitamin.

Requirements in living things

Vitamin requirements vary according to species, and the amount of a vitamin required by a specific organism is difficult to determine because of the numerous factors (e.g., genetic variation, relative proportions of other dietary constituents, environmental stresses). Although there is not uniform agreement concerning the human requirements of vitamins, recommended daily vitamin intakes are sufficiently high to account for individual variation and normal environmental stresses. A number of interrelationships exist among vitamins and between vitamins and other dietary constituents. The interactions may be synergistic (i.e., cooperative) or antagonistic, reflecting, for example, overlapping metabolic roles (of the B vitamins in particular), protective roles (e.g., vitamins A and E), or structural dependency (e.g., cobalt in the vitamin B12 molecule).

Results of deficiencies
Inadequate intake of a specific vitamin results in a characteristic deficiency disease (hypovitaminosis), the severity of which depends upon the degree of vitamin deprivation. Symptoms may be specific (e.g., functional night blindness of vitamin A deficiency) or nonspecific (e.g., loss of appetite, failure to grow). All symptoms for a specific deficiency disease may not appear; in addition, the nature of the symptoms may vary with the species. Some effects of vitamin deficiencies cannot be reversed by adding the vitamin to the diet, especially if damage to nonregenerative tissue (e.g., cornea of the eye, nerve tissue, calcified bone) has occurred.

People Topics

Lafayette Benedict Mendel (American biochemist)

Richard Kuhn (German scientist)

Sir Frederick Gowland Hopkins (British biochemist) biotin (chemical compound)

carnitine (enzyme) choline (chemical compound) folic acid (vitamin)

niacin (vitamin) organic compound (chemical compound)

pantothenic acid (chemical compound)

para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) (chemical compound) riboflavin (chemical compound) thiamin (chemical compound)

vitamin A (chemical compound) vitamin B complex (chemical compounds) vitamin B12 (chemical compound)

vitamin B6 (chemical compound) vitamin C (chemical compound)

vitamin D (chemical compound) vitamin E (chemical compound)

vitamin K (chemical compound) A vitamin deficiency may be primary (or dietary), in which case the dietary intake is lower than the normal requirement of the vitamin. A secondary (or conditioned) deficiency may occur (even though the dietary intake is adequate) if a preexisting disease or state of stress is present (e.g., malabsorption of food from the intestine, chronic alcoholism, repeated pregnancies and lactation). (More details on vitamin deficiencies in humans may be found in nutritional disease.)

Evolution of vitamin-dependent organisms

Evolution of metabolic processes in primitive forms of life required the development of enzyme systems to catalyze the complex sequences of chemical reactions involved in metabolism. In the beginning, the environment presumably could supply all the necessary compounds (including the vitamin coenzymes); eventually, these compounds were synthesized within an organism. As higher forms of life evolved, however, the ability to synthesize certain of these vitamin coenzymes was gradually lost.

Since higher plants show no requirements for vitamins or other growth factors, it is assumed that they retain the ability to synthesize them. Among insects, however, niacin, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B6, vitamin C, and pantothenic acid are required by a few groups. All vertebrates, including humans, require dietary sources of vitamin A, vitamin D, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B6, and pantothenic acid; some vertebrates, particularly the more highly evolved ones, have additional requirements for other vitamins.

The water-soluble vitamins

Basic properties
Although the vitamins included in this classification are all water-soluble, the degree to which they dissolve in water is variable. This property influences the route of absorption, their excretion, and their degree of tissue storage and distinguishes them from fat-soluble vitamins, which are handled and stored differently by the body. The active forms and the accepted nomenclature of individual vitamins in each vitamin group are given in the table. The water-soluble vitamins are vitamin C (ascorbic acid) and the B vitamins, which include thiamin (vitamin B1), riboflavin (vitamin B2), vitamin B6, niacin (nicotinic acid), vitamin B12, folic acid, pantothenic acid, and biotin. These relatively simple molecules contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; some also contain nitrogen, sulfur, or cobalt. The water-soluble vitamins, inactive in their so-called free states, must be activated to their coenzyme forms; addition of phosphate groups occurs in the activation of thiamin, riboflavin, and vitamin B6; a shift in structure activates biotin, and formation of a complex between the free vitamin and parts of other molecules is involved in the activation of niacin, pantothenic acid, folic acid, and vitamin B12. After an active coenzyme is formed, it must combine with the proper protein component (called an apoenzyme) before enzyme-catalyzed reactions can occur.

Functions
The B-vitamin coenzymes function in enzyme systems that transfer certain groups between molecules; as a result, specific proteins, fats, and carbohydrates are formed and may be utilized to produce body tissues or to store or release energy. The pantothenic acid coenzyme functions in the tricarboxylic acid cycle (also called the Krebs, or citric acid, cycle), which interconnects carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism; this coenzyme (coenzyme A) acts at the hub of these

reactions and thus is an important molecule in controlling the interconversion of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates and their conversion into metabolic energy. Thiamin and vitamin B6 coenzymes control the conversion of carbohydrates and proteins respectively into metabolic energy during the citric acid cycle. Niacin and riboflavin coenzymes facilitate the transfer of hydrogen ions or electrons (negatively charged particles), which occurs during the reactions of the tricarboxylic acid cycle. All of these coenzymes also function in transfer reactions that are involved in the synthesis of structural compounds; these reactions are not part of the tricarboxylic acid cycle.

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Although vitamin C participates in some enzyme-catalyzed reactions, it has not yet been established that the vitamin is a coenzyme. Its function probably is related to its properties as a strong reducing agent (i.e., it readily gives electrons to other molecules).

Metabolism

The water-soluble vitamins are absorbed in the animal intestine, pass directly to the blood, and are carried to the tissues in which they will be utilized. Vitamin B12 requires a substance known as intrinsic factor in order to be absorbed. Some of the B vitamins can occur in forms that cannot be used by an animal. Most of the niacin in some cereal grains (wheat, corn, rice, barley, bran), for example, is bound to another substance, forming a complex called niacytin that cannot be absorbed in the animal intestine. Biotin can be bound by the protein avidin, which is found in raw egg white; this complex also cannot be absorbed or broken down by digestive-tract enzymes, and thus the biotin cannot be utilized. In animal products (e.g., meat), biotin, vitamin B6, and folic acid are bound to other molecules to form complexes or conjugated molecules; although none is active in the complex form, the three vitamins normally are released from the bound forms by the enzymes of the intestinal tract (for biotin and vitamin B6) or in the tissues (for folic acid) and thus can be utilized. The B vitamins are distributed in most metabolizing tissues of plants and animals. Water-soluble vitamins usually are excreted in the urine of humans. Thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B6, vitamin C, pantothenic acid, and biotin appear in urine as free vitamins (rather than as coenzymes); however, little free niacin is excreted in the urine. Products (also called metabolites) that are formed during the metabolism of thiamin, niacin, and vitamin B6 also appear in the urine. Urinary metabolites of biotin, riboflavin, and pantothenic acid also are formed. Excretion of these vitamins (or their metabolites) is low when intake is sufficient for proper body function. If intake begins to exceed minimal requirements, excess vitamins are stored in the tissues. Tissue storage capacity is limited, however, and, as the tissues become saturated, the rate of excretion increases sharply. Unlike the other water-soluble vitamins, however, vitamin B12 is excreted solely in the feces. Some folic acid and biotin also are normally excreted in this way. Although fecal excretion of water-soluble vitamins (other than vitamin B12, folic acid, and biotin) occurs, their source probably is the intestinal bacteria that synthesize the vitamins, rather than vitamins that have been eaten and utilized by the animal.

People Topics

Lafayette Benedict Mendel (American biochemist)

Richard Kuhn (German scientist)

Sir Frederick Gowland Hopkins (British biochemist) biotin (chemical compound)

carnitine (enzyme) choline (chemical compound) folic acid (vitamin)

niacin (vitamin) organic compound (chemical compound)

pantothenic acid (chemical compound)

para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) (chemical compound) riboflavin (chemical compound) thiamin (chemical compound)

vitamin A (chemical compound) vitamin B complex (chemical compounds) vitamin B12 (chemical compound)

vitamin B6 (chemical compound) vitamin C (chemical compound)

vitamin D (chemical compound) vitamin E (chemical compound)

vitamin K (chemical compound) The water-soluble vitamins generally are not considered toxic if taken in excessive amounts. There is, however, one exception in humans: large amounts (50100 mg; 1 mg = 0.001 gram) of niacin produce dilation of blood vessels; in larger amounts, the effects are more serious and may result in impaired liver function. Thiamin given to animals in amounts 100 times the requirement (i.e., about 100 mg) can cause death from respiratory failure. Therapeutic doses (100500 mg) of thiamin have no known toxic effects in humans (except rare instances of anaphylactic shock in sensitive individuals). There is no known toxicity for any other B vitamins.

The fat-soluble vitamins

The four fat-soluble vitamin groups are A, D, E, and K; they are related structurally in that all have as a basic structural unit of the molecule a five-carbon isoprene segment, which is

Each of the fat-soluble vitamin groups contains several related compounds that have biological activity. The active forms and the accepted nomenclature of individual vitamins in each vitamin group are given in the table. The potency of the active forms in each vitamin group varies, and not all of the active forms now known are available from dietary sources; i.e., some are produced synthetically. The characteristics of each fat-soluble vitamin group are discussed below.

Chemical properties
The chemical properties of fat-soluble vitamins determine their biological activities, functions, metabolism, and excretion. However, while the substances in each group of fat-soluble vitamins are related in structure, indicating that they share similar chemical properties, they do have important differences. These differences impart to the vitamins unique qualities, chemical and biological, that affect attributes ranging from the manner in which the vitamins are stored to the species in which they are active.

Structural Biochemistry/Chemistry of important organic molecules in Biochemistry/Vitamins and Cofactors

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Contents
[hide]

1 Introduction to Vitamins 2 Water-Soluble vs. Fat-Soluble 3 Structure of Vitamins

4 Functions of Vitamins 5 Disruption in vitamin metabolism 6 Dietary Supplement Information 7 Introduction to Cofactors 8 References

Introduction to Vitamins[edit]
Vitamins are critical organic molecules necessary for life. Despite their vital importance, they cannot be synthesized by animals and they must be acquired through diet, whether they are obtained from food or through supplemental vitamins. This odd characteristic may have evolved because of the biological complexity of vitamin synthesis; it is more efficient to obtain vitamins in food in trace amounts than to develop the numerous enzymes necessary to synthesize vitamins. In addition, vitamins must be molecularly modified after ingestion before they can be used in the body. Vitamins can act ascoenzymes, signaling molecules, antioxidants, and hormones, as well as serving various other functions. Vitamin deficiency can lead to conditions such as: scurvy from lack of Vitamin C, and eye damage from lack of Vitamin A. In fact, many activated carriers in metabolism are derived from vitamins, including carriers important for redox reactions, such as electron transport (FADH2, for example), and carbon dioxide transfer (biotin). Because of the critical roles vitamins play in the functioning of the human body, they are an essential topic of study despite the low vitamin requirements of most animals.

Water-Soluble vs. Fat-Soluble[edit]

Approximately 14-20 vitamins have been discovered. There are two categories that vitamins fall under: water-soluble as well as fat-soluble. Defined Water-soluble: vitamins that easily dissolvable in water and easily excreted out of the body via urine output. As a result of this type of vitamin that can be dissolved in water, individuals cannot overdose on them because all excess will simply be excreted. Moreover, this type need to be replaced more on a regular basis. Some water-soluble vitamins are B vitamins(B1, B2, B3B6, B7, B12) and vitamin C.(1) Fat-soluble: vitamins that are soluble in fat or lipids and are absorbed into the body through the intestinal tract or more specifically the small intestines.(1): Some fat-soluble vitamins are vitamins A, D, E, and K.(1) Vitamins included in this category include vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin E, as well as vitamin K. An acronym to help remember these fat-soluble vitamins- ADEK. Main areas in which fat-soluble vitamins are stored are the liver and adipose tissues. Fat-soluble vitamins except for vitamin K, are stored for long periods at a time and then excreted after this long duration of time has passed. For this reason overdosing on fat-soluble vitamins is highly feasible if ingested at high, toxic levels and it could possibly lead to hypervitaminosis.

Structure of Vitamins[edit]
Vitamin Vitamin A Structure

Vitamin B1 (Thiamin)

Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)

Vitamin B3 (Niacin)

Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid)

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)

Vitamin B7 (Biotin)

Vitamin B9 (Folic Acid)

Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)

Vitamin C

Vitamin D3 (Cholecalciferol)

Vitamin E

Vitamin K

Functions of Vitamins[edit]
Vitamin A: is used for growing healthy new cells like skin, bones, and hair. Also is used for surface lining upkeep of the eyes, urinary tract, intestinal tract, and respiratory system. Night vision is also assisted by Vitamin A. Vitamin A also performs other major functions in the body. It is required for reproductive functions such as normal growth and development of sperm and ovaries. Vitamin A also helps vision by keeping cells which are used for transduction of light into nerve signals healthy. Vitamin can be found from certain foods such as egg yolk, whole milk, and butter. Vitamin D: is needed for the body to properly use calcium and phosphorous. It is also used in the formation of some RNA, maintain a normal heart, keep a stable nervous system and blood clotting. Along with absorbing calcium, Vitamin D can also help regulate the amount of calcium and phosphorus that is present in the blood. Vitamin D can be found in dairy products, fish, and oysters. Vitamin D deficiency caused severe growth retardation. The lack of calcium in the bones resulted in deformities of the skeleton, characterized by a widening at the ends of the long bones

because of a disorganization in the hypertrophy and maturation of chondrocytes in the epiphyseal plates. Vitamin D deficiency is also associated with a low-normal blood calcium, low or lownormal fasting blood phosphorus, and elevated parathyroid hormone (PTH) levels that cause a mineralization defect in the skeleton.

Vitamin E: is an antioxidant that helps the body get rid of free radicals to keep tissues healthy. It is also used in the creation of red blood cells. The use of vitamin A,C and K are assisted by Vitamin E. Although the role of Vitamin E is not completely understood but it is clear that it presents antioxidant properties in the body. They get rid of the free radicals in the body by preventing the oxidation of lipid-based cell membranes. Free radicals are very reactive and can steal electrons from membranes which could ultimately damage DNA. Good sources of Vitamin E are almonds, spinach, wheat, and asparagus. Of the many such dietary components, vitamin E has commanded most interest because of its availability, strong marketing potential, overall health impact, and central role in preventing oxidation at the cellular level. Vitamin K: assists in creating proteins in the body like those that create blood clots. It also allows for calcium regulation within the body. Vitamin Ks ability to help the clotting of blood is important for healing. The clotting ability could help in slowing or stopping bleeding in injured patients. During surgery, Vitamin K is often given to patients to reduce bleeding. Sources of Vitamin K include spinach, Brussels sprouts, asparagus, and broccoli. Vitamin B: are essential for creating dopamine, epinephrine, serotonin, and myelin. They also help the mind focus, help hemoglobin hold oxygen and lower cholesterol. Vitamin B is essential to good heath. It is also used for energy production in the human cells. B vitamins help convert food often consumed as carbohydrates into fuel. They also help the nervous system function properly. Good sources of Vitamin B are bananas, potatoes, whole grans, and chili peppers. Vitamin C: helps regulate the immune system and relieve pain caused by tired muscles. It also is needed in the manufacture of collagen and norepinephrine. Vitamin C is also an antioxidant which can enhance the immune system by stimulating white blood cells in the body. Vitamin C also helps to benefit the skin, teeth, and bones. Vitamin C is often in citrus fruits such as papayas, oranges, and lemons. The Different B Vitamins(4) Vitamin B1: Thiamin is another name for vitamin B1. It helps to convert blood sugar into energy for your body. It also helps the mucous membranes of the muscular, cardiovascular, and nervous systems in good shape. Some good sources of Vitamin B1 is from some whole grain cereals, pork, navy beans, and wheat germs. Vitamin B2:

Riboflavin is another name for vitamin B2. It works with the other B vitamin complexes to process the carbohydrates, proteins, and fats into calories for energy in body. The body also needs this for healthy skin, good vision, growth, and red blood cell creation. Some good sources of Vitamin B2 is Dairy, red meats, and leafy green vegetables. Vitamin B3: Niacin is another name for vitamin B3. It also works with other B vitamin complexes to process the carbohydrates, proteins, and fats into calories for energy in the body. The difference is that it helps the digestive systems functions along with promoting a healthy appetite and healthy nerves. Large doses of niacin could lower LDL cholesterol but large doses is recommended to be taken under physician supervision. Some good sources of Vitamin B3 is yeasts, meat, and peanuts. Vitamin B5: Panththenic Acid is another name for vitamin B5. Like B3 and B2 it hlps break down carbohydrates, proteins, and fats for energy. Some good sources of Vitamin B5 is from meats, peas, and whole grain cereals Vitamin B6: Pyridoxine is another name for Vitamin B6. Vitamin B6 working along with B12 and B9 helps prevent heart attacks. Just like B2 B3 and B5 this vitamin helps the body process proteins, carbohydrates, and fats into energy. Some good sources of B6 is from meats, eggs, soybeans, whole grains, and nuts. Vitamin B7: Vitamin H or Biotin are other names for Vitamin B7. Vitamin B7 helps the formation of fatty acids and glucose to be used as fuel for the body. Some Good sources of B7 is from bananas, yeast, cereal, and liver. Vitamin B9: Folic Acid is another name for vitamin B9. It is very important during pregnancy since it is used for making and maintaining new cells. B9 prevents anemia by keeping up the production of red blood cells and prevent low birth weight and prematurity in births. Some good sources of B9 is from mushrooms, leafy greens, peas, and broccoli. Vitamin B12: Cobalamin is another name for vitamin B12. It works with B9 in keeping red blood cells healthy and also helps keep the central nervous system healthy. Some good sources of B12 are meat, eggs, and dairy. The two organizations that create guidelines for vitamin intake are by the Food

and Nutrition Board of the National Academy of Sciences and the Food and Drug Administration(FDA).

Disruption in vitamin metabolism[edit]

Excess consumption of ethanol can lead to biochemical changes in the body, which further interrupts the vitamin A metabolism. Since both ethanol and retinol, the animal form of vitamin A, are alcohols, they are likely to interact and compete with each other for the same pathways; this also means they are likely to disrupt one anothers reaction. Retinol, like ethanol, reacts with dehydrogenases. The reaction forms retinoic acid. In the case of overconsumption of ethanol, retinols functions are affected. The retinoic acid signaling pathway is disrupted by the metabolized ethanol, which leads to various cancers and fetal alcohol syndrome. People who often drinks may likely to develop Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome, a disorder that affects the brain due to an insufficient intake of vitamin thiamine. Some characteristics of Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome are confusion and abnormal movement of the limbs and eyes. Because thiamine can be converted to thiamine pyrophosphate, a coenzyme that is part of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, the insufficiency of thiamine leads to the formation of an altered pyruvate dehydrogenase complex that causes neurological defects. Alcoholics often observed to have scurvy. Scurvy is a disease due to low level of vitamin C in the body. People with scurvy experience easy bruise, gum disease, loss of teeth, abnormal changes of the skin, and other symptoms. These symptoms appear because the lack of vitamin C stops the production of collagen, which is a protein fiber that makes up most of the dry skin weight. More specifically, vitamin C is needed for the production of the enzyme called prolyl hydroxylase. Prolyl hydroxylase is in charge of producing an amino acid, 4-hydroxyproline, that is needed in collagen. Hydroxyproline is essential because it forms hydrogen bond within the collagen triple helix, thus making the collagen more stable.

Dietary Supplement Information[edit]

The Institute of Medicine has created a few guidelines for people to reference on how much to take, recommended requirements, and what would be considered too much. This is also known as the Dietary Reference Intake(DRI)(2): The applications of RDA are: evaluating the adequacy of the national food supply, establishing a nutritional policy for public institutions and organizations, establishing labeling regulations, and setting guidelines for product formulation. The amount of vitamin intake for children, males, and females can be found on this external link: (1) Recommended Dietary Allowance(RDA): is the average intake per day that satisfies the nutrient requirement for about 97-98% of all people whom are healthy in a gender group or life group.

Adequate Intake: is the recommended amount to intake, based on estimations of nutrient intake by people who are healthy and this amount is assumed to be sufficient. This measurement is used when the Recommended Dietary Allowance is unable to be determined. Tolerable Upper Intake level: this is the utmost upper limit that is permitted without any detrimental risk to health and well-being for most of the people of a population. Ingesting or taking over this limit, increases the probability of detrimental effects significantly. Estimated Average Requirements: daily intake number that has been evaluated to suffice 50% of the healthy peoples of a particular age or gender group. Deficiency or Excess: although vitamins are essential building blocks of the human body, too much or too less of these compounds could be dangerous. An example would be the deficiency of folic acid (one of the vitamin B's) and a derivative of vitamin B2 called FAD. These two molecules help regulate the production of a potentially harmful compound called homocyesteine. Homocyestein is an essential intermediate of the production of an essential non-toxic amino acid methionine. To help lower the risks of this compound, vitamin B helps improving the fit of the enzyme that converts homocyestein to methionine. The deficiency of vitamin B in this case could increase the risk of heart attacks, strokes, and in the case of pregnant women, child defects. (7) Vitamin Deficiencies and Excess(1)[1]
Vitamin Deficiency mild - night blindness, diarrhea, impaired vision severe - eye inflammation, causes blindness in children, keratinization of eyes and skin Excess

Vitamin A ||

Intracranial pressure, dizziness, nausea, headaches, liver damage.

Headache, vomiting, hair loss, irritability, liver and bone damage, blurred vision Vitamin D severe - children will get rickets, or softening and or weakening of bones; adults will get osteomalacia, brain, cardiovascular, and kidney damage which is also softening of the bones Potential of anemia is babies that are born with a low-weight, deterioration of nervous system Increase the risk of heart failure; can act as an anticoagulant and excessive intake may increase the risk of over bleeding. liver damage, anemia

Vitamin E Vitamin K

Results in extreme bleeding.

Vitamin C

dry skin, anemia, and bruising. (it can be one of eight types of B vitamins): (3) Cheilosis (Inflammation of the lips where there is scaling and fissures), photophobia (fear of bright light), Glossitis(inflammation of the tongue) || ranges from symptoms such as liver damage (B2) to poor coordination and numb feet (B6)

Gastrointestinal sickness

Vitamin B

Amount of Vitamins Needed Per Day(4) Amount for adult Males/Females Vitamin A - 1000mcg/800mcg Vitamin B1 - 1.5 mg/1.1 mg Vitamin B2 - 1.7 mg/1.1 mg Vitamin B3 - 1519 mg/15 mg Vitamin B5 - 47 mg/47 mg Vitamin B6 - 2 mg/1.6 mg Vitamin B7 - 30-100mcg Vitamin B9 - 200mcg/180mcg/400mcg for pregnant women/280mcg for breast feeding Vitamin B12 - 2mcg/2mcg Vitamin C - 60 mg/60 mg Vitamin D - 5mcg/5mcg for 19-51 year olds and 10mcg/10mcg for 51 and older Vitamin E - 10 mg/8 mg Vitamin K - 80mcg/65mcg

Introduction to Cofactors[edit]
Cofactors are small molecules or compounds that bind to enzymes and allow the enzymes to function. Cofactors are not proteins nor amino acids. Enzymes catalyze many type of reactions. However, most of the enzymes require the presence of cofactors in order to be active. The cofactor's role and mechanism varies with different enzymes. Usually, cofactors perform chemical reactions that the twenty amino acids cannot undergo. Proteins can perform acid-base reactions, form certain covalent bonds, and engage in intermolecular interactions. However, proteins are not equipped to facilitate reactions involving oxidation-reduction and group transfers. Inactive enzymes without a cofactor attached are referred to as apoenzymes. Conversely, enzymes that are complete with cofactors and ready to catalyze reactions are called holoenzymes. There are two categories of cofactors: metals and coenzymes. Metal cofactors are essentially metal ions, such as Zn2+, Mg2+, and Ni2+. Coenzymes are small organic compounds, commonly generated from vitamins. Furthermore, coenzymes are characterized by how strong they bind to their respective enzymes. Coenzymes that bind strongly to enzymes are called prosthetic groups. The enzyme-coenzyme complexes with prosthetic groups are generally permanent. In others words, the prosthetic group does not dissociate from the enzyme. Coenzymes that loosely bind to enzymes function like cosubstrates. In this case, the enzyme-coenzyme complexes can form and dissociate, which make the enzyme active or inactive. [2][3] Some Coenzymes and their Respective Enzymes
Coenzyme Thiamine pyrophosphate Flavin adenine nucleotide Enzyme Pyruvate dehydrogenase Monoamine oxidase

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide Lactate dehydrogenase Pyridoxal phosphate Coenzyme A (COA) Biotin 5'-Deoxyadenosyl cobalamin Tetrahydrofolate Glycogen phosphorylase Acetyl COA carboxylase Pyruvate carboxylase Methylmalonyl mutase Thymidylate synthase

[4]

Coenzyme Functions: Thiamine pyrophosphate: helps with tissue respiration. Coenzyme A transports acetyl groups from one substrate to another subtrate. For more information on Cofactors, see Cofactor (biochemistry).